Chapter 4
Network Protocols
Network+ Guide to Networks, Fourth Edition
Objectives
• Identify the characteristics of TCP/IP, IPX/SPX, NetBIOS, and AppleTalk
• Understand how network protocols correlate to layers of the OSI Model
• Identify the core protocols of the TCP/IP suite and describe their functions
• Identify the well-known ports for key TCP/IP services
Objectives (continued)
• Understand addressing schemes for TCP/IP, IPX/SPX, NetBEUI, and AppleTalk
• Describe the purpose and implementation of DNS (Domain Name System) and WINS (Windows Internet Naming Service)
• Install protocols on Windows XP clients
Introduction to Protocols
• Protocols vary according to purpose, speed, transmission efficiency, utilization of resources, ease of setup, compatibility, and ability to travel between different LANs
• Multiprotocol networks: networks running more than one protocol
• Most popular protocol suite is TCP/IP– Others: IPX/SPX, NetBIOS, and AppleTalk
TCP/IP (Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol)
• Suite of specialized subprotocols – TCP, IP, UDP, ARP, and many others
• De facto standard on Internet– Protocol of choice for LANs and WANs
• Protocols able to span more than one LAN are routable
• Can run on virtually any combination of NOSs or network media
• TCP/IP core protocols operate in Transport or Network layers
TCP/IP (Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol)
• Provides reliable data delivery services– Operates in Transport layer
– Connection-oriented
– Ensures reliable data delivery through sequencing and checksums
– Provides flow control
• Port hosts address where an application makes itself available to incoming or outgoing data
The TCP/IP Core Protocols: TCP (continued)
Figure 4-1: A TCP segment
The TCP/IP Core Protocols: TCP (continued)
Figure 4-2: TCP segment data
The TCP/IP Core Protocols: TCP (continued)
Figure 4-3: Establishing a TCP connection
UDP (User Datagram Protocol)
Figure 4-4: A UDP segment
IP (Internet Protocol)
• Provides information about how and where data should be delivered– Data’s source and destination addresses
– Network layer protocol
– Enables TCP/IP to internetwork
– Unreliable, connectionless protocol
• IP datagram: packet, in context of TCP/IP– Envelope for data
IP (continued)
Figure 4-5: An IP datagram
IP (continued)
Figure 4-6: IP datagram data
ICMP (Internet Control Message Protocol)
• Network layer protocol that reports on success or failure of data delivery– Indicates when part of network congested
– Indicates when data fails to reach destination
– Indicates when data discarded because allotted time for delivery (TTL) expired
– Cannot correct errors it detects
IGMP (Internet Group Management Protocol)
• Network layer protocol that manages multicasting– Transmission method allowing one node to send data to
defined group of nodes• Point-to-multipoint method
• Teleconferencing or videoconferencing over Internet
• Routers use IGMP to determine which nodes belong to multicast group and to transmit data to all nodes in that group
ARP (Address Resolution Protocol)
• Network layer protocol– Obtains MAC (physical) address of host
• Creates database that maps MAC address to host’s IP (logical) address
• ARP table or cache: local database containing recognized MAC-to-IP address mappings– Dynamic ARP table entries created when client makes
ARP request that cannot be satisfied by data already in ARP table
– Static ARP table entries entered manually using ARP utility
RARP (Reverse Address Resolution Protocol)
• Allows client to broadcast MAC address and receive IP address in reply– If device doesn’t know own IP address, cannot use ARP
• RARP server maintains table of MAC addresses and associated IP addresses
Addressing in TCP/IP
• IP core protocol responsible for logical addressing– IP Address: unique 32-bit number
• Divided into four octets separated by periods
• 0 reserved as placeholder referring to entire group of computers on a network
• 255 reserved for broadcast transmissions
Addressing in TCP/IP (continued)
Figure 4-8: IP addresses and their classes
Addressing in TCP/IP (continued)
• Many Internet addresses go unused– Cannot be reassigned because they are reserved
– IP version 6 (IPv6) will incorporate new addressing scheme
• Some IP addresses reserved for special functions– 127 reserved for a device communicating with itself
• Loopback test
• ipconfig: Windows XP command to view IP information– ifconfig on Unix and Linux
Binary and Dotted Decimal Notation
• Most common way of expressing IP addresses– Decimal number between 0 and 255 represents each
binary octet
– Separated by period
• Each number in dotted decimal address has binary equivalent
Subnet Mask
• Every device on TCP/IP-based network identified by subnet mask– 32-bit number that, when combined with device’s IP
address, informs rest of network about segment or network to which a device is attached
• Subnetting: subdividing single class of networks into multiple, smaller logical networks or segments
Assigning IP Addresses
• Nodes on a network must have unique IP addresses• Static IP address: manually assigned
– Can easily result in duplication of addresses
• Most network administrators rely on network service to automatically assign IP addresses
BOOTP (Bootstrap Protocol)
• Uses central list of IP addresses and associated devices’ MAC addresses to assign IP addresses to clients dynamically– Dynamic IP addresses
– Application layer protocol
– Client broadcasts MAC address, BOOTP server replies with:
• Client’s IP address
• IP address of server
• Host name of server
• IP address of a default router
DHCP (Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol)
• Automated means of assigning unique IP address to every device on a network– Application layer protocol
– Reduces time and planning spent on IP address management
– Reduces potential for errors in assigning IP addresses
– Enables users to move workstations and printers without having to change TCP/IP configuration
– Makes IP addressing transparent for mobile users
DHCP (continued)
Figure 4-11: The DHCP leasing process
APIPA (Automatic Private IP Addressing)
• Provides computer with IP address automatically– For Windows 98, Me, 2000, XP client and
Windows 2003 server
– For situations where DHCP server unreachable
– Assigns computer’s network adapter IP address from predefined pool of addresses
• 169.254.0.0 through 169.254.255.255
– Computer can only communicate with other nodes using addresses in APIPA range
Sockets and Ports
• Every process on a machine assigned a port number 0 to 65535
• Process’s port number plus host machine’s IP address equals process’s socket– Ensures data transmitted to correct application
• Well Known Ports: in range 0 to 1023 – Assigned to processes that only the OS or system
administrator can access
Sockets and Ports (continued)
• Registered Ports: in range 1024 to 49151– Accessible to network users and processes that do not
have special administrative privileges
• Dynamic and/or Private Ports: in range 49152 through 65535 – Open for use without restriction
Addressing in IPv6
• IPv6 slated to replace current IP protocol, IPv4– More efficient header, better security, better prioritization
– Billions of additional IP addresses
• Differences:– Address size
– Representation
– Distinguishes among different types of network interfaces
– Format Prefix
Host Names and DNS (Domain Name System)
• Every host can take a host name• Every host is member of a domain
– Group of computers belonging to same organization and has part of their IP addresses in common
– Domain name usually associated with company or other type of organization
• Fully qualified host name: local host name plus domain name
• Domain names must be registered with an Internet naming authority that works on behalf of ICANN
Host Files
• ASCII text file called HOSTS.TXT – Associate host names with IP addresses
– Growth of Internet made this arrangement impossible to maintain
Figure 4-13: Example host file
DNS (Domain Name System)
• Hierarchical method of associating domain names with IP addresses– Refers to Application layer service that accomplishes
association and organized system of computers and databases making association possible
– Relies on many computers around world
• Thirteen root servers• Three components:
– Resolvers– Name servers– Name space
DNS (continued)
Figure 4-14: Domain name resolution
DDNS (Dynamic DNS)
• DNS is reliable as long as host’s address is static– Many Internet users subscribe to type of Internet service
in which IP address changes periodically
• In DDNS, service provider runs program on user’s computer that notifies service provider when IP address changes– DNS record update effective throughout Internet in
minutes
Zeroconf (Zero Configuration)
• Collection of protocols designed by IETF to simplify setup of nodes on TCP/IP networks– Assigns IP address
– Resolves node’s host name and IP address without requiring DNS server
– Discovers available services
– Enables directly connected workstations to communicate without relying on static IP addressing
– IP addresses are assigned through IPv4LL (IP version 4 Link Local)
Some TCP/IP Application Layer Protocols
• Telnet: terminal emulation protocol used to log on to remote hosts using TCP/IP protocol suite– TCP connection established
– Keystrokes on user’s machine act like keystrokes on remotely connected machine
• FTP (File Transfer Protocol): Application layer protocol used to send and receive files via TCP/IP– Server and clients
– FTP commands work from OS’s command prompt
– Anonymous logons
Some TCP/IP Application Layer Protocols (continued)
• Trivial File Transfer Protocol (TFTP): enables file transfers between computers– Simpler than FTP
– Relies on UDP at Transport layer• Connectionless
• Network Time Protocol (NTP): Application layer protocol used to synchronize clocks of computers
• Network News Transfer Protocol (NNTP): facilitates exchange of newsgroup messages between multiple servers and users
Some TCP/IP Application Layer Protocols (continued)
• Packet Internet Groper (PING): utility that can verify that TCP/IP is installed, bound to the NIC, configured correctly, and communicating
• Pinging:– Echo request and echo reply
– Can ping either an IP address or a host name
– Pinging loopback address, 127.0.0.1, to determine whether workstation’s TCP/IP services are running
– Many useful switches• e.g., -?, -a, -n, -r
IPX/SPX (Internetwork Packet Exchange/Sequenced Packet Exchange)
• Required to ensure interoperability of LANs running NetWare versions 3.2 and lower– Replaced by TCP/IP on Netware 5.0 and higher
The IPX and SPX Protocols
• Internetwork Packet Exchange (IPX): provides logical addressing and internetworking services– Operates at Network layer
– Similar to IP
– Connectionless
• Sequenced Packet Exchange (SPX): Works with IPX to ensure data received whole, in sequence, and error free– Belongs to Transport layer
– Connection-oriented
Addressing in IPX/SPX
• Each node on network must be assigned unique address– IPX address
• Network address: chosen by network administrator
• Node address: by default equal to network device’s MAC address
NetBIOS and NetBEUI
• NetBIOS originally designed to provide Transport and Session layer services for applications running on small, homogenous networks
• Microsoft added standard Transport layer component called NetBEUI– Efficient on small networks
• Consumes few network resources• Provides excellent error correction
– Does not allow for good security– Few possible connections– Cannot be routed
Addressing in NetBEUI
• Network administrators must assign NetBIOS name to each workstation
• After NetBIOS has found workstation’s NetBIOS name, it discovers workstation’s MAC address – Uses this address in further communications
WINS (Windows Internet Naming Service)
• Provides means to resolve NetBIOS names to IP addresses– Used exclusively with systems using NetBIOS
• Microsoft Windows
• Automated service that runs on a server• Guarantees unique NetBIOS name used for each
computer on network• Clients do not have to broadcast NetBIOS names to
rest of network– Improves network performance
AppleTalk
• Protocol suite originally designed to interconnect Macintosh computers– Can be routed between network segments and integrated
with NetWare-, UNIX-, Linux-, or Microsoft-based networks
• AppleTalk network separated into logical groups of computers called AppleTalk zones– Enable users to share file and printer resources
• AppleTalk node ID: Unique 8- or 16-bit number that identifies computer on an AppleTalk network
Binding Protocols on a Windows XP Workstation
• Windows Internet Naming Service (WINS): process of assigning one network component to work with another
• Core Network and Transport layer protocols normally included with OS– When enabled, attempt to bind with network interfaces on
computer
• For optimal network performance, bind only protocols absolutely needed
• Possible to bind multiple protocols to same network adapter
Summary
• Protocols define the standards for communication between nodes on a network
• TCP/IP is most popular protocol suite, because of its low cost, open nature, ability to communicate between dissimilar platforms, and routability
• TCP provides reliability through checksum, flow control, and sequencing information
• IP provides information about how and where data should be delivered
• Every IP address contains two types of information: network and host
Summary (continued)
• Subnetting is implemented to control network traffic and conserve a limited number of IP addresses
• Dynamic IP address assignment can be achieved using BOOTP or the more sophisticated DHCP
• A socket is a logical address assigned to a specific process running on a host
• IPv6 provides several other benefits over IPv4• A domain is a group of hosts that share a domain
name and have part of their IP addresses in common
Summary (continued)
• DNS is a hierarchical way of tracking domain names and their addresses
• IPX/SPX is a suite of protocols that reside at different layers of the OSI Model
• NetBEUI is a protocol that consumes few network resources, provides error correction, and requires little configuration
• WINS is a service used on Windows systems to map IP addresses to NetBIOS names
• AppleTalk is the protocol suite originally used to interconnect Macintosh computers
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