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INTRODUCTION
The industrial revolution, electricity, computers, Internet and
now the next big thing is Nanotechnology. Technically Nanotechnology
is defined as an anticipated manufacturing technique by which one can
be given thorough and inexpensive control over the structure of matter.
These structures are known as nanostructures. The term Nanotechnology
was first introduced by Richard Feynman in 1959 and K Eric Drexler
popularized it in 1986 in the book Engines of Creation.
It is also defined as the ability by which we can arrange atoms
by given each its place and thus forms the structure in nanometer scale.
Nanotechnology deals with matter at atomic levels. The term nano is
derived from Greek word dwarf. Here it refers to one billionth of a meter
or (10-9).
The central thesis of Nanotechnology is that almost all
chemically stable structures that can be specified can also built.
Nanotechnology puts the power of creation in human hands.
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NANOSTRUCTURE
Nanostructures must be assembled from some building blocks.
These fundamental building blocks are created from atoms of 91
naturally occurring elements. It is inefficient to start with individual
atoms due to the slowness and less strength of materials. Usually
nanostructures are built, starting with larger building blocks or molecules
as components.
Nanostructures are new semi molecular building blocks to
assemble Nanostructures.Two of these Nanostructures are Nanotubes &
Nanorods that can be made out of silicon, other semiconductors, metals,
or even insulators. These Nanorods are made using clever solution
chemistry methods, but they can then self assemble into larger Nanoscale
structures.
Nanotubes and Nanowires
Graphite is used as a lubricant and in pencils. It is formed out
of sheets of carbon atoms linked together hexagonally like chicken wire.
Nanoscientists are very interested in them because when rolled into tubes
they exhibit some amazing properties. These cylinders of graphite are
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called carbon Nanotubes.When the roll is only one sheet of carbon atoms
thick they are called single walled carbon Nanotubes. Nanotubes are the
first nanomaterials engineered at the molecular level, and they exhibit
physical and chemical properties that are truly breathtaking.
Carbon NanoTube
Nanotubes show tensile strength greater than 60 times to high-
grade steel. Nanotubes are not only strong but they are also very light
and flexible. They are used in aeroplane design.
Nanotubes show excellent electrical properties. Scientists
tested Nanotubes and found that they behaved like superconductors.
Current theory holds that they can act as either superconductors or
semiconductors based depending on the exact proportions of the tube and
which materials other than carbon are introduced into the tube matrix.
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Not all Nanotubes are manufactured out of carbon. Silicon
Nanotubes are also common though Nanotubes of silicon are called as
Nanowires.
Nanotube and Nanowire research are hot topics both for
science and industry. IBM have already used nanotubes to craft usable
transistors with properties exceeding those of their pure silicon cousins
and some nanotubes based logic gates have been produced.
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TOOLS TO MAKE NANOSTRUCTURES.
There are mainly two approaches for the development of
Nanostructures. They are:
Top-Down Approach
Bottom-Up approach
Top-down approach is an engineering approach for the
construction of Nanoscopic devices. Here we take a large structure and
divide it into smaller structures iteratively. Bottom-Up approach deals
with building up a Nanostructure by starting from a single atom.
Scanning probe instruments
Creating structures at Nanoscale required them to be
manipulated at Nanoscale.For these various instruments were used .The
scanning probe instruments form the basis of these. Scanning probe
instruments cannot only be used to see Nanostructure but also to
manipulate them. The principle is used as dragging finger. Just as we
scratch a soft surface we can modify the structure. Similarly with the tip
of the scanning probe we manipulate the structure by dragging the tip
above the surface.
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Scanning probes are used to demonstrate and test some
fundamental scientific concepts ranging through structural chemistry,
electrical interactions and magnetic behaviors.
Scanning probe surface assembly is inherently very elegant,
but it suffers three limitations:
It is relatively expensive
It is relatively slow.
It cannot satisfy mass demand.
Nanoscale Lithography
The word lithography originally referred to making objects
from stones. A lithograph is an image that is produced by carving a
pattern on the stone, inking the stone and then pushing the inked stone
onto the paper.
Nanoscale lithography really cant use visible light because the
wavelength of visible light is at least 400 nanometers, so structures
smaller than that are difficult to make directly using it. This is one of the
reasons that continuing Moirs law into the nanoscale will Require
entirely new preparation methods.
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Dip Pen Nanolithography
One way to construct arbitrary structures on surfaces is to write
them in exactly the same way that we write ink lines using a fountain
pen. To make such lines at the nanoscale it is necessary to have a
nanopen. Fortunately AFM tips are ideal nanopens. Dip pen
nanolithography is named after the old-fashioned dip pen that was used
in schoolrooms in the 19th century. The principle of DPN is shown in the
figure.
In DPN a reservoir of ink (atoms or molecules) is stored on
the top of the scanning probe tip, which is manipulated across the
surface, leaving lines and patterns behind. Using this technique any
complex structure can be realized because AFM tips are relatively easy
to manupulate. This fact makes DPN the technique of choice for creating
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new and complex structures in small volumes the disadvantage of this
technique is that it is very slow.
E-Beam Lithography
We mentioned that current light based industrial lithography is
limited to creating features no smaller than the wavelength used. Even
though we can in principle get around this restriction by using light of
smaller wavelengths, this solution can generate other problems. Smaller-
wavelength light has higher energy, so it can have nasty side effects like
blowing the feature we are trying to create right off the surface.
An alternate way of getting around the problem is to use
electrons instead of light. This E-beam lithography can be used to
make structures at the nanoscale. Figure shows two electrodes that are
made using E-beam lithography to align platinum nanowires. The
structure lying across the nanoscale electrodes is a single molecule, a
carbon nanotube.
E-beam lithography also has applications in current
microelectronics manufacturing and is one approach that will be used to
keep Moores law on track until size-dependent properties truly assert
themselves.
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Nanosphere Liftoff Lithography
If marbles are placed together on a board as tightly as possible,
they will form a tight group with each marble surrounded by six others.
If this array was spray-painted from the top and then the marbles were
tipped off the board. The paint would appear as a set of painted dots
each shaped like a triangle with concave edges. Now if the marbles are
nanoscale marbles, so are the painted dots.
The technique is called nanosphere liftoff lithography.
Importantly, this liftoff nanolithography, unlike DPN or scanning probe
but like nanostamp, is parallel. Many nanosphers can be placed on the
surface, so that regular arrays of many dots can be prepared.
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Self-Assembly
The problems with most of the techniques for assembling
nanostructures that we have seen so far is that are too munch like work.
It is glorious if we could just mix chemicals together and get
nanostructures by letting the molecules sort themselves out.
One approach to nanofabrication attempts to do exactly this. It
is called self-asseembly.The idea behind self-assembly is that molecules
will always seek the lowest energy level available to them. If bonding to
an adjacent molecule accomplishes this, they will bond. If reorienting
their physical positions does the trick, then they will reorient. The forces
involved in self-assembly are generally weaker than the bonding forces
that hold molecules together.
They correspond to weaker aspects of Coloumbic interactions
and are found in many places throughout nature. In self-assembly, the
nano builder introduces particular atoms or molecules onto a surface or
onto a preconstructed nanostructure. The molecules then align
themselves into particular positions, sometimes forming weak bonds and
sometimes forming strong covalent ones, inorder to minimize the total
energy. One of the huge advantages of such assembly is that large
structures can be prepared in this way, so it is not necessary to tailor
individually the specific nanostructures.
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Self-assembly is not limited to electronics applications. Self-
assembled structures can be used for something as mundane as
protecting a surface against corrosion or making a surface slippery,
sticky, wet, or dry. Self-assembly is probably the most important of the
nanoscale fabrication techniques because of its generality, its ability to
produce structures at different length scales, and its low cost.
Nanoscale Crystal Growth
Crystal growth is another sort of self-assembly. Crystals like
salt that are made of ions are called ionic crystals. Those made of atoms
are called atomic crystals, and those made of molecules are called
molecular crystals. So salt is an ionic crystal and sugar is a molecular
crystal.
Crystal growth is partly art, partly science. Crystals can be
grown from solution using seed crystals, which involves putting a small
crystal into the presence of more of its component materials and
allowing those components to mimic the pattern of the small crystal or
seed. Silicon boules, the blocks used for making microchips, are made or
drawn in this way.
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Polymerization
Polymers are very large molecules. They can be upward of
millions atoms in size, made by repetitive formation of the bond from
one small molecular unit to the next. Polymerization is a very commonly
used scheme for making nanoscale materials and even much larger ones-
epoxy adhesives work by making extended polymers upon mixing the
two components of the epoxy. Controlled polymerization, in which one
manometer at a time is added to the next, is very important for specific
elegant structures.
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TOOLS FOR MEASURING THE PROPERTIES OF
NANOSTUCTURES
Scanning Probe Instruments
Some of the first tools to help launch the nanoscience
revolution were the so-called scanning probe instruments. The idea is a
simple one: if you rub your finger along a surface, it is easy to
distinguish velvet from steel or wood from tar. The different materials
exert different forces on your finger as you drag it along the different
surfaces. In these experiments your finger acts like a force measurement
structure. It is easy to slide across a satin
sheet than across warm tar because the
warm tar exerts a stronger force
dragging back the finger. This is the
idea of the scanning force microscope,
one of the common types of scanning
probe.
In scanning probe measurements, the probe, also called a tip,
slides along a surface in the same way your finger does. The probe is of
nanoscale dimensions, often only a single atom in size where it scans the
target. As the probe slides, it can measure several different properties,
each of which corresponds to a different scanning probe measurement.
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AFM
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For example, in Atomic Force Microscopy (AFM), electronics are used
to measure the force exerted on the probe tip as it moves along the
surface.
In Scanning Tunneling Microscopy (STM), the amount of
electric current flowing between a scanning tip and a surface is
measured. Depending on the way the measurement is done, STM can be
used either to test the local geometry or the local electrical conducting
characteristics.
In Magnetic Force Microscopy (MFM). The tip that scans
across the surface is magnetic. It is used to sense the local magnetic
structure on the surface. The MFM tip works in a similar way to the
reading head on a hard disk drive or audio cassette player.
Other types of scanning microscopys also exist. They are
referred to as scanning probe microscopys because all are based on the
general idea of the STM.In all of them, the important idea is that a
nanoscale tip that slides or scans over the surface is used to investigate
nanoscale structure by measuring forces, currents, magnetic drag,
chemical identity, or other specific properties.
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Spectroscopy
Spectroscopy refers to shining light of a specific color on a
sample and observing the absorbtion, scattering or other properties under
those conditions. Spectroscopy is a much older, more general t than
scanning probes microscopy and it offers many complementary insights.
Magnetic Resonance Imaging, or MRI is another type of Spectroscopy
that may be familiar from its medical applications. Many sorts of
Spectroscopy using different energies of light are used in the analysis of
nanostructures.
Visible light cannot be used for the spectroscopy analysis of
nanostructures because the wavelength of light is between 400nm and
900nm.So light of lesser wavelength is used for analysis. Spectroscopy is
of great importance for characterising nanostructure en masse, but most
types of Spectroscopy do not tell us about structures on the nanoscale of
nanometers.
Electrochemistry
Electrochemistry deals with how the chemical processes can be
changed by the application of electrical currents, and how electric
currents can be generated from chemical reactions. The most common
Electrochemistry devices are batteries that produce energy from
chemical reactions. The opposite process is seen in electroplating,
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wherein metals are made to form on surfaces because positively charged
metal ions absorb electrons from the current flowing through the surface
to be neutral plated and become neural metals.
Electrochemistry is broadly used in the manufacturing of
nanostructure, but it can also be used in their analysis. The nature of the
surface atoms in an array can be measured directly using
Electrochemistry, and advanced electrochemical technique scanning are
often used both to construct and to investigate nanostructures.
Electron Microscopy
These methods are based on the use of electrons rather than
light to examine the structure and behavior of the material. There are
different types of Electron Microscopy, but they are all based on the
same general idea. Electrons are accelerated passed through samples. As
the electrons encounter nuclei and other electrons, they scatter. By
collecting the electrons we can construct an image that describes where
the particles were that scattered the electrons did not make it through.
This is called Transmission Electron Microscopy (TEM).
TEM images can have resolution sufficient to see individual
atoms, but samples must often be stained before they can be imaged.
Additionally TEM can only measure physical structure, not forces like
those from magnetic or electric fields. Still, Electron Microscopy has
many uses and is broadly used in nanostructure analysis and
interpretation.
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APPLICATIONS
With the development of Nanotechnology it expects to find
applications in various fields. The various applications of
Nanotechnology are:
Nano Computers
Nanotechnology is focusing on projects, which can be
implemented in bettering our lives. Pervasive computing is an area
where a lot of Nanotechnology projects are currently active. If we want
to design a chip to fit into our fingertip controlling a music system then
solution lies with Nanotechnology.
While making a microprocessor we handle big groups of
semiconductor molecules and structure them into the form we need. This
form of handling of matter produces severe limitations as to how small
these circuits can be made. Present day lithographic technologies are at
0.13 microns. After 0.13 microns it is very difficult to etch the circuits
precisely and effectively on the silicon substrate. This is where
Nanotechnology steps in. Nanotechnology offers convenience to bulk
technology.
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Computing giant IBM has come up with a new kind of memory
using a technology called Millipede Technology which makes use of an
array of AFM probes to make marks on a polymer surface for storing
data. Each tip writes a bit of 50nm on the polymer, which stores data.
Todays best storage devices are capable of storing data up to
2Giga bits per square cm where as Nanotechnology increases the
memory to 80Giga bits per square cm using a single AFM tip. The main
advantage of using such technology, other than the small sizes, is the
power consumption.
Material Technology
It is another major area, which will be affected by
Nanotechnology. A nanotube is one such innovation, which can change
almost all the areas that we are familiar with. The advantage of using
nanotubes is that it is possible to control the way these crystals are
developed for applications. Electrical and other properties of materials
made using nanotubes can be made to fit precise specifications.
Scientists have begun to mix and match the attractive
properties of certain chemicals to produce materials and fabrics that are
stronger or more resistant. One company has already reengineered cotton
with an outer structure resistant to wrinkles and stains. Nanotubes are
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also innovations of material technology, which can suit precise
mechanical and electrical properties.
Medicine
With the development of Nanotechnology we can even replace
operations. The concept used here is Micro encapsulation a
Nanotechnology technique, which will help doctors to control precisely
the rate at which medicine, are supplied to patient body. One of the
major medicinal breaks through in the area of Nanotechnology is the
discovery of composite structure of carbon called Bucky balls or C60
molecules. Bucky balls were discovered by Richard Smalley.The main
advantage of using bucky balls are that they are extremely small (1nm
long) and non-toxic. These spherical particles are very smooth. The body
easily excretes them, which make them perfect as drug delivery
mechanisms.
Using bucky balls medicines could be delivered to the body
orally and then the body eliminates it without any side effects .It is
possible to attach the needed drugs on the bucky balls. This is much
easier and effective than the conventional capsule approach. In capsules
a mixture of drugs is delivered into the body, a major part of which is
eliminated by the body.
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Another exciting property that Nanotechnology presents is the
ability to have minute machines traveling inside our body protecting us
from the inside.
These nanodoctors will be able to find and repair damage at the
cellular level. For this to be possible molecular assemblers with better
capabilities than the current STM are needed. Nanorobots are also
similar to Nanodoctors.
The concept of Nanotechnology powered has a long way to go
before it can become a reality. This technology is mainly aimed to treat
cancer cells and sometimes even suggest cures.
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Nanoelectronics
Instead of burning features on to a Si chip nanolectronics are
built atom by atom through carefully controlled chemical reactions that
will eventually allow for faster information processing. Nanoelectronics
will be able to down size transistors producing tera scale integrated chips
containing more than a trillion transistors.
Nano LED
This is a novel light source system that uses LED to produce a
pulse of 50pico sec to 2nano sec between wavelength of 370nm and
660nm.Today nanoled emits blue, red, UV, amber light.
Applications of Nano LED
Illumination: It is highly efficient than conventional light build,
it consumes only 15 watts compared to traditional traffic lights which
consume 150 watts and so can be used for traffic lights which are
expected to burn for more than a decade continuously. More over they
are compact, have low power consumption and low heat.
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Replacement of Flash lamps: Flash lamps which are heavier and cost
more will be replaced by Nano LED in their applications because of their
low cost and portability.
Sensors: Sensors are highly sensitive systems that can be used to warn
of presence of chemicals in air or water. Nano LED is more flexible than
conventional sensors because the chemical substance can alter the
surface structure of LED.
In Computing and electronic devices: Further miniaturization
in circuits is done to increase processing power and speed of devices. It
can be used in Nanodevices where Ultra fast clocks are required for
faster computation and for running the device at rates greater than 1GHz.
Optical Devices: Nano LED based on silicon is used in
telecommunication industry for long and medium range data
transmission via glass optical fibres by conducting pulses of laser light.
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FUTURE APPLICATIONS
Scientist are just beginning to explore and manipulate the inner
workings of an atomic universe using Nanotechnology, the crucial
convergence of biology, chemistry and electronics that is poised to
revolutionize science.
In future with the invention of Robotic arm Nanotechnology
will evolve into reality. The applications of Nanotechnology in future are
expected to be in the areas of:
Medicine
Environmental
Robotics
Nano Electronics
Material Innovations
Pharmaceuticals
IT field
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CONCLUSION
Many of the concepts that Nanotechnology presents may look
impossible now but they may not be so far away. Nanotechnology is
nearer than we can think. The Nano storm will catch us quietly. The only
difference being that it will come in a silent subdued manner much like
how we used and embraced artificial fibres over the years without
knowing it & it will make a tremendous impact on our lives.
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REFERENCES
Nanotechnology The Next Big Idea By Mark Ratner
Daniel Ratner
Digit November 2001
Web.me.unr.edu/me372/Spring2001/Nanotechnology.pdf
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ABSTRACT
Imagine a supercomputer no bigger than a human cell. Imagine
a four-person, surface-to-orbit spacecraft no larger or more expensive
than the family car. Imagine attaining immortality by drinking a
medicine. These are just a few products expected from Nanotechnology.
Nanotechnology is molecular manufacturing or, more simply,
building things one atom or molecule at a time with programmed
nanoscopic robot arms; Nanotechnology proposes the construction of
novel molecular devices possessing extraordinary properties. The trick is
to manipulate atoms Individually and place them exactly where needed
to produce the desired Structure.
The goal of early nanotechnology is to produce the first nano-
sized robot Arm capable of manipulating atoms and molecules into a
useful product or Copies of itself. Nanotechnology will arrive with the
development of the first "Universal Assembler" that has the ability to
build with single atoms anything one's software defines. This paper
deals with the various possible applications of nanotechnology and the
process involved.
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
I express my sincere gratitude to Dr. P.M.S. Nambissan, Prof. and
Head, Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, MES College of
Engineering, Kuttippuram, for his cooperation and encouragement.
I would also like to thank my seminar guide Ms. Renuka (Lecturer,
Department of EEE), Asst. Prof. Gylson Thomas. (Staff in-charge,
Department of EEE) for their invaluable advice and wholehearted cooperation
without which this seminar would not have seen the light of day.
Gracious gratitude to all the faculty of the department of EEE and
friends for their valuable advice and encouragement.
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CONTENTS
1. INTRODUCTION 1
2. NANOSTRUCTURE 2
3. TOOLS TO MAKE NANOSTRUCTURES 5
4. TOOLS FOR MEASURING THE PROPERTIES OF
NANOSTUCTURES 13
5. APPLICATIONS 17
6. FUTURE APPLICATIONS 23
7. CONCLUSION 24
8. REFERENCES 25
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