TheNewGlobalTerroristThreat:ACaseofPakistani

IdentityandGlobalJihad

 

A Master’s Thesis 

 Presented to the Faculty of the Graduate School of Arts and 

Sciences Brandeis University 

Department of Global Studies Chandler Rosenberger PhD, Advisor 

 

In Partial Fulfillment for the Degree Master in Arts in Global Studies 

   

By:  

Rebecca Nadine Gil  

August 2010 

 

 

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ABSTRACTThe New Global Terrorist Threat: A Case of Pakistani Identity and Global Jihad 

 A thesis presented to the Department of Global Studies 

 Graduate School of Arts and Sciences 

Brandeis University Waltham, Massachusetts 

 By: Rebecca Nadine Gil 

ThispaperdescribeswhythenumberofPakistaniterroristsandactsof

terrorismareontheriseinIndiaandintheUnitedStates.Byexaminingtheglobal

jihadismmovementinPakistanasanunintendedconsequenceoftheIndian

Partition,Pakistancanbeviewed,asanantacidabstractwithfewroots,andwithit,

soistheidentityofthePakistani.ManyPakistanisarelookingforwhatevery

humanbeingneeds:asenseofbelongingandidentity.Forsomeofthemglobal

jihadismisareligiousexpressionofthisfrustration.Byexaminingterrorismand

personalitytraitsofterrorists,thispapersuggeststhatbecauseseveralPakistanis

havefoundasenseofbelongingwithinjihadistmovements,Pakistaniterrorism

gearedtowardstheWestislikelytoincrease.

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TableofContents

Abstract………………………………………………………………………………………..…..2  

Table of Contents………………………………………………………………...….............3  

Chapter I: Introduction……………………………………………………..…………...…4 

Chapter II: Pakistani Terrorism: It is an Issue of Identity……………..…11 

2.1: Defining Terrorism……………………………………………………….11 

  2.2: The Terrorist Mind: Psychology and Belief…………………...15 

    Ideology…………………………………………………………………….15 

    Personality Traits of a Terrorist………………………………..19 

    Jihadism: Why Personality Counts………………………….….23 

Chapter III: Partition: The Roots of Pakistani Identity Problems…….25 

  3.1: Problems From the Start…………………………………………….…27 

  3.2: India After Partition………………………………………….……….….37 

  3.3: Pakistani Terror in India……………………………………………....39 

  3.4: Jihad and the Pakistani Identity…………………………………… 44 

3.5: What’s next?.....................................................................................45 

Chapter IV: Conclusion: Pakistani Identity and the West………………...47 

Works Cited…………………………………………………………………………………….53 

 

     

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I. Introduction

ThispastMay,FaisalShahzad,anAmericancitizenwithPakistaniroots,

coollydroveasmoking1993NissanPathfinderSUVandparkeditintotheheartof

TimesSquare.Hehadacquiredthecarjustthreeweekspriorfromacraigslist

advertisement.Thecarcontainedariflecabinetpackedwithmorethan45

kilogramsoffertilizer.Shahzadleftthecarrunningandcasuallywalkedoutofthe

vehicle.WiththousandsofpeopleconstantlymovingthroughTimesSquareitwas

notlongbeforethevehiclebegantoworryseveralpeopleandwasquicklyreported

totheproperauthorities.TheterrorplottoblowupabusypartofTimesSquare

wasfoiledjustintime.

U.S.AttorneyGeneralEricHolderannouncedthearrestmentofFaisal

ShahzadafewdaysfollowingasShahzad’splanewasclearedfortakeoff:“Faisal

ShazadwasarrestedinconnectionwiththeattemptedcarbombinginNewYorkon

Saturday.MrShahzad,anAmericancitizen,wastakenintocustodyatJFKAirportin

NewYorkasheattemptedtoboardaflighttoDubai,”saidHolderinapress

conference.Shahzadhadreturnedfromathree‐weekvisittoPakistan,wherehe

reportedlyvisitedhiswifeandhadreportedlybeentakingpartforfivemonthsin

PakistanJihadcamps(Weiser,1).

ThoughwemayneverknowthetruereasonsbehindShahzad’splanned

attack,therehavebeenseveralspeculations.Firstly,Shahzad’sfamily,likemany

otherAmericanfamilies,hadfallenvictimtotheeconomiccrisistohittheUnited

Statesandtheworld.Hewasforcedtosellhisfamily’shomeandbegantorenta

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newhome.Thefinancialwoesofhisfamilymayhavecontributedtohisterrorist

actions.Shahzadwasunabletoobtainthe“AmericanDream”offinancialstability

andprosperity.WereShahzad’sactionsaresultofhislackofsuccesslivinginthe

UnitedStates?Theanswerisprobablynotduetothefactthathewasabletoafford

severallongtripstoPakistan.

AnotherlikelycontributormayhavebeenonlineradicalMuslimlecturers

thatShahzadhadtakenaninterestin.Knownforhisextremeviewsandcriticismof

theUnitedStatesandthewest,Anwaral‐Awlaki,aYemeni‐Americancleric,may

havehadalotofinfluenceonShahzad’sbeliefs.DidShahzad’sdissatisfactionwith

hisfinancialpositionultimatelypushShahzadintoapathofMuslimextremism?

HisinabilitytosuccessfullyassimilateintheUnitedStatesandradical

MuslimteachingsprobablydidfuelShahzad’sdissatisfactionwithhisownliving

situation.HoweverthefactorthatseemedtohavepushedShahzadovertheedge,

werehisvisitstohisnativehomelandofPakistan.Infact,withinaseven‐year

period,Shahzadhadvisitedthecountryontendifferentoccasions.Evidenceshows

that“ShahzadwasoutragedbythecampaignwhichthePakistaniarmy‐‐under

intenseAmericanpressure‐‐hasbeenwagingagainstmilitantgroupsinthetribal

areasofnorthwestPakistan,flankingAfghanistan…America'sdroneattacksagainst

Talibantargetsinthetribalareashavearousedparticularfury,aswellasfierceanti‐

Americanfeeling,becauseoftheciviliancasualtiestheyhavecausedandbecause

theyareseenasintolerableinfringementsofPakistan'ssovereignty”(Seale,1).

ShahzadwasrecruitedintoTehrik‐i‐Taliban,oneofthemanygroupsoperating

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undertheTaliban.Inhistimeintraininghelearnedhowtobuildabomb,whichhe

thentriedtorecreateinTimesSquare(Wesier,1).Shahzadtriedtoseekrevenge

againsttheUnitedStates,byhisplannedactofterror(Seale,1).

SincetheinitialarrestofFaisalShahzad,afewothershavebeenarrestedin

relationtothefailedterroristplot.Shahzadisbelievedtohavetieswiththe

PakistaniTaliban.Thoughitisstillunclearwhoisresponsibleforthisfailedattack,

onethingissure:Terrorism,andspecificallyterrorismwithPakistaniorigins,isstill

averyrealthreattotheUnitedStatesandisunlikelytogoawayanytimesoon.

AsintheUnitedStates,Islamicmotivatedterrorismwithlinkstojihadist

groupsinPakistanhashitIndiaandothercountriesacrosstheglobeoverthepast

severalyears.InNovember2008,aseriesofterroristattackswerecarriedoutin

Mumbai.“Jihadigroups,believedtohavebeentrainedandarmedbyshadowy

elementsinPakistan,havemountednumerousattacksagainstIndiainthelast

decade,ofwhichthemostspectacularwastheNovember2008terroristattackon

Mumbaithatkilledmorethan160people.Arrivingbyboat,thecommandogroup

attackedatrainstation,twohotels,aJewishcenterandabar(Seale,1)”.In

response,theUnitedStateshasbeenpressuringPakistantocontroltheir

homegrownterroristcellswithintheircountry.Shahzadmayhavebeenfighting

againsttheUnitedStatesdemand.

Pakistaniterroristshavegrownquicklyfromthelocaltotheglobalscale.

Therearethreecategoriesofsubnationalandtransnationalnon‐stateentities,

whichcanbebrokendownintothecategoriesof:ethnic,religiousandideological.

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Thesenon‐stateentities“[pursue]interestsdetrimentaltothenationalinterestsof

thestates”theyarefightingagainst(Dekmejan,1).Inthebook:Spectrum of Terror,

theauthor,R.HrairDekmejiandividespoliticalviolenceintoseparatecategories.

Movingfrommicrotomacropoliticalviolencethereis:Individual terrorismsuchas

assassinsandbombers.Next,thereisSubnational terrorism, whichisclassifiedby

ethnicnationalists,religiousmilitants,ideologicalradicalsandhybridorganizations.

Movingon,transnational terrorism isdefinedbyterroristgroupsthatcross

boundariesofsovereignstates.Pakistaniterroristsarequicklymovingacrossthe

spectrumfromtheindividualtotransnational.

Angryandfrustratedpeoplehavefoundrefugeinthejihadtrainingcampsin

Pakistan.AccordingtoDekmejan,Subnationalistgroup’ssuccessesareoften

dependenton:“(1)thepopularityoftheircause,(2)theeffectivenessofleadership

andorganization,(3)changesintheirobjectives,(4)thestrategicrationalefor

violentactions,(5)thenatureofstateresponsesrangingfromnegotiatedsettlement

torepression,masskillingandgenocide,and(6)theroleofexternalpowersand

worldconclusions”(Dekmrejan,12).Pakistanisarestilloutragedbydisputedlands

apartofIndia,andnow,bytheUnitedState’slatestcampaigns.

Thereareoftenseveralcontributingfactorsthatmotivateindividualsor

organizationstocommitactsofterrorism.Anindividualororganization’s

motivationsforterrorismareofteninfluencedbytheorganizationorperson’s

history.Furthermore,“thetimeandplaceinwhichterrorismoccursarerelevantto

themotivationsbehindterrorismformanyreasons.Thesocializationofmembersof

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asocietyorsubgroupwithregardtoviolenceanditsjustificationmustbe

considered”(Mahan&Griset,10).Oftenthereisa“cycleofrevenge”whereone

groupretaliatesfromviolencecommittedagainstthem(Mahan&Griset,10).

Severalotherscholarsofferotherexplanationsforthemotivationsbehind

actsofterrorism.Forexample,LaurenceMiller’sdescriptionincludes:“athree‐stage

process.Stageonebeginswithunacceptableconditions:“It’snotright.”Stagetwo

followswithresentmentandasenseofinjustice:“It’snotfair.”Instagethreethe

causeoftheinjusticeispersonified:“It’syourfault.””(Mahan&Griset,10).Though

thisexplanationdoesnotalwaysreigntrueforthemotivationsbehindsterrorism,it

doesofferamodelthatworkswellforothers.OtherscholarssuchasMartha

CrenshawandJeroldM.Postapproachtheissueofmotivationsfromapsychological

perspective.Crenshawfocusesonthepsychologicalforces,whichcreatethe

motivationforterrorism,whilePostfocuseson“psycho‐logic”,which“is

constructedtorationalizeactstheyarepsychologicallycompelledtocommit.

Individualsaredrawntothepathsofterrorismtocommitviolence”(Post,25;

Mahan&Griset,10).Otherpsychologicalexplanationsfocusonfamilybackground,

upbringing,andsocialstructure(Mahan&Griset,10).

InTerrorism in the Twenty­First Century,CindyC.Combsidentifiesgroup

dynamics,religion,age,sex,education,economicstatusandlocationtobekey

contributorstothemotivationbehindactsofterrorism.Groupdynamics“helps to 

shape terrorist thought and action”(Combs,61).Usuallythesegroupsarefanatical,

believingthattheyknowtherealtruthandonlytheycanchangewhattheyperceive

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tobenottruebyviolentaction.Usuallyterroristsaremotivatedmorebyunfairness

thanaparticularpoliticalevent(Combs,61).Groupdynamicsalsocontributestothe

group’sextremity:“Ifitistruethattheaterrorist’ssenseofrealityis

distorted…thenthegreatertheassociationtheterroristenjoyswithhisorhergroup

offellowterrorists,thegreaterthedistortionwillbe” (Combs,61). Inotherwords,

anindividual’sthoughtsandideasaregreatlyinfluencedbythatofagroup,even

moresointhecaseofaterrorist.

Whenreligionisanaddedcomponenttothegroupdynamic,ideascan

becomeevenmoreextreme.WhenusingGodasjustification,therealityofa

situationisslanted.Insteadoftrulydealingwiththepresent,religionusesthefuture

todealwiththepresent:“Religiouszealotscommittingactsofterrorismareassured

bytheirreligionsanditsleadersthattheiractsareacceptabletoahighermorality

thanmaycurrentlyexist”(Combs,62).Whenreligionisinvolvedasasourceof

justificationforterrorism,itismoredifficulttomoderateactionwithreason,which

greatlycontributestoaterrorist’smotivation(Combs,62).

ThereisreasontobelievethatterrorisminspiredbyextremistMuslim

rhetoricandstemmingfromPakistanisnowthegreatestthreatstoIndiaandthe

UnitedStates.However,inordertounderstandthethreatthatnowfacesthese

countries,onemustlookintothedeepercontextofwhatterrorismis,whoisa

terroristandwhyterrorismoccurs.Thispaperseekstoexplainwhythenumberof

Pakistaniterroristsandactsofterrorismareontherisebyexaminingtheglobal

jihadismmovementinPakistanasanunintendedconsequenceoftheIndian

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Partition.Pakistanisainventedconstructwithfewroots,andwithit,soisthe

identityofthePakistani.Pakistanisarelookingforwhateveryhumanbeingcraves:

asenseofbelongingandidentity.Globaljihadismisareligiousexpressionofthis

frustration.WithabuildingpressureonPakistanfromtheWest,moreandmore

Pakistanisareexpressingtheirfeelingsofisolationthroughactsofterrorism.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

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II. PakistaniTerrorism:ItisanIssueofIdentity

Terrorismhasgreatlyinfluencedthedevelopmentandpoliticsofstates.Yet,

thereisaclearlackofconsensusforbothalocallyandinternationallyrecognized

definitionofterrorism.Terrorismisapolitical,legalandmilitaryissueandbecause

ofitsmanyaspects,“itsdefinitioninmoderntermshasbeenslowtoevolve.Notthat

therearenotnumerousdefinitionsavailable‐therearehundreds.Butfewofthem

areofsufficientlegalscholarshiptobeusefulininternationallaw,andmostofthose

arelegallyusefullackthenecessaryambiguityforpoliticalacceptance”(Combs,8).

WithintheUnitedStatesalone,thedefinitionvariesfromorganizationto

organization.

2.1DefiningTerrorism:

TheUnitedStatesCode,publishedbytheOfficeoftheLawRevisionCounsel

oftheU.S.HouseofRepresentatives,definitionofterrorismstates:“as

premeditated,politicallymotivatedviolenceperpetuatedagainstnoncombatant

targetsbysubnationalgroupsor“clandestineagents” (Title22,Chapter38,§2656f;

Mahan&Griset,3). TheCodeofFederalRegulations,publishedbytheexecutive

branchagenciesoftheUnitedStatesdefinesterrorismas“theunlawfuluseofforce

andviolenceagainstpersonsorpropertytointimidateorcoerceagovernment,the

civilianpopulation,oranysegmentthereof,infurtheranceofpoliticalorsocial

objectives”(28,C.F.R.Section0.85;Mahan&Griset,4).Anotherdefinitionusedby

theFederalBureauofInvestigation(FBI))describesterrorismasaggressiveactions

“thatappeartobeintendedtointimidateorcoerceacivilianpopulation;influence

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thepolicyofagovernmentbyintimidationorcoercion;oraffecttheconductofthe

governmentbymassdestruction,assassinationorkidnappingandoccurprimarily

outsidetheterritorialjurisdictionoftheUnitedStatesortranscendnational

boundariesintermsofthemeansbywhichtheyareaccomplished,thepersonsthey

appearintendedtointimidateorcoerce,orthelocaleinwhichtheirperpetrators

operateorseekasylum”(FBI,2006;Mahan&Griset,4).Furthermore,aseparate

definitionexistswithintheFBIfordomesticterrorism(Mahan&Griset,4).Theclear

lackofaconciseandnationaldefinitionofterrorism,withintheUntiedStates,is

worrisome.LivingintheUnitedStates,terrorismisaveryrealpartofourlives.How

canweknowthethreatifwedonothaveonecleardefinitionofit?

Scholarshavealsocontributedtothediscussionofdefiningterrorism.Bruce

Hoffmandefinesterrorismas“deliberatecreationandexploitationoffearthrough

violenceorthethreatofviolenceorthethreatofviolenceinpoliticalchange”

(Hoffman,2006,41;Howard&Sawyer,2004,23;Mahan&Griset,4).JessicaStern

arguesthatterrorismis“anactorthreatofviolenceagainstnoncombatantswiththe

objectiveofexactingrevenge,intimidating,orotherwiseinfluencinganaudience”

(2003,p.xx,Mahan&Griset,4).Anotherwell‐knownscholar,WalterLaqueur

definesterrorismsimplyas“theuseofcovertviolencebyagrouptoachieve

politicalends”(2001,p.79;Mahan&Griset,4).Laquerechoestheopinionofmany

ofhispeers.

R.HrairDekmejian’sdefinitionofterrorismisused,whichstates:“The

strategicuseofforceorthethreatofforce,beyondtheboundsofinternationallaw,

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againsthumanandmaterialtargetscarriedoutbyanyindividual,subnational

group,transnationalorganization,orstatetoachieveapoliticalobjectiveinpursuit

ofitsperceivedself‐interests”(Dekmejian,20).Politicalmotives,violenceorthe

threatofviolence,theignitionoffearininnocentbystandersandactsbeingdirected

ataparticularaudienceareallcrucialcomponentsofTerrorism (Combs,10). 

SeveralIndianscholarshavealsoaddedtothedefinitionofterrorism.Inthe

bookTerrorism in India, theeditorS.C.Tiwaridescribesterrorismas“generally

recognizedasaspecialmethodofstruggletoobtainspecificpoliticalresultsand

thatthereareatleastfivemajorparticipantsintheprocessofterror:‐(a)the

perpetratorsofviolence;(b)theimmediatevictims;(c)thewidertargetgroupor

societywhichtheterroristsseektointimidate;(d)‘theneutral’bystanderswithin

thesocietyexperiencingterrorism;and(e)theinternationalpublicopinion,insofar

asitisawareoftheseevents”(Tiwari,xi).Hespecificallygoesontomentionthat

foranacttobelabeledterroristthereneedstobeaspecificthreatofviolenceand

threattoothers.Therulesofwardonotapplytotheact,andtheactmustbedone

publicallyinordertogainpublicity.Inotherwordsitmustbeapartofspecific

strategyinordertogainattentionfromagreateraudience(Tiwari,xi).Another

contributerinTiwari’sbookisP.D.Sharmawhowritesthatallterrorists“All

terroristsprimarilyaimtoarousethemassofthepeopletoarealizationthat

constitutedauthorityisnolongersafelyentrenchedorunchallenged.Theactsmay

beconceivedasanadvancenoticeofwhatmaybeexpectedfrommassaction.Death

anddestructiontothemarenot‘merethreats’,butapartofprogrammeofaction

(Sharma,50).Theybelievethateventuallyotherswilljointhemintheirobjectives.

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OnelastacademicscholarworthyofnoteisEqbalAhmed,whoisawell

knownandhighlyacclaimedanti‐colonialismscholar,notedthatthe“terroristof

yesterdayistheherooftoday,andtheheroofyesterdaybecomestheterroristof

today.Thisisaseriousmatteroftheconstantlychangingworldofimagesinwhich

wehavetokeepourheadsstraighttoknowwhatterrorismisandisnot”(Ahmend,

1889,p.20;Mahan&Griset,4).Ahmedclassifiesterrorismintofivedistinctgroups:

stateterrorism,religiousterrorism,criminalterrorismpoliticalterrorism,and

oppositionalterrorism,whichalluseterrorismmethodstoresistthegovernment

(Mahan&Griset,4).Thescholarlydefinitionof“terrorism”continuestovary

dependingonthebackgroundanddisciplineoftheacademic.

Terrorismisacrimeunderinternationallaw.Furthermore,beinglabeleda

terroristhasrealworldconsequencesforallpartiesinvolved.Ifanorganizationor

individualislabeledaterrorist,thelabelplacesnegativeattributesontotheir

politicalambitions:“Quitesimply,freedomfighterscouldbeseenasrebels,

extremistsorseparationists,andanationalliberationmovementscouldbe

describedasinsurrectionsdependingonperceptionsandwhetherthequestionis

addressedbythosewhoquestiontheregimeinpoweroraresympatheticothe

regimeinpower.Moreover,rebels,extremistsorseperationistshavebeen

convertedtopatriotsandfreedomfightersontheachievementofindependenceofa

country;hencethedefinitionalproblemhasbecomemoreacuteinthepost‐colonial

eraandinthedecadesfollowingtheSecondWorldWar”(Chari,34).Manytimesthe

labelof“freedomfighter”and“terrorist”areusedonthesameindividualor

organization,bringingevenmoreconfusiontothedebate(Mahan&Griset,3).

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2.2TheTerroristMind:PsychologyandBelief

Ideology  

Terrorismisoftenexaminedthroughanarrowlens.Welookattheactof

terrorism,withoutevertrulyexaminingwhoistheterrorist.Wheredoesthe

terroristcomefrom?Whatishisorherbackground?Whydidtheterroristcommit

theact?Themindoftheterroristisvitalinunderstandingterrorism.

Therearecommontraitsfoundintheindividualswhocommitthesetypesof

violentacts.Theterroristfeelsinferiortohislargerenemy,butmorallysuperior.He

feelsasifhehasbeenwrongedandterrorismisameansthroughwhichhecan

retaliate.Theactofterrorismistheresultofthisdistasteforthelargerenemy.

Throughterroristacts,theterroristbelievesthattheycangainpowerthroughthe

useoffear.Terrorgivesafeelingofpowertothepowerless.

Thereisnorealwaytounderstandandpredicthumanbehavior.Aterrorist

actisevenhardertounderstand(Mahan&Griset,1).Thedefinitionisinaconstant

stateofchange.Itevolvesbasedonthenewpoliticalsituationsandthewaythat

nationstatesandpoliticalentitiesprocessandrespondtotheseevents(Combs,9).

Terrorismisalsoviewedasaformofpoliticalviolenceandatypeofwarfare.

Terroristsoftenusethemediatodelivertheirmessagesandlooktoitasa

measureoftheirsuccess:“Theactofterror…[is]designedtoconveyamessageto

individualtargetgroupsandthegeneralpopulation.Politicalterrorism,therefore,

containsanelementoftheatre.Inthismanner,theworldhasbeenconvertedinto

thestageforterrorism’sdrama.Theprincipalactorsonthatstagearetheterrorists

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andtheagenciesoftheState,withtheaudiencecomprisingthetargetgroups,the

generalpopulationandtheinternationalcommunity.Theaudienceisequally,ifnot

moreimportantthantheactualvictimsofterrorism”(Chari,34‐35).Theever‐

increasingamountsofcommunicationtechnologieswidenthestageforterrorist

organizations.Television,radio,printmediaandtheInternetbringlivecoverageof

eventstoviewersacrosstheglobe.

Fortheterrorist,thereisusuallyanongoingpersonalstruggle.Thismay

includeeventsofembarrassment,repression,orharassment.Secondly,theterrorist

isexpectedtohaveextremeviewsandbeliefs.Hisorherbeliefsaremoreextreme

thanothersinhisorhersituation.Thirdly,fortheterroristthereisverylittleroom

forflexibility.Eventsanddecisionsareseenintermsofblackandwhite.Thereisa

needforresponsibility,blameandretaliation.Lastly,aterroristusuallyholds“a

capacitytosuppressallmoralconstraintsagainstharminginnocentswhetherdueto

instinctoracquiredfactors,individuals,orgroupforces”(Maham&Griset,11).

Beliefsofmoralityarediscardedinordertoachievetheactofviolence.

Manyterroristsexperienceviolencegrowingup.Theyoftencomefrom

marginalizedcommunities,wheretheyfeelneglected.Oftentheseareasexperience

violence,deathanddestructionasapartofeverydaylife.Theyknowfromfirsthand

experiencethatviolencehurtsthoseinvolved.Terroristsbelievethatiftheyuse

violenceagainsttheirmightyenemy,itwillhurtthemaswell(Ardila,12).Actsof

terrorallowindividualswhofeelwrongedtofeelpowerfulthroughtheuseoffear

(Ardila,10).

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Aterrorist’scommitmenttohisideologyisunbending.Thereisnoroomfor

negotiationorcompromise:“Inmanywaysterroristsdonotgrow,theyarestuckin

therutoftheirunbendingideology.Amalignancyofthemindwhichistheprincipal

comorbidofpsychopathologyofterror”(Navarro,25).Aterroristholdsontoan

unbreakableideaorpassion.Thisindestructiblepassioniswhatdrivesthe

individualintoviolence:“Toterrorize,aterroristmusthaveanidea,athought,a

passion,ahatred,anideologysofixedandrigid,thathecancarryoutaviolentact

withoutreflection,remorse,orhesitation”(Navarro,26).Theideaissetinstone

andtheterrorist’smindinunchanging:evenhardevidencewillfailtoimpacthis

corebeliefs(Navarro,26).

Manyterroristsalsosufferfrom“MagicalThinking”.Theyareconvincedthat

“somehowthedestructionofthatwhich[they]despiseorhatewillsomehowcure

theillsoftheworld”(Navarro,34).Theirbeliefsaresetonachievingunrealistic

goalsand“theyseethemselvesassacrificesfortheirdeities,andtheycountonthe

approvalandthebackingoftheirculture.Thesebeliefsgivesensetotheirlives,

symbolicformstoachieveimmortalitythroughtheirowndeaths”(Ardila,12).

Hijackingsofplaneshavenotstoppedpeoplefromflying.Terroristattacksonbuses,

havenotstoppedpeoplefromtakingpublictransportation.Peoplecontinuetogoto

workinlowerManhattandespitethedestructionoftheWorldTradeTowers.

AmericanscontinuetohavepresenceintheMiddleEastdespitetheattemptstoget

ridofthemandIndiacontinuestothrivedespiteterroristactivitiesinandaround

itsborders.

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Therigidityoftheterrorist’sideologyultimatelyforcestheterroristinto

seclusion.Family,friendsandhobbiesareeventuallypushedoutoftheindividual’s

lifebecauseoftheirgreatercommitmenttotheirideology.Thisleavestheindividual

furtherisolatedandlongingforagroupthatsharessimilarinterestsandbeliefs.A

groupprovides“itsmemberstheemotionofinvulnerability, whichensuresthem

somedegreeofencouragementforobviousrisksofdangers.Additionally,[the

group]helpstorationalizethewrongdoingandgivesmoralitytoitsmembersto

justifytheirselves…[stereotypingallows]membersofthegroup[to]dehumanize

theirenemiesandjustifytokilltheothersinmind”(Navarro,74). Theterrorist’s

dissatisfactionwiththeworldaroundhimisadvancedbyhisstubbornnessandin

hisunwillingnessandinabilitytoadapttotheconditionsthatsurroundhim.His

unbreakableideologymakestheworldanditsprocessesintoblackandwhiteterms.

Thegroupreaffirmstheterrorist’sbeliefs,isolatingtheindividualfurtherfrom

reality(Navarro,27).

Takeforexample,RamziYousef,aconspiratorinthe1993WorldTrade

Centerbombings.Yousef’sideology,stubbornandunchangingandhis

dissatisfactionfortheworldaroundhim,madeiteasytojustifytheterroristattack.

Yousef’sbeliefs“becameunbendingroadmapsortemplatestoactionwhich[he]

pursuedwithoutremorse…supremelycommittedtotheirrespectiveideologies,[he]

remainsdefiantlyunrepentant”(Navarro,27).Yousefisclearexampleofhow

ideologypushesindividualsintoextremistmeasuressuchasterrorism(Navarro,

28).

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Personality Traits of a Terrorist 

InEricHoffer’s“TrueBelievers”massmovementparadigm,heidentifiesthe

keymembersthatmakeupmassmovements.Firstly,therearetheleaders.The

leadersareselectinnumberandarethemembersofthegroupwhoareusuallythe

mosteducated.Theseleadershavecharisma,agrandvisionandaplanofaction

(Navarro,28).

Theseleadersarewelcomingtothenextcategory,thefollower.Thefollowers

seektofillamissinggapintheirlives:“Thosewhoseetheirlivesaswastedand

spoiledtendtocraveequality,fraternity,andorderthatcomesfrommass

movements.Terroristorganizationsremarkablyfillthisvoid”(Navarro,28).Inthe

study:Theories of Prism: Individual Capital and Frustration,theauthorsfindthat

individualswhoturntoterrorism,insteadofothermethodsofconfrontation,

traditionallycomefrombackgroundsofpovertyandlackofeducation:“violence,

terrorisminparticularispredominantlyanoptionforthepeoplewhohavelower

social,culturaloreconomiccapital.Peoplewhohavehigherlevelsofcapitalwould

bemorelikelytofollowadifferentpathotherthanviolence”(Gunes&Ozeren,31).

Manyscholarshavefoundthatterroristsdonotdowellinschool,andhavelittle

successesintheircareerslateroninlife.Theyareusuallyloners,andoutsiders

(Navarro,55).Terroristsfeellostandareonasearchforpower.Theyhaveadeep

faithintheirideologiesanditspotentialtoleadthemtobetterlives.However,these

individualshardlycommitterroristactsonatransnationallevel.Mostcommitacts

20

ofterrorlocally.Theirfameislimitedtotheirimmediateareaandtheyarequickly

forgottenabout.

Whileanunbendingideologyiscriticalinunderstandingterrorism,itis

importanttolookatotherpersonalitytraitsofterroristsandterroristgroups.One

traitofaterrorististheabilitytoviewtheworldintwodistinctways:

“Psychologicalsplittingisa“primitivewaytolookattheworld,muchasapredator

does,dividingtheworldbetweenthatwhichisusefulandsuddenlyuseless,withno

middleground”(Navarro,37).Theworldisseparatedintoblackandwhiteand

thereisnoroomformovementinbetween.PsychologicalSplittingisdangerous

becauseitdismissestheimportanceofhistory.Therefore,thereisnolearningfrom

pastmistakes.Psychologicalsplittingalsohasaseriousimpactontheterrorist’s

relationshipwithotherpeople.Iftheterroristfeelsbetrayedbyanindividual,the

terroristcantransformfromfriendtofoeinamatterofseconds(Navarro37).

DuringtheeventsofSeptember11th,Flight11’sflightattendants,Madeleine

AmySweenyandBettyOng,describedahorrificsceneofhowordinarypassengers

transformedintomurderoushijackers.Theyweresittingintheirseatsinone

momentandfollowingtheflightattendant’sorders.Thenextmomentthese

individualstookovertheplaneinabloodyfight:“Thedocileterroristsittinginthe

aircraftsuddenly[became]massmurders.Achillingexampleof“splitting”atwork”

(Navarro,38).Inphysiologicalsplittingthereisnomiddlegrounds.Theworldisput

intosimpleterms:“Itsisarhetoricof“us”against“them”,kindnessagainstevil,with

21

idealizationof“us”andprojectiononthem”,ofallthatisbad”(Kiknadze,55).

Deeperangerwithsocietystartsfromwithin(Kiknadze,55).

Anothercharactertraitfoundinterroristsandespeciallytheleadersof

terroristorganizationsisnarcissism.Narcissisticindividualsseethemselvesas

specialandunique.Theyseethemselvesastheonlyoneswiththecapabilityof

beingright.Theyaretheonlyonescapableoffullyunderstandinganissueandthe

onlyoneswiththerightsolutionstotheirproblems.Takeforexample,Osamabin

Laden,whoisatextbookexampleofanarcissist.BinLadenseeshimselfasaself‐

righteousstrugglerfortheholyland,SaudiArabia,andtheonlywaytofightforthe

holylandisthroughjihad.Narcissistsareuncompromisingandmostoftenlack

compassionorempathyforothers.Duetothelackoffeelings,“narcissistshave

primitiveobjectiverelationships,whicharefunctionalratherthanmeaningful.They

seethemselvesasimportantevenwithoutachievementandmayfeelentitledto

unlimitedsuccess,fame,fortune,orsex,usuallybytakingshortcuts.”(Navarro;39).

Narcissisticindividualsarestronglygroundedintheirbeliefsandholdlittle

patienceforthosewhoareopposedtotheirviews(Hare,75‐89).

Narcissisticcharacteristicscombinedwithfeelingsofneglectandinferiority

leadmanyterroriststosufferfromfeelingsofbeingincomplete.Manyatime,these

individualsfeelforgottenordisregardedbysociety.“Consequentlytheyattemptto

amelioratewhatismissingfromtheirlivesbysubscribingtopowerfulideologies

whichgivethempurpose,comfort,andmeaning(Hoffer,147;Navarro,41).These

individualsfeelpowerlessandasaresultturntogroupswhoofferthemmight.This

22

longingforpowerandfeelingofhavingbeenforgottenexplainsthecontinued

successofal‐QaedainAfghanistan.Terroristgroups,suchasal‐Qaeda,promisea

betterlifeandaricherfuture.Moreover,religioncontributesanevendeeper

context.Jihadinthecontextofreligionpromisesaholyandmeaningfulexperience,

inthepursuitforpower(Navarro,41)

Anotherpersonalitytraitfoundinterrorists,howeveroftenforgotten,isfear.

Itisfearthatdriveshatredandideology.“Irreconcilablefearisdeepwithinits

subconscious,itgivesformtotheirunbendingideology,itliesnestledwithinthe

pathologicalpsycheoftheterrorist”(Navarro,43).Thesefearscanrangefrom

peopletochangethatsparkthehatredandmotivatetheterrorist’scorebeliefs.

Furthermore,therearecorefearsthatcomewiththeunbendingideologiesof

terrorists.Therearefearsofbeingcaught,whiletryingtopursueanactofterrorism.

Therearefearsoffailure,theinabilitytofollowthrough.Thesepersonalfearsare

principal,butmostimportantlythereisthefearofloosingone’sleaders:“Somuchis

usuallyatstake;somuchhasbeenentrustedtothesemalevolentcharismatic

leadersthatoftenthemissionbecomesoneofprotectingtheleaderattheexpense

ofcommittingfurtherterroristacts”(Navarro,46).Theleaderoftheterrorist

organizationprovidesguidanceandpowerfortheindividual.Withouttheleaders,

thefollowerswouldgobacktothefeelingsofbeingincompleteandforgotten.

Narcissism,incompletenessandfeararesignificantpersonalitytraitsof

terrorists.Thesecharacteristicsleadtostrongandinflexibleideologies.Fearpushes

theterroristsintopassionatehatredandcoursesofviolence.BothIndiaandthe

23

UnitedStatessufferfromterrorism.Theseterroristsuseviolenceandfeartacticsto

createfearintheirenemies.Terrorismallowstheseindividualsandgroupstofeel

powerfulagainsttheirmuchlargeradversaries.

Jihadism: Why Personality Counts 

Jihad,orHolywar,isnotanewconceptinIslam.Itoccurswhennon‐Muslims

threatenaMuslimterritory(Mendelsohn,40).Infact,theconceptofJihadhasbeen

aroundsincethefoundingofthereligion.Inrecentyears,thepopularityofJihadhas

grownatarapidspeed.Traditionallyreservedforleaders,itisnowacceptablefor

ordinarymemberstokillandhurtothersinthenameoftheirGod.Inthe21st

centuryJihadrevitalizedandfoundanewfollowing.BeforeJihadwasfoundinonly

certainpopulations.NowitisanacceptedformoffightingformanyMuslimsacross

theglobe.Jihadhasgrownfromlocaltoglobalandisgainingpopularitywith

Muslimsallovertheworld.Jihadhasbecomeasourceofmobilizationand

unification.Jihadisnolongerlimitedtojustafewstates;itisaworldwideissue

affirmingradicalideologicalbeliefs(Mendelsohn,38).Holywarscarriedoutby

terroristattacksarenowattheforefrontoftheUnitedStatesandIndianpolitical

agendas. 

Inhisbook:Combating Jihadism: American Hegemony and Interstate 

cooperation in the War on Terrorism, BarakMendelsohn,identifiesthreemajor

eventswhichledtothetransformationofJihadfromthelocaltoglobalscale.Jihads

reemergencefirstoccurredduringthewarinAfghanistanduringthe1980s.The

UnitedStates,Pakistan,andSaudiArabiaencouragedyoungMuslimsfromacross

24

theMiddleEasttocometoAfghanistantohelpfightofftheSovietarmy.Afterall,a

non‐MuslimentityoutragedMuslimsfromallovertheworld:“Thiswarledtothe

revivalofthenotionofJihadasacollectiveduty;formanyofthevolunteerswho

cametocentralAsiatowageorsupportthemilitaryeffort,itinstalledthebeliefthat

jihadwasthesolutiontotheummah’sweaknessesandthekeytoreturningittoits

earlydays”(Mendelsohn,38).Notlongafter,jihadismgrewoutofcontrolandwas

soonexportedtoothercountries.ThecalltojihadinAfghanistanunifiedindividuals

fromallovertheworld,particularlytheMiddleEast,intheirstrongbeliefsandgave

thempracticalbattlegroundexperience.ThewithdrawalofSoviettroopsgavethe

Muslimmilitantsafeelingofvictory,andthatjihadwasasuccessfulmethodof

fightingforonesgoals(Mendelsohn,38).

Duringthe1990s,“OsamabinLadenandhisalQaedanetworkprovidedan

organizationalandideologicalbaseforajihadimovementcomprisingmembers

fromdifferentnations,aglobalreach,andideologywithglobalscope”(Mendelsohn,

38).TheeventsofSeptember11thmadeJihadinthelocalapartofagreater

movementagainsttheinfidel(Menelsohn,38).WithintheJihadmovement,the

PakistanibecameapartofthismuchlargermovementandgavemanyPakistanis

theirfirstrealfeelingsofbelonging.

 

 

 

25

III. Partition:TheRootsofPakistaniIdentityProblems

In1757,theBritishEastIndiaCompanyconqueredthelandthatisnowknown

asIndiaandPakistanfromtheMughalDynasty.TheBritishoccupiedthelanduntil

1947.Basedonthetwo‐nationtheory,“HindusandMuslimswholivedinIndiawere

twodistinct,different,andattimesantagonisticculturalentities….Thesetwo

culturalentitiesinIndiahadahistoricalandcivilizationalbackdrop,anidentity,and

aself‐imageoftheirown,havingdifferentsetsofcharacteristics,yet,inthecontext

ofIndianpolitics,eachone’sidentityandunitywasparasiticontheother”(Ahmed,

56).Ignoringthedifferentculturesandethnicitiesthatfellunderneath“Hindu”and

“Muslim”,theBritishpartitionedthelargelandmassintoIndia,astateforHindus,

andPakistan,astateforMuslims.TheregionknownasKashmirremaineda

disputedterritory.In1965,thetensionsoverKashmirleadtofull‐scalewar.The

disputeoverKashmirstillremainsineffecttoday,andoftenleadstocyclesof

reoccurringviolence(Ahmed,58).

TheBritishfirstbegantheirruleoverIndiain1857.ThediversityofIndia’s

populationhascreatedtensionsandpoliticalproblemsforIndiabeforeits

independencefromtheBritishontheAugust15,1947.Terrorismcommittedby

radicalHindufactionswasprominentinIndiapriorto1939.Theviolenceforthe

mostpart,targetedtheirBritishoccupiers.However,aftertheyears1939and

particularly1945,Muslims,SikhsandafewradicalHindugroupspredominantly

begantouseterrorismasameanstoreachtheirpoliticalobjectives(Laqueur,150).

26

AtthetimeoftheendoftheBritishEmpire’sruleoverIndia,Indiawas

partitionedintotwoseparatestates.OnelandmasswasIndia,whichwouldserve

theHindupopulation.TheothercountrycreatedwascalledPakistan,astateforthe

Muslimpopulation.PakistanwastobethecountrycreatedfortheMuslimsofIndia.

Pakistanwouldbeacountrythatwouldpreservetheirrights,religionandculture.

ThehopewastobringpeaceandcreateanendtoHinduandMuslimclashesinthe

landregion(India).

Afterthe1947partition,itwashopedthatthenewlyformedcountryof

PakistanwouldbecomeapowerfulstrongstatefortheMuslimsintheregion.The

countrywouldnotonlypreserveMuslimrightsandinterests,butitwouldgrow

hopefullytobesomethingmuchmorepowerful.Infact,manyenvisionedPakistan

wouldbecomeaMuslimhomeland‐aplaceforallMuslims.

TheleadupandaftermathoftheBritishpartitionhadanimportantimpact

ontheveryidentityofthePakistani.Fromtheverybeginning,Pakistanhashadthe

dauntingtaskoftryingtocreateitsowncharacter.ThePakistaniidentityhadtobe

differentfromtheIndianidentityandthischaracterwouldhavetoberealizedand

acceptedacrosstheglobe.ItwasimaginedthatastrongPakistaniidentitywould

emergeafterthepartition.Insteadofestablishingaunifiednationalidentity,

PakistanwasbuiltuponthecommondisliketowardsIndia,andseparated

ethnicities.FeelingsofabhorrencetowardsIndiafromthepartitionandthe

resultingconflictoverKashmirstillplaguethePakistaniidentitytoday.Pakistanis

27

inabilitytoestablishastrongnationalidentityhasleadmanyindividualstoturnto

jihadandotherterroristmethodsintheirsearchforidentity(Jaffrelot,7).

3.1ProblemsFromtheStart

ItisobviousthatthereareclearreasonsforwhyPakistanishavechosen

terrorism,opposedtootherwaysinwhichtoaddressissuesofPakistaniidentity

withinthecontextofPakistaniandIndianconfrontation.Firstly,manyPakistanis

stillblameIndiaforinternalproblemsandlackofbelongingbasedonthelinesof

IslamandHinduism.Thereisarealsenseoflongingforpower.Pakistanisfeels

powerlessagainsttheIndianstate,whichisbigandstrongandnoteasilymoved.W.

HowardWriggensdescribedtherelationshipbetweenIndiaandPakistanas:“the

simplefactofsizeandstrategicandeconomicasymmetry…Howeverunjustified

Indianleadersmayhavethought,Pakistan’sover‐ridingconcernvis‐à‐visIndiawas

fear,fearofIndia’ssize,thesizeofitsarmy…andfearcompoundedoutofinfrequent

publicstatementsbyprominentIndiansregrettingthetragedyofpartitionand

reiteratingtheinherentunityofthesubcontinent”(Hussain,267).Inmanywaysthe

tensionbetweenthetwocountriesisnecessaryinorderforPakistantofunctionasa

country.Bycreatingaformofcoldwar,Pakistanishavefoundacommonthreatin

India.

PartoftheproblemhastodowithPakistan’sconfusionoverthenationand

nationalism.“Nationalismisanideology,beitbasedonterritorialorethnicnotions”

(Jaffrelot,7).TheFrenchSociologistMarcelMauss,describedthenationas:“a

societymateriallyandmortallyintegrated,withstableandpermanentcentralized

28

power,wellestablishedborders,arelativemoral,mentalandculturalunityofits

inhabitantswhoconsciouslyadheretothestateanditslaws”.Underthenation,sub‐

nationalidentitiesaredismissed.Pakistanontheotherhand,hasreliedheavilyon

ethnicityasasourceofderivedidentity.Therefore,“Pakistanappearstobean

unachievednationpreciselybecauseofthepersistenceofethnicidentities,which

mayevenbedescribedas‘nationalities’.The‘two‐nationtheory’gavethecountrya

nationalist ideology‐ithasevenbeendescribedasan‘ideologicalstate‐whichhas

beenformulatedagainst India,the‘othernation’.ButitdidnotendowPakistanwith

thesociologicalqualitiesofanation”(Jaffrelot,7‐8).Eventhecommonalityof

religion,hascreatedtensionanderuptionsoffightingbetweenSunniandShias

Muslims(Jaffrelot,8).Nationalismagainsttheothernation,India,seemstohave

hobbledtheformulationofanationalidentityinsteadofcreatingthenation,which

theyhaddreamedof.

MuhammedAliJinnah,thecreatoroftheideaofPakistanontheIndian

Subcontinentanditsfirstleader,“wantedtobuildastrongstaterelyingonthe

threefoldprinciple‘onenation,oneculture,onelanguage’”(Jaffrelot,8).Hebelieved

thatPakistanwastheonlywaytokeepsafeMuslimwelfareandinterests.He

believedthatMusliminterestscouldnotcompetewiththenewlyemergingIndian

state.Histhreefoldprinciplewashisideal,comingfromtheMuslimprovincesofRaj,

wherehefacedsocialdeclineandwasaminoritywithintheregion.Infact,the

UnitedProvinces’MuslimleadershadbeenpreparingforthePakistanistateafter

theBritishpoliciesimplementedfollowingthe1857‘Revolt’.Propertieswere

confiscatedandtheMuslimelitewerediscriminatedagainstbygovernmental

29

proceedings,aswellastheintroductionofdemocracytotheregion.Asminoritiesin

theseregions,theMuslimshadmoretoloseandthereforealotmoretogainfrom

theirownstate(Jaffrelot,9).Itwasthisfearofdeclineandmarginalizationthatled

tothefoundationofastateforMuslims.Infact,“thefirstMuslimseparatist

movementsresultedfromthereactionoftheMuslimelitefromNorthernIndia,

whoseprivilegedpositioncametobechallengedbytheriseofHinduintelligentsia,a

groupwhichbenefitedfromitsmorerapidassimilationintotheEnglish‐medium

educationalsystemandtheanti‐MuslimbiasoftheBritishtillthelate19thcentury”

(Jaffrelot,10).AsadirectresultoftheseBritishpolicies,politicalpartiesand

organizationsliketheMuslimleaguewereformed,withthegoaloffosteringMuslim

unityandpreservingthelanguageofUrdu,whichwaspromotedasthelanguageof

theMuslims.

WhereMuslimsweretheminority,theideaofPakistanandpreserving

Muslimrightsbegantospread.Onthecontrary,inplaceswheretheMuslim

populationswerethemajority,suchasPunjaborBengal,Muslimsweremore

contentbecausetheyruledoverthemselves(Jaffrelot,11).FortheMuslimswhofelt

marginalizedbytheBritish,theyremainedhopefulthatIslamandUrducouldunite

andpromotemobilizationamongMuslimsacrossthesubcontinent.

AftertheemergenceofthestateofPakistan,theriftsinPakistaniidentity

begantoemerge.Oneoftheseriftswasbasedonthecompetingvisionsofthe

Pakistanistate.TheMohajirssoughtastatebasedonthedoctrineofIslam.The

Punjabs,ontheotherhand,hadseenPakistanasthedirectresultofHindus

30

threateningIslamandtheirsocialrights.TheMohajirsimmediatelygainedalotof

influenceinthenewlyestablishedstate;boththepresidentandtheprimeminister

wereMohajirs.Withintenyears,whiletheMohajir’sMuslimdoctrineremainedin

tact,theinfluencetransferredtothePunjabiswhohadalreadybeguntoidentify

withthesameideology.TheyhadalreadyadoptedUrduasanofficiallanguage

(Jaffrelot,18).

Whilethesetwogroupsremainedinfluential,theBengalis,ontheotherhand,

wereignoredanddiscriminatedagainst,despitethefactthattheyformedamajority

ofthepopulation.OneexampleofdiscriminationagainstBengalisoccurredinMarch

1949,when“theConstituentAssemblyappointedaBasicPrinciplesCommittee

whichsubmitteditsreportinSeptember1950.Itrecommendedtheestablishment

ofafederaldemocracy.ThePunjabirepresentativesimmediatelyobjectedthatEast

PakistanshouldnotbeallowedtobeinapositiontodominateWestPakistansimply

becausetheBengaliswereinalargernumber”(Jaffrelot,18).Furthermore,by

makingUrduthenationallanguage,Bengaliswereleftangryandmobilizedto

preservetheirownlanguage,literatureandculture.ThefightbetweentheBengalis

andthecentralgovernmentdidnotendwithoutviolenceandspurredaBengalis

nationalistmovement.

TheBengalisarejustonegroupwhoturnedtoseparatistmovementsin

Pakistanbecauseofunfairpoliciesofitsleaders.TheSindhis,theBaluchis,andother

groupshavehadorstilldohaveseparatistmovementsinPakistan.Thefailureof

31

PakistanileaderstounifythedifferentpeopleswhomakeupPakistanhas

contributedgreatlytoitsfailuretoestablishaPakistaniidentity(Jaffrelot,30‐34).

Sectarianism,asasubstituteidentity,hasbecomeaserioussourceofconflict

intermsofnationalidentity.Theauthor,MiriamAbuZahab,describesPakistan

havingbeenlostinitsnationalidentity:“Pakistanhasneverbeenanation‐state;

highlyfragmented,ithasfailedinintegratingthepeopleintoanationbymaking

theirPakistaniidentitytheirmosttreasuredpossession”(Zahab,77).Insteadofthe

nation,individualswereforcedtoidentifywithotherfragmentedidentities.This

included:caste,ethnicgroup,languageorsectofIslam.

Forthosewhofoundasourceofethnicidentityinthe1970s,itwasalmost

immediatelyoutlawedandviewedasdisloyalty.Duringthe1980sandtheAfghan

war,identitywaslinkedtoreligiousIslam(Zahab,77).“ZiaulHaq’sIslamization

policy…meantstatemonopolyonreligionanddominanceofaparticularsect,and

brought…theologicaldifferencestothefore”(Zahab,79).GeneralZia’sIslamization

campaignwaspredominantlySunniinscopeandinfuriatedShia.Thecampaignwas

alsoadirectthreattoShiasocialstatusinPaksitan.AsaresultoftheAfghanistan

andwarandtheIranianRevolution,Shiaswerefurthermobilizedandempowered

(Nasr,87).OutsideShiainfluenceswereusingPakistantofurthertheirownpolitical

ambitions.

SunniandShiaviolencehaseruptedfrequentlyinPakistan’sshorthistory.

Sincethe1980sbothSunniandShiapartieshaveemergedresponsiblefor

promotingviolence.Thesepartiesinclude:“SunniSipah‐e‐SahabaPakistan

32

(Pakistan’s‘ArmyoftheProphet’sCompanions’orSSP,establishedin1984)andits

allies,theSunniTahrik(‘Sunnimovement’,establishedin1993),TehrikNifaz

Shariat‐IMuhammadi(‘MovementforProtectionofMuhammad’sReligiousLaw’,

establishedin1994),Lashkar‐e‐Jhangvi(JhangviArmy’,establishedin1990),

Lashkar‐e‐Taiba(‘TheArmyofthePure’,formedin1997‐8),andTehrik‐IJafaria

Pakistan(‘Pakistan’sShiaMovement‘orTJP,formedin1979)anditsmilitant

offshoot,Sipnah‐e‐Muhammad(‘ArmyofMuhammadorSM,formedin1991)”

(Nasr,85).Ithasnothelpedthesituationthatmanyofthesegroupsreceivefunds

fromoutsideofPakistan.SaudiArabiahasbeenknowntosendfinancialsupportto

SunnigroupsinPakistan,whileIranhasalsohelpedsupportandmobilizeShia

groupsintheregion(Nasr,32).Thesegroupspromoteasenseofbelongingand

placesforindividualswhofeeldisconnectedtothegovernmentinPakistan.Clashes

amongSunniandShiagroupshavefurthergivenrisetothePakistaniTaliban(Nasr,

85).ThePakistaniidentityhasbecomefragmented:“Ithasmetamorphosedfrom

religiousschismintopoliticalconflictaroundmobilizationofcommunalidentity”

(Nasr,86).Nowsectofreligionhasgivenwayasaformofpoliticalidentityand

violencehaseruptedbecauseofit.

OnecaseofsectarianismoccurredinCentralandSouthPunjab,where

politicalschismsduringthe1970s,ledtoalotofresentmentamongthelocal

populations.Sincepartition,thePakistanigovernmenthadignoredSouthPunjab.In

bothCentralandSouthPunjab,theareasarepovertystrickenwiththeexceptionof

afewwealthylandownerswhohavemaintainedtheirwealthovertheyearsby

turningtheirlandintoorchidsandthenusingmachinesinsteadofsomeofthe

33

experiencedlaborersinthearea.Withothermediumlandownersmovingin,much

oftheruralpopulationhasbeenturnedawayfromtheirtraditionaljobsandhaveno

landtogoto.Fastmovingsocialandeconomicchanges,rapidpacedurbanization,

theadditionofnewclasses,andapowerfulunchangingrulingeliteleadtoextreme

povertyandsocialinequalitiesintheregion.“Sectarianmilitancyinthiscontextcan

bedescribedasareactiontoagrowingsenseofinsecurityandhopelessness

resultingfromunevendistributionofresources,asarevoltofuprootedand

marginalizedperipherydeprivedofaccesstothepoliticalarena”(Zahab,79‐80).

Withthelackofindustrializationandeducation,andthemalfunctionoftraditional

structure,sectbecameasourceofidentity.Sectarianismservesasaplatformof

sharedangerandfrustrationandachanceatpowerinaregionthathaspushed

themintopoverty(Zahab,80).

InPunjab,educationwashardlyevermadeavailabletochildrenbecauseit

wasbelievedthatwitheducation,thechildrenwouldleavefortheurbanareasand

wouldthereforeneglecttheirsocialendeconomicroleaslaborers.Sincetherewasa

reallackofpropereducationinPunjab,madrasas,begantoincreaseinnumber

duringthesecondhalfofthe1990s.Themadrasas cameintobeingbecauseof

“religiouspartiesradicalizedforeigninfluencesstartedreceivingforeignfunds

whichtheythenusedtolaunchcampaignsinfavoroftheirprograms”(Zahab,115).

Thesemadrasas,havebecomesuccessful:“Notallmadrasas aresectarianbutthe

sectarianhavemultiplied.Inafeudalenvironmentwhereviolenceispartofthe

socio‐politicalcultureandisevenvalued,thesectarianmadrasasidentifywiththe

partieswhichprotectthem,preachviolenceforenforcementoftheirkindofIslam

34

andtheeliminationofothersects”(Zahab,83).Religiouspoliticalpartiesalign

themselvesandoperatemanyofthemadrasas. TheMadrasas areknownfor

teachingviolenceandhatredtowardsothersectsofIslam.JihadorHolyWarisnot

onlyforthenon‐Muslims,forthemadrasas,theinfidelhasbecomemembersof

othersectsofIslam.Povertyandnorealaccesstoeducationforcestheseyoung

childrenofruralpeasantstowardsextremismandviolence.

Inmadrasas,studentsaregivenaneducation,food,lodging,andmost

importantlyaplacetobelong.ClassesaretaughtinArabic,whicheventheteachers

donotfullyunderstand.Studentsaretaughtgoodbehaviorandobediencethrough

physicalabuse.Thestudentsofthemadrasas arecutofffromtherestofthesociety

andfindapurposeinlifebyservingtheirreligion. Themadrasasgivetheirstudents’

familiesarespectfulplaceinsociety:“Theparentsgainrespectofthelocalmullah

forsendingtheirchildrentotheseschools,ahadithsaysthattheparentsofahafiz­e 

Quran willbeblessedwithaluminouscrownontheDayofJudgment”(Zahab,83).

Themadrasas givestheirstudentsaplacetobelongandafuture.Duetofactthat

thereisareallackofPakistaninationalidentity,individualswhohavebeenaffected

negativelybychangehaveturnedtoorinthecaseofmadrasas beentaughttoseek

anidentitywithinreligionthatputsemphasisonhatetowardsthePakistaniother

withavaryingbeliefsystem(Zahab,84).

ManywhohavefailedordroppedoutoftheUrdusystemofeducationlacka

realeducation,andthereforejobqualifications.Theirlackofeducationhasleftthem

feelingisolatedfromtherestofsociety.Theirfamiliesaretoopoortosupportthem,

35

andtheycannotrelyonthegovernmenttohelpthem.Theyareleftstranded,

searchingforasenseofbelongingandalongingforacharismaticleadertotake

themtoabetterlife.InSouthPunjab,whereShiastraditionallyheldalotoflandand

power,“religionhasbecomeatoolandasocialdemarcationratherthanafaith,the

membersoftheothersectareviewedasrivalsandasathreattothematerialstatus

ofone’scommunity.Sectarianismhasbeenusedasanumbrellaforthestruggleof

theemergingclassesagainstmoreentrenchedinterests”(Zahab,86).Thenew

challengetotheShialandownersaretheSunnimiddleclass.ManyoftheSunnis

comefromananti‐Shiaideologicalbackgroundandasaresulttensionandviolence

thathasescalatedoverthepastdecade(Zahab,85).

InsteadofunifyingtheMuslimpeopleinPakistan,religionhasbecomea

sourceofconflictandasourcefornationalidentity.Extremistgroupsnowrivalthe

traditionalreligiousparties,whohavefailedtoportraythetruevisionofIslam.

SunniversusShiatensionshaveturnedintoendlessroundsofviolence:“Therivalry

hasdegeneratedintoachainreactionofvengeanceandtit‐for‐tatkillinginasociety

whererevengeisviewedbymostasanaturalsentimentlinkedtoonesidentityand

oneshonor”(Zahab,87).Thisreligiousfrustrationhastakenarealtollonthe

Pakistaniidentity.Manypeoplefeellikethegovernmenthasfailedthem.Many

comefrompovertyandlittleeducation.Withnorealfeelingofbelongingin

Pakistan,itiseasytoseehowreligionwouldserveasafoundationforasourceof

identity.However,thedifferentsectsofIslam,havecreatedfurtherdividesamong

thepeople:“Thereisnodearthofunemployedyoungpeoplewhoarelookingfora

solutiontotheireconomicproblemsandwhothinkthatanIslamicrevolutionis

36

longoverdueinPakistan”(Zahab,124),TheactofJihadisappliedtothegeneral

Pakistanisociety.Hatredtowardstheotherisareligiousmissionandcanbeeasily

spreadtoplacesacrosstheworld.Pakistanishavefallenvictimtohelplessnessand

despairandareturningtoothermeansofidentity.

Unfairgovernmentalpoliciesandidentityconfrontationshaveleadtoa

changingviewofJihadamongmanyofPakistan’scitizens.Jihadbecameanaccepted

toolofcombatagainsttheSoviet’stakeoverofAfghanistan.Withthesuccessof

JihadagainsttheSoviets,manyPakistanisandMuslimsacrosstheworldseeJihadas

asuitablewayofachievingagoal.ThelackofaPakistaninationalidentityhas

pushedPakistanisintofindingalternativeidentitiesandintothecomfortinghands

ofJihadistmovements.

Jihadimovementscanbeseenasearly1800sintheIndiansubcontinent.But

itwasnotuntil1927,whenAbulKalamAzadMuhammadIlyasKandhalawideclared

thatJihadshouldbeusedupontheHindus,whoarethetrueenemiesofIslam.Jihad

hasremainedanimportantpartofPakistaniidentity‐orlackthereof.Duringthe

1990s,PakistanisbecameevenmorereliantuponJihadimovementstofostera

senseofnationalidentity:“Theendofeconomicprosperity,addedtoahuge

demographicgrowth,drovemanylowandmiddleclasspeopleintounemployment.

Thepoliticalinstabilityaswellascorruptionoftherulingclass,helpedtoreactivate

theundergroundmythofanidealIslamicparadigm.Last,butnotleast,theseizure

ofpowerbysomeveryprivilegedgroupsconvincedthedestituteclassesthatthey

didnothaveafutureintheirowncountry”(Boivin,107).Additionally,withtheend

37

oftheAfghanwar,Pakistani‐sponsoredTalibangainedafootholdinAfghanistan.

InsteadoftheJihadimovementcomingtoaclose,theJihadimovementswere

exportedtotheKashmirandgainedinpopularity(Boivin,107).Withnorealplace

tocallhome,povertyandanunclearnationalidentitytorelatetoleadtoalotof

frustration,whichhasplayedalargerolewithinJihadinPakistanandacrossthe

globe.

3.2IndiaAfterPartition

SinceIndia’sindependencefromtheBritishEmpire,ithashadanongoing

struggleagainstterrorism.Indiahasworkedhardatbuildingastrongstate:“The

problemhastobeseeninthecontextofthefactthattheIndianstatealonehasthe

monopolyoftheuseofforceandthestatederivesitslegitimacybystrivingto

realizethevalueswhichtheIndianpeoplehavereposedintheconstitution…Ifthe

Indianpeoplelosefaithindemocratic, peaceful andlegal methodsofbringingabout

changesinoursocietythenthecultofviolencewouldprogressivelybecomea

growingandmenacingrealityinIndiawhichwillultimatelydestroythetenuous

civicorderthatexiststoday(Tiwari,viii).Theimportanceofdemocracyisapparent

inIndianSociety.However,therehasbeena“widespreadfeeling[that]hasgrownin

Indiathatourdemocraticprocessesoftenremainopaqueeventothedeeplyfeltand

justgrievancesofoneortheothersectionsofourpeople”(Tiwari,vii).This“deeply

feltandjusticegrievances”havecreatedalotofproblemsinmodernIndiansociety

(Tiwari,vii).

38

India’sfightforindependencewasmetbytwodistinctcoursesofaction.One

pushedforterroristactstargetingtheBritish.BhagwatiCharan,anactivemember

oftheHindustanSocialistRepublicanAssociation(HSRA),supportedterrorismasa

meanstoendBritishrule:“Deliberatemisrulehasreducedustopaupers,hasbled

uswhite.Asaraceandasapeoplewestanddishonoredandoutraged…weshall

haveourrevenge,apeople’srighteousrevengeonthetyrant”(Charan,1930,

excerptedinManan&Griset,42).CharanandtheHSRAcommitteddeliberateactsof

terrorism.Forexample,theythroughbombsoffpublicgalleryintheLegislative

Assemblyandattemptedtoblowupatrainstation.Theyalsoshotapoliceofficer.

Charandiedwhenabombblewupinhishands(Manan&Griset,42).Terrorism

createdpowerfortheCharanandtheHSRA,afterfeelingoppressedbytheirmore

powerfulBritishoccupiers.

Theothermovement,headedbyMohandasKaramchandGandhi,urgedfora

non‐violentresistance:civildisobedienceandnonviolenttactics.Gandhiwashighly

educatedanditwashismovementthatultimatelysucceeded.Therearehowever,

manyscholarswhobelievethattheterroristactivitiescontributedgreatlyin

liberatingIndiafromthehandsoftheBritish:Individualinnature,theterrorists

heldthebeliefthatIndianindependencecanbeboughtaboutbyaseriesof

revolutionaryoutragescalculatedtoinstillfearintotheBritishofficialsanddrive

themoutofIndia”(Sharma,59).TheWahhabis,apuritanicalIslamistsect,createda

lotofviolenceinIndia,workinghardagainsttheBritishcolonialists.Theseterrorist

methodsoccurredthroughoutIndiabutespeciallyinBengelandtheupperpartof

39

India.ThismethodofactionlaterspreadtothePunjabarea,UntiedProvinces,Delhi,

Madras,BiharandOrissa(Sharma,59).

TheRepublicofIndia,today,istheseventhlargestcountryintheworld,

covering1,222,559squaremilesoflandandholdsthesecondlargestpopulationof

1,198,003,000peopleasof2009.India’spopulationismadeupofavarietyof

peoples:Indigenous,invadersandotherswhohavemigratedtothelandovertime.

Indiaisadiversecountry.ThoughtheofficiallanguagesofIndiaareHinduand

English,severalotherlanguagesarespokenacrossIndia’sgreatlandmass.Mostof

theIndianpopulationpracticesHinduism,butthereareseveralotherswhopractice

Islam,Sikhism,Christianity,alongwithseveralotherreligions(India).Most

importantlyitissuccessfulandIndia’scitizenshaveanIndianIdentity.

3.3PakistaniTerrorinIndia

Whencreatinganewstate,nation‐buildingexercisesrequiresomeindividuals

involvedtogiveupsomeoftheirowninterestsfortheinterestofthestate.This

however,hasthepotentialtoupsetminoritypublics:“Theminoritypoliticswhen

vulgarizedtomanipulatecruderpoweratthehustingsactivitizesthesesub‐groups

intofanaticismandfundamentalism.Theterroristtacticsrepresentanarticulate

attempttocreatemissionaries,Messiahsandmartyrsforasocalledcausewhich

canelectrifytheinsecureandblindentheignoranttofightundertheleadershipof

self‐appointedfascists”(Sharma,49‐50).Thereareseveraltypesofterrorist

movementsoperatinginandaroundIndia.Thesegroupsholdavarietyofviewsand

40

goalsspecifictowhereitislocatedandreligiousandethnicbackgroundofthose

involved(Tiwari,x). 

TerrorisminIndiahaspredominantlybeenconcentratedinKashmirand

Punjab.Theseconflictsstemfromboth,ethnicandreligiousclashesthathavebeen

ongoingsinceevenbeforethetimeofIndia’sindependencefromBritain(Laquer,

151).TheIndiangovernmentchosetoignorethesensitivesituationsinKashmir

andPunjab:“Inregardtoreconcilingthesefactions,theHinduIndiangovernment

hasshownlittlepoliticalacumen.Itmighthavebeenimpossibletopacifythe

extremistsamongtheMuslimsinKashmirandtheSikhinPunjab,butthiswasa

strategytheIndiansdidnotevenreallytry”(Laquer,151).Thispromotedfurther

outragewithinPakistanandhascausedtheangerandfrustration,sooftenfound

withinaterrorist’smotives.ForPakistanis,terrorismhascreatedasensationof

powerandmuscleagainstthestatethatignoredthemandhasnotallowedKashmir

tobecomeapartofPakistan

Since1990,overtwentythousandpeoplehavebeenkilledfromterrorist

attacksinKashmir.However,theterrorisminKashmirandthroughoutIndiadidnot

makeittotheworldstageuntil1998,whenbothIndiaandPakistandetonated

nucleardevices(Laquer,150).Kashmir’spopulationislargelymadeupof

individualswhoconvertedtoIslamatsomepointearlyoninhistory.Kashmirwas

traditionallyreligiouslysecular,Gandhigoingasfartocallit:“anislandof

secularismontheIndiansubcontinent”(Laquer,151).Kashmirispartofthede

factoborderbetweenIndiaandPakistan,createdattheendoftheIndia‐Pakistan

41

Warin1949.Kashmir,alongwithanotherstate,Jammu,becameaconstitutestate,a

stateapartofIndia,withitsowngovernmentandguidinglegaldocuments.This

decisionwasheadedbythethenHinduruleofKashmir.Thelegalityofthisissuehas

beenfoughtovereversince:“Inthenexthalf‐centurytheKashmirissuewouldbea

primarytriggerofIndian‐Pakistaniwarsandarmedconfrontationsaswellas

interactiveterrorismbetweenIndiaandKashmiriseparatistsandIslamistgroups”

(Dekmejian,111).ThetensionsthathaveseemedtoalwaysexistbetweenKashmir

andtheIndiangovernmentcontinuestobeasourceofconflict.

AfterIndia’sindependence,hisgovernmenttooktheactionofarrestingone

ofKashmirshighlyacclaimedleaders,SheikhAbdullah.Thisact,increasedpolitical

tensionsandalsogavePakistanaroleintheconflict.Furthermore,Kashmir’s

populationissplitwithtwodifferentpoliticalgoals:Thefirstwantsitsown

independentstate.TheotherwantstobecomeapartofPakistan.Pakistanhasbeen

givingimportantpoliticalandmonetarysupporttotheMuslimextremistswhowant

thisdreamtobecomeareality.ByPakistansupportingtheKashmiriseparatist

movement,PakistanhashelpedtransformthisconflictintoaJihad,orholywar,and

intheprocesshasshapedtheactsofviolenceintoterroristacts:“Thegeneral

strategyoftheIslamicradicalshasbeentoattackandmurderthelocalHindus

(calledKashmiriPandits)andSikhsandsoforcethemtoleavetheregion”(Laquer,

151).Asaresult,houseshavebeendestroyedandpeoplehavebeenmurdered.

SeveralIndianaccountsstatethattheviolencetargetingthelocalHindupopulations

are“tryingtoexterminatetheHindupopulationofKashmiroratleastdrivethemto

fallsothattheregionwillbecomeapartofPakistan”(Laquer,151).Oneofthe

42

KashmiriMuslimgroupsHarakat Al Ansarcontinuedtodetonateterroristattacksin

India’smajorcities,includingNewDelhi(Laquer,151).

ProblemsinKashmirbegantogrowduringthe1980s,duetoconflictwith

thecentralgovernmentinNewDelhiandlocalpoliticswithinKashmir.In1987,the

UnitedMuslimFront,apoliticalpart,losttheelectionanditswakesparkeddebate

onwhethertheelectionhadbeentamperedwith.Asaresultviolenceeruptedthe

followingyear:“InJuly1988,theJammuandKashmirLiberationFront(JKLF)

bombedtwositesinSrinagar,followedbykidnappingsinexchangeformilitants

heldinIndianJails”(Dekmejian,114).ThisterrorismwassponsoredbyPakistan.In

the1980s,KashmirwasjustaseparatistgroupwithinIndia.Inthe1990s,the

separatistgrouptookonaradicalIslamistface(Dekmejian,108).

Pakistan,aweakerandsmallercountrythanIndia,cameupwithseveral

strategiesinordertoconfrontitsenemyinordertoannexIndian‐controlled

Kashmir.ItfirstlycreatedseveralimportantmilitaryallianceswiththeUnitedStates

andChina.ThisallowedPakistanprotectionfromtheUnitedStatesandaid.From

Chinaitwasabletogainnuclearcapabilities.Next,Pakistanadoptedaradical

Islamistideologyandidentity.Infact,“Pakistanidecision‐makers,sensinganIndian

windowofvulnerabilityinKashmir,havesoughttoexploitanotionofMuslim

confraternitytosupporttheinsurgents.Ontheotherhand,Islamhasalsobeenused

asavehicletomobilizeadisaffectedpopulationandchallengethewritoftheIndian

StateinKashmir”(Ganguly,179).ThisenabledPakistantomobilizeitscitizens

alongwiththeMuslimsinKashmirtocarryoutholywarinIndia,creatingseveral

43

terroristorganizationsdedicatedtokillingtheHinduinfidelthroughJihad.Terrorist

attackscarriedoutbytheseorganizationsinclude:Hindumassacres,carbombs,

suicidebombings,landminesandotherexplosivedevices(Dekmejian,114).

ActionstakenbyPakistanwereseenas“rationalresponsesofaweaker

powerseekingtoequalizeastrongerneighbor”(Dekmejian,113).Theactionstaken

byPakistanwereinordertocreatepoweragainstIndia(Dekmejian,113).Pakistan

isaweakerandmorevulnerablecountrythanIndiaandchosetofightagainstIndia

throughactsofterrorism,whereitenjoyedalimitedamountofsuccess.Theyfelt

strongerhelpingthesmallerextremistgroupsinIndiaandtheseactsallow

Pakistani’sthefeelingofpoweragainsttheirmassiveenemyofIndia.Thoughthere

havebeenseveralattemptstofigureoutalastingpeace,IndiaandPakistanhave

reachedanequilibriumbasedonnuclearpower(Dekmejian,118).

Terrorismisoften“expressionsof[aterrorist’s]individualpathologiessuch

asparanoia,identitycrisis,cognitivedisorders,andafeelingofinferiority,

helplessness,rejectionormarginality”(Dekmejian,25).Anactofterrorismcanbe

committedbecauseofpersonalvengeancetoarangeofpsychologicalpathologies

(Dekmejian,25).Onescholar,EricEriksonbelievesthatterrorists“areinastateof

“patienthood”thatmustberemediedthroughsome“mediumof

salvation””(Dekmejian,25).Theseindividualsareunabletohandletheirown

personalproblems,andtherefore,“projecttheirindividualpatienthoodsupon

societyand,intheirattempttouniversalizetheirpersonalpain,couldfocusonthe

destructionofaleadingfigureormonument”(Dekmejian,26).Thoughtheactsof

44

violenceareusuallypoliticalinnature,thereasonsbehindsareusuallydueto

conditionsofdeprivationandawantoffameandglory(Dekmejian,26).Thisis

clearlywhatisoccurringinIndia.Terrorismcreatesafeelingofpowerforthe

Pakistaniswhocommittheact,fillingthevoidofdeprivationbymakingothersfeel

theirpain.TerrorismandtheactofJihadgiveafalsesenseofbelongingandpurpose

inworldwheretheyfeeldiscriminated.ActsofterrorismagainstIndiabyPakistanis

createafeelingofinfluenceandpowerforthepowerless.

TheindividualsandgroupsresponsibleforterrorisminIndia,feelinferiorto

themassiveandstrongstate.Theseterroristsfeelthattheyhavebeenservedan

injusticebythestate.Terrorismallowsthemtofeelpowerful,bytakingouttheir

painandfrustrationsoninnocentpeople.Theactofterrorismisoftenmore

importantthantheoverallgoal.Inasense,theinjusticedonetotheterroristis

passedontoothers,andtheterroristfeelsalimitedsenseofpowerabovethestate

andabovetheindividualstheyseetohavedonethemwrong.

3.4JihadandthePakistaniIdentity

TheattacksofSeptember11thhavehadalastingimpactonJihadismin

PakistanandthePakistaniidentity.Jihadwasputintothespotlightandtheattacks

wereglorifiedacrosstheregion.AsaresultoftheattacksofSeptember11th,The

UnitedStatesbeganalongprocessofappliedpressureontothePakistani

government.TheUnitedStateshasdemandedthatPakistangaincontrolofitstribal

areasandJihadistmovements.ThepressurefromtheUnitedStates,sincethe1990s,

anditsactionsinIraqandAfghanistanhaveinfuriatedmanyPakistanis.Throughthe

45

courseofterrorism,PakistanishavereclaimedJihadasameansofpersonal

retribution.Pakistanishavenowimmigratedtocountriescoveringtheglobe.The

Westofferedmanyadreamofstabilityandidentity,butevenintheseWestern

countries,Pakistaniscannothidefromtheirlackofaconcisenationalidentity.This

explainswhyJihadagainstWesternstateshasbecometheultimatefrustrationof

thePakistaniidentity.

Thetwostatesolution,didnotbringanendtoMuslimandHinduclasheson

thesubcontinent.TherewerethreemorewarsbetweenIndiaandPakistanthat

occurredin1948,1965and1971(Hussain,266).In1971,anewcountry,

Bangladesh,wasformed,whichresultedfromfightingwithPakistan.Sincethelate

1990s,IndiaandPakistanhavethreatenedeachotherwithnuclearovertones:“The

Indiannucleartestexplosionsof11and13May1998,andPakistan‘srivalnuclear

teststwoweekslaterhaveunleashedanewstrategicdynamicwhichhasgave

implicationsforthecauseofpeaceandstabilityinSouthAsia”(Hussain,266).The

PakistaniandIndianconflictseemstobeimportanttotheveryfunctionofPakistan

andthepeoplelivinginPakistan.ThereasoningbehindthisfactisthatPakistani

andIndianrivalryhasbecomeasourceofidentityforthePakistanicharacter.

3.5What’sNext?

ThisaccountsfortherecentterroristattacksthatoccurredinMumbaiin

2008.Lashkar‐e‐TaibaorLeTisawell‐knownterroristorganizationthroughout

IndiaandPakistanandisnowgainingafollowinginternationally.LeThascarried

outseveralattacksinIndiaonthebehalfofthestruggleinKashmir.Theywerealso

46

behindthe2008attacksinMumbai,wherepopularhotelsforwesterners,along

withaJewishcenterwereattacked.TheLeTledattacksonMumbairepresented

morethanjustanattackonIndia.ItwasanattackontheWestandtheJews.The

onlysurvivingMumbaiterrorist,AjmalKasab,reportedtotheauthoritiesthatthe

terroristshavebeenorderedtotargetAmerican,BritishandIsraelicitizens

“becausetheyhavedoneinjusticetotheMuslims”(Kahn,1).Itbroughttheglobal

JihadistmovementintotheveryheartofIndia.

ItiscertainnowthatPakistanisareoftenfindingthemselvesinJihad

movementsasactsagainstthosewhodonotbelong.Nowweseealarger

phenomenon.Pakistanis,whohavemigratedtoothercountries,includingwestern

countries,arenowmakingtheirdebutasthenextPakistaniterrorists.Thelackofa

realPakistaniidentityhasnowcrossedcontinentsandtheUnitedKingdomandthe

UnitedStatesarethefirsttofeeltheglobalPakistanifrustration.

          

47

IV. Conclusion:PakistaniIdentityandtheWest 

AfterthemassiveterroristattackofSeptember11,2001,theUnitedStates

declaredawaronterrorism.TheWaronTerrorcontinuestobefoughttoday,often

concentratedonAl‐QaedaanditsstrongholdsinAfghanistan.Yet,whatseemstobe

missedbytheUnitedStatesanditswesternalliesisPakistan’scruciallinktothe

waronterror.Pakistan’sinternalissuesremainunresolved.ThelackofaPakistani

identityandPakistanisacceptanceintotheglobaljihadistmovement,asameansof

identity,shouldgreatlyconcernwesternstates.Moreover,thefactthatAmerican

citizenswithPakistanirootsarenowjoiningthefightagainsttheUnitedStatesand

thewestshouldbeattheforefrontofUnitedStatesforeignpolicyandtheWaron

Terror.TherecentfoiledattackplannedbyFaisalShahzadexemplifiesPakistanis

emergingpositionattheforefrontofterrorism.

Today,themostnotableterroristthreatintheUnitedStatescomesfrom

radicalIslamicterrorism,specificallyPakistaniterror.Theseterroristsarenotonly

fromtheMiddleEast;severalofthemhaveUnitedStatescitizenshipandare

angeredbytheUnitedState’scontinuedpressureonPakistantocontrolterrorist

cellswithinthecountry.PakistaniterrorismintheUnitedStatesisnotanew

phenomenonandneedstobelookedatmoreclosely.

OneofthefirstincidentsofPakistaniterrorismtranspiredin1993.Three

significanteventsoccurredthatwerefueledbyMuslimfanaticism.Firstly,on

January23,1993ashootingoccurredattheCentralIntelligenceAgency(CIA)

headquartersinLangleyVirginia:“nearlyadecadeagoontraffic‐chokedChain

48

BridgeRoadinLangley.Justbefore8a.m.,KasisteppedoutofhisIzusupickup

truck,shoulderedanAK‐47andbeganfiringmethodicallyatmotoristswaitingto

turnintoCIAheadquarters”(Davis&Glod,1).MirAimalKasi,aPakistani,wasthe

firstofmanywillingtodieforhiscause.Itwasreportedthathewasunhappywith

theUnitedStates’foreignpolicy,whichhefelthurtMuslimsacrosstheglobe.Kasi

fledtoPakistanandin2002wascaughtandextraditedtotheUnitedStates.Helater

receivedthedeathsentenceforhiscrimes,whichinjuredthreepeopleandkilled

one(Davis&Glod,1).

ThebombingoftheWorldTradeCenter’snortherntoweronFebruary26,

1993,wasasignoffarworsethingstocome.RamziYousef,who’srealnamewas

AbdulBasitMahmoundAbdulKarim,wasthesonofaPalestinianmotheranda

Pakistanifather.HehadgrownupinKuwaitcityandhadhadafamilyinPakistan.

HisactionswerereportedlymotivatedbyhisdevotiontothePalestiniancauseand

hishatredfortheJewishpeople(Wright,202):“OnFebruary26,1993,arented

FordEconolinevanenteredtheWorldTradeCenter’smassivebasementparking

garage.InsidethetruckwasRamziYousef.ItwasunclearifbinLadensenthim,but

hewastheproductofanal‐QaedacampinAfghanistan,wherehehadlearnedhis

bomb‐craft.HehadcometoAmericatooverseetheconstructionofwhattheFBI

laterdeterminedwasthelargestimprovisedexplosivedevicethebureauhadever

encountered.Youseflitfourtwenty‐foot‐longfusesandfledtoavantagepointjust

northofCanalStreet,fromwhichheexpectedtoseethebuildingfall”(Wright,201‐

202).Theattackwasmeanttoknockoutbothtowers,byhavingtheNorthern

towerfallintotheSoutherntower.Thoughtheirterroristattackdidnotgoas

49

planned,theystillmanagedtokillsixpeopleandinjuredoverathousandothers

(Wright,203).Yousef,withhisPakistaniroots,wasthefirstofhiskindto

successfullylaunchafull‐scaleterroristattackonAmericansoil.He,alongwiththe

otherterrorists,feltliketheirwantsandneeds,alongwithcountlessothers,were

beingignored.Bytakingonotherindividual’sburdens,theyvalidatedtheircause

andactions.ForYousef,therewasnoalternativeaction,andtheiractionsofterror

werecompletelyjustified.

Laterthatyear,anotherterroristattackplotmeanttotargetotherpopular

Americanlandmarkswasfoiled.OmarAbdel‐Rahman,aradicalNewYorksheikh

andrecognizedleaderofthegroup,Al‐Gama'aal‐Islamiyya,knownforits

connectionswithal‐Qaeda,mastermindedtheplannedattack.“SheikhOmarAbdal‐

Rahman,aradicalreligiousscholar…[had]courtedbinLaden,hopingtosecurehis

financialsupportfortheirpetprojects,includingtheassassinationofPresident

MuhammadZiaul‐HaqofPakistanandPresidentHosniMubarakofEgyptwho,in

theiropinion,hadbecomeapostates”(Williams,77).Targetsincluded:theGeorge

WashingtonBridge,theLincolnandHollandTunnels,theFBINewYorkCity

headquarters,andtheUnitedNationsbuilding.Otherplansconsistedofkidnapping

PresidentNixon,assassinatingtheformerEgyptianpresident,GamalAbdelNassar,

andpotentiallyhittingJewishtargets.Thereasonsbehindtheattackweremade

clearbyRahman,athisconvictiontrial:“TheUnitedStates,hesaid,wasIslam's

greatestenemy,acountryintentonwipingIslamfromthefaceoftheEarth.The

caseagainsthim,hesaid,wassimplyapartofthiscampaign,anattempttosilence

himbecauseofhisreligion”(Gladwell,1).ToRahman,theUnitedStateswasthe

50

ultimateenemy,athreattohisreligion,andhiscorebeliefs.Hefeltthatthe

Pakistanileaderatthetime,alongwiththeEgyptianPresident,wasnotdoingthe

jobssuccessfullyandinthetruepathofIslam.Thenetworksthattheseindividuals

wereanactivepartofprovidedthestructureandconfirmationoftheirbeliefsand

actions(Chaliand&Blin,322).

ThefoiledplannedattackinTimesSquarehighlightsthenewambitionsof

Pakistaniterroristorganizations.Lashkar‐e‐Taibaisincreasinglyworkingon

internationalterrorplots:“Lashkar'sfingerprintshavebeenfoundonanti‐Western

attacksandplotsfromAfghanistantoIraq,DhakatoCopenhagen…Shortlyafter

[the]Mumbai[terroristattacks],PakistaniauthoritiesarrestedallegedLeT

communicationsspecialistZararShahandreportedlydiscoveredonhislaptopalist

of320potentialtargets,mostofthemoutsideIndia‐‐includingsitesinEurope”

(Kahn,1).Furthermore,notlongaftertheMumbaiattacks,DavidColemanHeadley,

anAmerican‐PakistaniwasaccusedofgatheringsurveillanceforLeTduringthe

Mumbaiattacks.AftergatheringinformationfromHeadley,U.S.authoritiesfound

furtherevidenceofaplannedLeTterroristattacks,targetingtheDanishNewspaper

officethatpublishedthe2005cartoonofMuhammad.Notlongafterthearrest,

otherLeTmemberswerechargedwithplanningattacksontheUnitedStatesand

UnitedKingdomEmbassiesinDhaka(Kahn,1).Gatheringfromtherecentarrests,

theexecutedterroristattackinMumbaiandtheplannedterroristattacksagainst

Westerntargets,LeTandotherPakistanimilitantgroupsaregoingtoincreasingly

poseaterroristriskathome,intheUnitedStates,andabroad.

51

LeTrunsitstrainingprogramsopenlyandisestimatedtohavetrainedover

200,000peoplefromIndiatoNorthAmerica.IncreasingpressuresbytheUntied

StateshaveleftmanyPakistanisangry,becauseofthesensitivesituation.LeTiswell

knownforitscharityworkinKashmirandPunjab.Ithelpstoprovidethemostbasic

ofservicesincluding:bloodbanks,schools,clinicsandanambulanceservice.

Furthermore,“Pakistan'smilitarymayhesitatetogoafterAlQaedainthetribal

areas,butit'sevenlesseagertoconfrontLashkaratitsbaseinthecountry's

heartland...LeTandthePakistaniArmydrawmanyoftheirrecruitsfromthesame

poorPunjabiareas,oftenfromthesamefamilies,andLeT'shumanitarianwing

workedalongsidethePakistanimilitarytohelpciviliansdisplacedduringthe

Army'scampaigntoretaketheSwatValleyfromtheTaliban”(Kahn,2).Pakistan

nowfindsitselfinahardplace.LeThasprovidednotonlystructurebutalsoasense

ofidentityformanywhofeelasiftheydonotbelong.TheUnitedStatespressuring

Pakistantomonitorandgetridofthesegroupsmakesthesituationevenmore

delicate,whichiswhyPakistaniterrorismtowardsthewestshowsonlysignsof

increasing.

ThegreatestthreattoIndiaandtheUnitedStatesisPakistaniterrorism

fueledbythelackofaPakistaniidentityandextremistMuslimrhetoric.After

discussingthedeepercontextofwhatisterrorism,whoisaterroristandwhy

terrorismoccurs,itisclearwhyPakistaniterrorismispredictableandwhy

PaksitanisponsoredterrorismagainstIndiaandtheWestwillmostlikelybeonthe

riseinthefuture.Pakistaniterroristsandactsofterrorismareontheclimbing

becauseoftheveryproblemofPakistaniidentity,orthelackofone.Sincethe

52

partitionbetweenIndiaandPakistan,Pakistanhasstruggledincreatingaunified

Pakistaniidentity.PakistantriedturningtowardshatredtowardsIndiaand

separatismonlytostillisdealingwiththesameissuesaftersixty‐threeyearsof

independence.

TheglobaljihadismmovementinPakistanhasbecomeasanunintended

consequenceoftheIndianPartition.Pakistanisarelookingforwhateveryhuman

beingcraves:asenseofbelongingandidentity.Whilemanyofthemadrasas’former

studentsbecomemartyrsonthelocallevel,inareassuchasKashmirandPunjab,we

nowseeeducatedindividualswithPakistanibackgroundsattheforefrontof

terrorismintheWest.ManyPakistanishavefoundasourceofidentityintheglobal

jihadistmovements.Thesegroupshavebecomeaplaceofbelonging,alongwitha

waytoventfrustration.WithabuildingpressureonPakistanfromtheWest,more

andmorePakistanisarecommunicatingtheirfeelingsofisolationthroughactsof

terrorism.

 

 

 

53

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