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Uttar Pradesh State Information
Capital : Lucknow
Districts :70
Languages: Hindi, Urdu, English
Introduction to Uttar Pradesh
Uttar Pradesh has multicultural, multiracial, fabulous wealth of nature-hills, valleys, rivers, forests, and vast plains. Viewed as the largest tourist destination in India, Uttar Pradesh boasts of 35 million domestic tourists. More than half of the foreign tourists, who visit India every year, make it a point to visit this state of Taj and Ganga. Agra itself receives around one million foreign tourists a year coupled with around twenty million domestic tourists. Uttar Pradesh is studded with places of tourist attractions across a wide spectrum of interest to people of diverse interests. The seventh most populated state of the world, Uttar Pradesh can lay claim to be the oldest seat of India's culture and civilization. It has been characterized as the cradle of Indian civilization and culture because it is around the Ganga that the ancient cities and towns sprang up. Uttar Pradesh played the most important part in India's freedom struggle and after independence it remained the strongest state politically.
Geography of Uttar Pradesh Uttar Pradesh is between latitude 24°-31°N and longitude 77°-84°E. Area wise, it is the fourth largest state of
India.. The Gangetic Plain occupies three quarters of the state. The entire state, except for the northern region, has a tropical monsoon climate. In the plains, January temperatures range from 12.5°C-17.5°C and May records 27.5°-32.5°C, with a maximum of 45°C. Rainfall varies from 1,000-2,000 mm in the east to 600-1,000 mm in the west.
Brief History of Uttar Pradesh The epics of Hinduism, the Ramayana and the Mahabharata, were written in Uttar Pradesh. Uttar Pradesh also had the glory of being home to Lord Buddha. It has now been established that Gautama Buddha spent most of his life in eastern Uttar Pradesh, wandering from place to place preaching his sermons. The empire of Chandra Gupta Maurya extended nearly over the whole of Uttar Pradesh. Edicts of this period have been found at Allahabad and Varanasi. After the fall of the Mauryas, the present state of Uttar Pradesh was divided into four parts: Surseva, North Panchal, Kosal, and Kaushambi.
The western part of Uttar Pradesh saw the advent of the Shaks in the second century BC. Not much is known of the history of the state during the times of Kanishka and his successors. The Gupta Empire ruled over nearly the whole of Uttar Pradesh, and it was during this time that culture and architecture reached its peak. The decline of the Guptas coincided with the attacks of Huns from Central Asia who succeeded establishing their influence right up to Gwalior in Madhya Pradesh.
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The seventh century witnessed the taking over of Kannauj by Harshavardhana. In 1526, Babur laid the foundation of the Mughal dynasty. He defeated Ibrahim Lodi in the battle of Panipat. Babar carried out extensive campaign in various parts of Uttar Pradesh. He defeated the Rajputs near Fatehpur Sikri while his son Humayun conquered Jaunpur and Ghazipur, after having brought the whole of Awadh under his control. After Babur's death (1530), his son Humayun forfeited the empire after being defeated at the hands of Sher Shah Suri at Kannauj.
After the death of Sher Shah Suri in 1545, Humayun once again regained his empire but died soon after. His son Akbar proved to be the greatest of Mughals. His established a unified empire over nearly the whole of the India. During his period, Agra became the capital of India and became heartland of culture and arts. Akbar constructed huge forts in Agra and Allahabad. The period of Jahangir (after 1605) saw arts and culture reach a new high. In 1627, after the death of Jahangir, his son Shahjahan ascended the throne. The period of Shahjahan is known as the golden period of India in art, culture, and architecture. It was during his reign that the classical wonder Taj Mahal was built in memory of his wife Mumtaz Mahal. The régime of Aurangzeb saw the peak of Mughal Empire in terms of geographic expansion.
Modern-day Uttar Pradesh saw the rise of important freedom fighters on the national scenario. Lal Bahadur Shastri, Jawaharlal Nehru, Smt. Indira Gandhi, and Charan Singh were only a few of the important names who played a
significant role in India's freedom movement and also rose to become the prime ministers of this great nation.
Districts of Uttar Pradesh Uttar Pradesh is made up of 70 administrative districts, which are grouped into 17 divisions.
Agra Division-Agra, Aligarh, Etah, Firozabad, Mainpuri, Mahamaya Nagar (Hathras) and Mathura
Allahabad Division-Allahabad, Kaushambi, Fatehpur and Pratapgarh,
Azamgarh Division-Azamgarh, Ballia, Mau,
Bareilly Division-Bareilly, Badaun, Pilibhit, Shahjahanpur
Basti Division-Basti, Siddharthnagar, Sant Kabir Nagar
Chitrakoot Division-Banda, Chitrakoot, Hamirpur, Mahoba
Devipatan Division-Gonda, Bahraich, Shravasti, Balrampur
Faizabad Division-Faizabad, Ambedkar Nagar, Barabanki, Sultanpur
Gorakhpur Division-Gorakhpur, Kushinagar (Padrauna), Devaria, Maharajganj,
Jhansi Division-Jalaun, Jhansi, Lalitpur,
Kanpur Division-Kanpur Nagar, Kanpur Dehat (Akbarpur District), Etawah, Farrukhabad, Kannauj, Auraiya
Lucknow Division-Lucknow, Hardoi, Lakhimpur Kheri, Raebareli, Sitapur, Unnao
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Meerut Division-Meerut, Bulandshahr, Gautam Buddha Nagar, Ghaziabad, Bagpat,
Mirzapur Division-Mirzapur, Sant Ravidas Nagar (Bhadohi District), Sonbhadra
Moradabad Division-Moradabad, Bijnor, Rampur, Jyotiba Phule Nagar
Saharanpur Division-Saharanpur, Muzaffarnagar
Varanasi Division-Varanasi, Chandauli, Ghazipur, Jaunpur
Business & Economy of Uttar Pradesh Uttar Pradesh provides employment to nearly one-third of the state's total workforce in its textiles and sugar-refining industries. Other prominent industries in Uttar Pradesh include vegetable oil, jute, and cement. The Union Government has established a number of large factories that manufacture heavy equipment, machinery, steel, aircraft, telephone, electronics equipment, and fertilizers. An oil refinery at Mathura and the development of coalfields in the southeastern district of Mirzapur are also major Union Government projects.
The state government promotes medium- and small-scale industries. Agriculture is the mainstay of the state's economy. The chief crops are rice, wheat, millet, barley, and sugarcane. Since the late 1960s, with the introduction of high-yielding varieties of seed for wheat and rice, greater availability of fertilizers, and increased use of irrigation, the state has become the largest producer of food grains in the country.
Uttar Pradesh Travel Information
Uttar Pradesh can be easily considered as the nerve center of India and all the images of India can be experienced here. This is the state that gave the world Taj Mahal, the mascot for India; Varanasi, the spiritual hot spot; Sarnath, where Buddha preached for the first time, and Mathura, the place so much synonymous with the life and times of Lord Krishna. There are many Tourist Attraction of Uttar Pradesh, which include Agra, Allahabad, Ayodhya, Deogarh, Dudhwa Tiger Reserve, Kushinagar, Lucknow, Mathura, Sarnath, Sravasti, Varanasi, Vrindavan, Bithoor, Kalinjar and Kannauj
Rivers of Uttar Pradesh
Main rivers in Uttar Prdaesh are Alaknanda, Ramganga, Bhagirathi, Yamuna & Ganga
Education in Uttar Pradesh The female literacy situation in Uttar Pradesh is dismal at 42.98%. However, the male literacy rate is reasonably better at 70.23%. The overall literacy rate is still poor at 57.36% and much lower than the all India average. The State government has taken steps to make the population totally literate.
There are special programs like the World Bank aided DPEP. Steps are being taken with the help of NGOs and other organizations to raise participation. At the level of higher education and technical education Uttar
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Pradesh has 16 general universities, famous among those are Lucknow University, Uttar Pradesh Technical University (UPTU), Allahabad University, Madan Mohan Malaviya Engineering College, Agra University, Banaras Hindu University, Chaudhary Charan Singh University (Meerut), Aligarh Muslim University, prestigious Indian Institute of Technology (Kanpur), Indian Institute of Management (Lucknow), Dayalbagh Educational Institute, Indian Institute of Information Technology (Allahabad), National Institute of Technology (Allahabad) and large number of polytechnics, engineering institutes and industrial training institutes.
Food of Uttar Pradesh Uttar Pradesh is a gourmet's paradise. The cuisine consists of simple, vegetables curries of all kinds. However, a whole lot of fried foods like the kachori and puri, which are necessary during festivities, and the meat delicacies of Awadh are world famous. A lot of emphasis is placed on savories and sweetmeats in this state. The range could be anything from mathris to jalebis. Lucknow is also known worldwide for its biryanis and meat preparations.
Arts & Culture of Uttar Pradesh The population mostly comprises of an Indo-Dravidian ethnic group. Only a small population, in the Himalayan region, displays Asiatic origins. Hindus constitute more than 80 percent of the population, Muslims more than 15
percent, and other religious communities include Sikhs, Christians, Jains, and Buddhists.
The handicrafts of Uttar Pradesh have earned a reputation for themselves over the centuries. The traditional handicrafts are of a vast variety such as textiles, metal ware, woodwork, ceramics, stonework, dolls, leather products, ivory articles, papier-mâché, articles made of horns, bone, cane and bamboo, perfume, and musical instrument. These cottage crafts are spread all over the state but the more important centers are located at Varanasi, Aamgarh, Maunath Bhanjan, Ghazipur, Meerut, Muradabad, and Agra.
Carpets from Bhadohi and Mirzapur are prized worldwide. Silks and brocades of Varanasi, ornamental brassware from Muradabad, chickan (a type of embroidery) work from Lucknow, ebony work from Nagina, glassware from Firozabad, and carved woodwork from Saharanpur also are important. The traditional pottery centers are located at Khurja, Chunar, Lucknow, Rampur, Bulandshahr, Aligarh, and Azamgarh. Khurja's dishes, pitchers, and flower bowls in blazed ceramic in blue, green, brown and orange colors are the most attractive.
Muradabad produces exquisite brass utility articles. Besides, minakari on silver, gold, and diamond-cut silver ornaments have made Varanasi and Lucknow world famous.
Music & Dance of Uttar Pradesh
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The state is known for pioneering the development of musical instruments, which find mention in ancient Sanskrit literature. Music is also known to have flourished in the Gupta Period (c. 320-540), and much of the musical tradition in Uttar Pradesh was developed during the period.
The musicians Tansen and Baiju Bawra, two of the Navaratnas (Nine Jewels) of the court of the Mughal emperor Akbar, are still immortal for their contribution in the field of music.
The sitar (a stringed instrument of the lute family) and the tabla (consisting of two small drums), the two most popular instruments of Indian music, were developed in the region during this period.
The Kathak style of classical dance, which originated in Uttar Pradesh in the 18th century as a devotional dance in the temples of Vrindavan and Mathura, is the most popular form of classical dance in northern India.
There are also local songs and dances of the countryside, and the most popular of the folksongs are seasonal. The songs and dances of the countryside are significant features of local culture. They include the kajari of Mirzapur and Varanasi; the Alha Udal, a folk epic; and various village dances.
Festivals of Uttar Pradesh
Uttar Pradesh has a long list of fairs and festivals. More than 2,230 festivals are held annually. Some are organized at
several places simultaneously while others have only local importance.
Festivals and feasts are linked with the golden harvest - the sensuous spring, the reverence for mythology, religion or in honor of the past great men. These are zestfully celebrated with song, dance, and merriment; others with solemnity, fervor, fast, or feast. These fairs and festivals help the people keep the culture vibrant and promote artistic activities.
Facts related to Uttar Pradesh
Shakas had set up their
Kshsatraps in Mathura.
The brahmi inscription s of
Mora(Mathura ) is associated
with Sakas.
The Sakas conquered the area of
Mathura over Indian kings around
60BCE. Some of their satraps
were Hangamasha and Hagana,
who were in turn followed by the
Saka Great Satrap Rajuvula.
The Mathura Lion Capital
inscriptions attest that Mathura
fell under the control of the
Sakas. The inscriptions contain
references to Kharaosta Kamuio
and Aiyasi Kamuia. Yuvaraja
Kharostes (Kshatrapa) was the
son of Arta, as is attested by his
own coins.
Arta is stated to be brother of
King Moga or Maues. Princess
Aiyasi Kambojaka, also called
Kambojika, was the chief queen
of Shaka Mahakshatrapa
Rajuvula. Kamboja presence in
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Mathura is also verified from
some verses of the epic, the
Mahabharata, which are believed
to have been composed around
this period.
The Indo-Scythian satraps of
Mathura are sometimes called
the "Northern Satraps", as
opposed to the "Western
Satraps" ruling in Gujarat and
Malwa. After Rajuvula, several
successors are known to have
ruled as vassals to the Kushans,
such as the "Great Satrap"
Kharapallana and the "Satrap"
Vanaspara, who are known from
an inscription discovered in
Sarnath, and dated to the 3rd
year of Kanishka (c 130 CE), in
which they were paying
allegiance to the Kushans.
The Sakas
The indo-Greek rule in India was
primarily destroyed by the Sakas.
Sakas were the Scythians, which
refer to ancient Iranian people of
horse-riding nomadic
pastoralists.
In Sanskrit they are referred as
Sakas.
The 2nd century BC saw an
upheaval in the Central Asia. The
invasion by the Central Asian
nomadic tribes and tribes from
the Chinese region was
responsible for the migration of
the Sakas towards India.
Maues (80-65 BC)
Maues or Moga was the earliest
Shaka ruler.
He established Shaka power in
Gandhara and ruled around 80-
60BC
His capital was ”Sirkap” and he
issued a large number of copper
coins and few silver coins.
Some sources indicate that he
assumed the title of ” maharaja
mahatma ” and his coins are
bearing the images of Indian
deities’ viz. Shiva, and Buddha.
He used Greek and Kharoshthi in
coin legends.
Moga inscription
Moga inscription refers to the Taxila
copper plate. Taxila copper plate was
found in area of Taxila in modern
Pakistan. Taxila copper plate bears a
precise data and it is written in
Kharoshthi. This inscription is ascribed
to Shaka king Moga.
It was the Taxila Copper Plate
which has mentioned about the
dedication of a relic of the
Buddha Shakyamuni to a
Buddhist monastery by the Shaka
ruler Patika Kusulaka.
Patika Kusulaka is also
mentioned in Mathura lion capital.
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Azes-I & Azes II
Maues and his successors were able to conquer large the areas of Gandhara,
they were unsuccessful against the indo-Greek kings remaining behind the
Jhelum river in eastern Punjab.
But it was Azes-I who put an end to the remnant of the Greek rule in India.
Azes-I annexed the kingdom of the Indo-Greek Hippostratos after a long
resistance.
In 58 BC, Azes-I founded the Azes Era, which coincides with the Vikram Era in
India.
Azes-I was succeeded by Azilises, who was succeeded by Azes II.
There are some coins issued jointly be Azes-I and Azilises and jointly issued by
Azilises and Azes II.
Azes II reigned between the 35 and 12 BC and he is considered to be the last
Shaka ruler and was lost to Kushanas.
Kushanas led to the foundation of Kushana Empire in North West India.
Bimaran casket
Bimaran casket was found in Jalalabad, Pakistan between 1833 to 1838. This casket is
important because it was found having the coins of Azes II.
It features the representations of Buddha surrounded by India deities Brahma
and Indra as bodhisattvas.
The Buddha is standing posture with bundled hair and wears a dhoti.
It was found in a steatite which was having some inscriptions.
The Bimaran casket is the First & Earliest known image of the Standing Buddha.
Introduction to Ancient History
Uttar Pradesh for its strategic position, in ancient times was known the Madhya Desh. Due to is
position, most invaders crossed it in the course of their invasions. Stretching from the north-west
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territories to the eastern states its history is almost synonymous to the history of north India.
The discovery of arms and implements in areas like Mirzapur, Sonebhadra, Bundelkhand and Sarai
Nahar area of Pratapgarh reveal that civilization dates back to the neo-Paleolithic age. There have
also been objects discovered in Alamgirpur, a suburban locality of Meerut which belonged to the
Harappan culture. Such evidences clearly stand as a proof to the historical significance of this vast
stretch of land.
This has also been proved by anthropologists. The finding of human skeletons in Sarainahar Rai
and Mehdaha in Pratapgarh have revealed microlyths dating back to 8000 years before Christ.
There are also enough indicators, which come from the stone age.
Historians have still not been satiated by what has been so far discovered from the state of Uttar
Pradesh. Today here is enoughand more for them to find out in the regions of Jajmau (Kanpur),
Fazilnagar (Deoria), Hulaskhera (Lucknow), Bheetargaon (Kanpur), Rajghat (Varanasi). These
experts believe that a lot more is still to be unravelled in terms of Uttar Pradesh's glorious past from
these sites.
Aryan Age
It is only from the Rigvedic age that some coherent historical account is found. Initially, the centre of
Aryan colonization in India was Sapta Sindhu or the region irrigated by seven rivers (undivided
Punjab). The seven rivers were Sindhu (Indus), Vitasta (Jhelum), Askini (Chenab),Purushni(Ravi),
Vipasa (Beas) Shatudri (Sutlej) and Saraswati (now lost in the Rajasthan desert). More important of
the Aryan clans were Puru, Turvasu, Yadu, Anu, and Druh. These five clans were known as
Panchjan. Besides, there was one more prominent clan known as Bharat. Gradually, the Aryans
extended their territory towards the east. The Shatpath Brahman gives an interesting account of the
victory of Kosal (Awadh) and Videh (north Bihar) by the Brahmans and the Kshatriyas. Expansion
of territory saw the creation of new States (Janpadas) and emergence of new people and new
centres. The Sapta Sindhu gradually lost importance and the centre of culture shifted to the plains
between Saraswati and Ganga ruled by the kingdoms of Kuru, Fanchal, Kashi and Kosal.
The entire region extending up to Prayag in the east bore the name of Madhya Desh. Modern Uttar
Pradesh corresponds to this region. It was considered sacred in Hindu mythology as Gods and
heroes, whose deeds are recorded in the Ramayana and Mahabharata, lived here. Its inhabitants
were considered to be the most cultured Aryans as their speech formed the norm and their conduct
was prescribed as the model. They were fully conversant with rituals and could worship and
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sacrifice without any flaw or fault. The rulers of these States, especially King Pravahna Jaivali of
Panchal, became immortal due to their noble deeds. Subsequent history got mingled for a long time
with the Puranas and Hindu scriptures, snapping the link with historical records. When this dark
period of history comes to an end and outlines of a proper history take shape again in sixth century
B.C., we find the 16 Mahajanpadas engaged in a state of serious competition for supremacy. These
States (Janapadas) and their capitals were:
1.Kuru (Meerut, Delhi and Thaneshwar)
Capital-Indraprasth(Indropal near Delhi)
2.Panchal (Bareilly, Budaun and Farrukhabad)
Capitals Ahichhatra (Ramnagar near Bareilly) and Kampilya (Farrukhabad)
3.Vats (Area around Mathura)
Capital-Mathura
4.Vats (Allahabad and nearby area)
Capital-Kaushambi (Kosam near Allahabad)
5.Kosal (Awadh)
Capital Saket (Ayodhya) and Shravasti (Sahet-Mahet in Gonda District)
6.Malla (District Deoria)
Capitals-Kushinagar (Kasia) and Pawa (Padrauna)
7. Kashi (Varanasi)
Capital-Varanasi
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8. Ang (Bhagalpur)
Capital-Champa
9.Magadh (South Bihar)
Capital-Girivraj (Rajgraha-Rajgiri near Bihar-sharif)
10.Vajji (District Darbhanga and Muzaffarpur)
Capitals Mithila, Janakpur, (on Nepal border) and Vaishali
11. Chedi (Bundelkhand)
Capital-Shuktimati (Probably near Banda)
12. Matsya (Jaipur)
Capital-Virat (near Jaipur)
13.Ashmak (Godawari valley)
Capital-Pandanya (place not known)
14.Avanti (Malva)
Capital Ujjaini (Ujjain)
15.Gandhar (north-west region, now in Pakistan)
Capital- Taxshila (near Rawalpindi)
16. Kamboj Capital-Rajapur (place not known)
Out of the above 16 States, eight (at serial number 1-7 and 11) were in present Uttar Pradesh.
More known among them were Kashi, Kosal and Vatsa. Besides these, certain republic states were
also within the boundries of present Uttar Pradesh e.g. Shakya state of Kapilvastu, Bhagga state of
Samsumergiri and Malla state of Pawapuri and Kushingar.
Vedic Period
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There is hardly any mention of the area comprising present Uttar Pradesh in Vedic hymns. Even
the sacred rivers, the Ganga and Yamuna, appear only on the distant horizon of the land of the
Aryans. In the later Vedic age, the importance of Sapta Sindhu recedes and Brahmarshi Desh or
Madhya Desh assumes significance. The region comprising Uttar Pradesh at that time became a
holy place of India and foremost centre of Vedic culture and knowledge.
The new States of Kuru-Panchal, Kashi and Kosal find mention in Vedic texts as prominent centres
of Vedic culture. The people of Kuru-Fanchcii were regarded as the best representatives of Vedic
culture. They enjoyed great respect as outstanding orators of Sanskrit. The conduct of schools and
institutions by them was laudable. The life of their kings was a model for other kings and their
Brahmins were held in high esteem for their piety and scholarship. The Upanishads prominently
mention the Panchal Parishad. The scholars from Kuru-Panchal were specially visited by the Videh
king on the occasion of Ashwamedh Yajna. The Panchal king Pravahan Jaivali himself was a great
thinker, who was praised even by Brahmin scholars like Shilik, Dalabhya, Shvetketu and his father
Uddalak Aruni. Ajatshatru of Kashi was another great philosopher king whose superiority was
acknowledged by Brahmin scholars like Dripti, Valhaki, Gargya etc.
Literature in various disciplines was authored on an extensive scale during this age culminating in
the Upanishads. They signify the highest reach of human imagination. The Upanishad literature
was the product of meditation in the Ashrams of the sages, several of which were in Uttar
Pradesh.Eminent sages like Bharadwaj, Yajnavalkya1 Vashishta, Vishwamitra, Valmiki and Atri had
either their Ashrams here or were otherwise connected with this State. Some Aranyaks and
Upanishads were written in the Ashrams located in this State.
Post Vedic Period
The cultural heritage of Uttar Pradesh was maintained in the period of the Ramayana and
Mahabharata i.e. the epic period. The story of Ramayan revolves round the 'Ikshwaku' dyanasty of
Kosal. The Mahabharata portrays the 'Kuru' dynasty of Hastinapur. Local people firmly believe that
the Ashram of Valmiki, the author of Ramayana, was in Brahmavart (Bithoor in Kanpur District). It
was in the surroundings of Naimisharany (Nimsar-Misrikh in Sitapur district) where Suta narrated
the story of Mahabharata, which he had heard from Ved Vyas himself. Some of the Smritis and
Puranas were also written in this State.
Gautam Buddha, Mahavir, Makkhaliputta Goshal and great thinkers brought about a revolution in
Uttar Pradesh in 6th century B.C. Out of these, Makkhaliputta Goshal, who was born at Shravan
near Shravasti, was the founder of Ajivika sect.
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Mahavir, the 24th Trithankar of Jains was born in Bihar but had a large number of followers in Uttar
Pradesh. He is said to have lived twice during rainy season in this State - once in Shravasti and the
second time in Padrauna near Deoria. Pawa proved to be his last resting place. In fact, Jainism had
entrenched itself in this State even before the arrival of Mahavir. Several Tirthankars such as
Parshwanath, Sambharnath and Chandraprabha were born in different cities in this State and
attained 'Kaivalya' here. Jainism must have retained its popularity in this State in subsequent
centuries also. This fact is borne by the ruins of several ancient temples, buildings, etc. The
remains of a magnificient Jain Stupa have been dug out near Kankali Tila in Mathura, while Jain
shrines built in early Middle Age are still preserved in Deogarh, Chanderi and other places.
Pre-Christ Era
All the States were perpetually at war with each other. Kosal annexed Kashi and Avanti grabbed
Vatsa. Kosal and Avanti, in turn, were subjugated one by one by Magadha, which became powerful
in the entire region. Magadh was ruled in succession by Haryank, Shishunag and Nand dynasties.
The Nands ruled from 343 B.C. to 321 B.C. The Nand empire extended almost to the whole of India
except Punjab and probably Bengal. It was during their reign that Alexander invaded India in 326
B.C. Several historians are of the view that the apprehension, that they will not be able to face the
forces of the powerful Magadh state, was at the root of Alexander's forces not advancing beyond
Beas river, which compelled him to go back.
With Alexander's retreat, India witnessed a great revolution. As a result the Nand rulers had to give
reins of power to Chandragupta, a scion of the Kshatriya clan "Moriya" of Pippalivana.
The whole of Uttar Pradesh enjoyed peace and prospeity during the reigns of Chandragupta, his
son Bindusara and grandson Ashok. The Government of India as the State Emblem has adopted
the Lion Capital, inscribed in the Ashokan Pillar at Sarnath. The Ashokan Pillars have been found
at Sarnath, Allahabad, Meerut, Kaushambi, Sankisa, Kalsi, Siddharthnagar and Mirzapur, all of
which are in Uttar Pradesh. The Chinese Travellers Fa-Hien and Yuan-Chawang* have seen
several rock edicts as well. Ashok also built the Dharmrajika Stupa at Sarnath.
The downfall of the Magadhan empire began with the death of Ashok in 232 b.C. His grandsons,
Dashrath and Samprathi divided the whole empire among themselves. The entire area south of
Narmada became independent and in 210 B.C. Punjab passed into other hands. the last ruler of
this dynasty was Brihdrath, who was assassinated by his commander-in-chief Pushyamitra Shung
in 185 B.C. Pushyamitra kept Magadhan empire intact. Patanjali's commertary refers to the seize of
Saket (Ayodhya) by the Greeks. Menander and his brother mounted a heavy attack in about 182
B.C. The invading armies accupied Kathiawad in far off south-west, Sagal (Sialkot in Punjab) and
Mathura. Later on the invaders laid a seize on Saket (Ayodhya) and advanced far in the Ganga
valley. Ultimately, Pushyamitra and his grandson Vasumitra challenged the invaders on the banks
of the Sindhu and defeated the Greeks. The invaders retreated and made Sagal (Sialkot) their
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capital. For long, Mathura remained a prominent city of Menander's empire. Menander or Milind
ruled up to about 145 B.c. Later on, small Indo-Greek and Greek states flourished in Punjab up to
the first century of Chistain era. During this period the Shung dynasty was replaced by the danasty
in Magadh. It is said that the last king of Shung dynasty was of bad character and he was killed by
his minister Vasudev.Vasudev established Kanva dnasty in 75B.C. This dynasty continued to rule
for 45 years and its was brought to an end in 28 B.C. by Simuk, the founder of the Satavahana or
the Andhra Dynasty.
It was at this time that the attention of Central Asian rules was drawn towards India for the first time.
By 60 B.C. they had set up their Kashatraps in Mathura. The first Saka king was Maues who died
around 38 B.C. Mter the Sakas, the Parthians attecked north India and by the beginning of first
century A.D. they started defeating the Sakas. The Kushanas also mounted an attack around 40
A.D. The Kushanas too were one of the five Yueh-Chih castes of Central Asia. Soon the Kushana
rulers established their empire right fom Central Asia up to the Indus iver. Gradually, they occupied
the whole of north India.
Magadh with reference to Uttar Pradesh
All the states were perpetually at war with each other. Kaushal annexed Kashi and Avanti grabbed
Vats. Later on Kausha and Vats in turn were subjugated one by one by Magadh, which became
most powerful in the entire region. Magadh was ruled in succession by Haryank, Shishunag and
Nand Dynasty. The Nandas ruled from 343 BC to 321 BC. The Nanda empire was extended to
whole of India except Punjab and Bengal. It was during their regime that Alexander invaded India in
326 BC. According to the great historians, Alexander the great could not even face the forceful
Magadh army and had to return.
In the year 323 BC Chandragupta Maurya became the new emperor of Magadh. His grandson
Ashoka the great created the statue of four lions in Sarnath. The Lion Capitol inscribed in the
Ashoka pillar at Sarnath has been adopted by the government of India as the State Emblem. The
Ashoka pillars petrography are found in Sarnath, Allahabad, Meerut, Kaushambi, Sakinssa, Basti
and Mirzapur. All the cities are in Uttar Pradesh. In the year of 232 BC, the death of Ashoka led to
the downfall of Magadh dynasty.
His whole empire was divided among his five sons. The Mauryan dynasty ruled over 137 years.
According to Vayu Purana the Mauryan dynasty ruled for 134 years.
The later ruler of Magadh dynasty was Brihdratha, who was assassinated by his chief commander
Pushyamitra.
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Detailed Political History of Magadha
Of all the Mahajanapadas, Magadha eventually emerged as most powerful mainly because of its
peculiar geographical location. It was bordered by Ganga River in North, Son River in West,
Vindhya ranges in south and Champa in East. The natural barriers protected Magadha from three
sides and it was not easy to invade such a territory. Here is a brief account of the poltical history of
Magadha since Rig-Vedic period accounts.
Earliest known king of Magadha was Brihadrath whose name appears in Rig-Veda as well as
Puranas. His son Jarasandha was killed by Bhima in Mahabharata war.
The Brihadrath dynasty was followed by Pradyotas. By that time, the practice of killing one’s father
to usurp the throne had crept in. The Pradyotas were notorious for patricide and irked people
overthrew them in a civil revolt. Next in the line was Haranyaka dynasty, whose great King
Bimbisara is remembered as most powerful King of Magadha before Mauryas. Bimbisara was a
contemporary of Buddha as well as Mahavira. Bimbisara used matrimonial alliances and sending
envoys to expand his power. Since patricide was in vogue those days, Bimbisara also became a
victim of it. His son Ajatshatru starved him to death.
Ajatshatru was also a valorous king who expanded his empire by fighting war with Kashi,
Licchhavis and others. During his reign, Mahavira, Buddha and also Makkhali Gosala or Gosala
Maskariputta, the founder of Ajivikas path attained Nirvana.
Ajatshatru was a devout Buddhist as well as Jain. He enshrined the relics of Buddha in a stupa and
also renovated many monasteries. Under his sponsorship, the first Buddhist Council was organized
at Sattapani caves in Rajgir. By that time, Rajgir served as capital of Magadha. Ajatshatru built a
fort at Pataliputra and his son Udayin developed Pataliputra as a city.
Ajatshatru was also a victim of patricide by his son Udayin. Same fate was shared by almost all
kings of Haranyaka dynasty. Again there was a civil revolt and public placed Shishunaga on throne
of Magadha. Shishunaga was amatya (minister) of last Haranyaka king Nagadasaka. Kalasoka, the
son of Shishunaga made Pataliputra as new capital of Magadha. He may be of dark complexion as
the contemporary Sri Lankan texts mention his name as Kakavarna (of color like a crow). Kalsoka
sponsored second Buddhist council in 383 BC under monk Sabakami. His ten sons ruled
simultaneously before Magadha slipped into hands of Nandas.
The founder of Nanda dynasty was Mahapadmananda. Since he had one of the largest standing
armies in the history of world {2 Lakh infantry, 8000 war chariots, 6000 elephants!}, he is also called
Ugrasena. His army was so large that he could arrange it in a lotus shape {Padmavyuh} and he
was so wealthy that his wealth could be counted in Padma (One quadrillion). He subdued all the
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contemporary powers and consolidated power of Magadha.
Mahapadmananda, who is thought to be from humble origin {son of a barber} was the first non-
kshatriya ruler in the history of India. Nandas were also the first empire builders of India.
The Nadas ruled for around 100 years. During the reign of last Nanda ruler Dhananada, Alexander
invaded from west. Alexander was able to cross Beas but before he could cross Ganga, he heard
that Dhananda’s 2 Lakh strong army is waiting for his men for a bloody massacre. He lost the
confidence and moved back. While moving back, he died on the way probably due to Malaria.
However, this invasion along with several other such invasions from west had put the North-West
on boil. In Magadha, the popularity of Dhananda had went down because of his lavishness and
greed that led to extortion and corruption. The situation was such that any brave heart could seize
the opportunity to topple the Nandas. This opportunity was cashed by Kautilya, who was once
thrown out of Nanda’s court. To seek revenge, he groomed Chandragupta Maurya, the brave
young man, who is thought to be the son of Dhananda’s shudra concubine Mura.
Chandragupta first gave a death blow to Greeks in north-west and then attacked and dethroned the
Nandas. Nandas life was spared and they were asked to run with as much treasure as much their
chariot could carry. The most important implication of rise of Chandragupta Maurya was that India
was, for the first time perhaps, united politically. The below map shows the extent of Maurya empire
at that time.
Meanwhile, Alexander was succeeded by his one of his generals Seleucus, who launched a
campaign to get back the Greek territories lost to Mauryas. He was able to cross Indus, but could
not succeed to defeat Chandragupta. An alliance was made in which Seleucus returned some of
the won areas to Chandragupta. Chandragupta gifted some 500 war elephants to Seleucus and
also some kind of matrimonial alliance was made in which son / daughter of one was married to the
daughter / son of other. Seleucus also sent Megasthenes to court of Chandragupta.
In the old age, Chandragupta abdicated the throne in favour of his son Bindusara and became a
disciple of Jain Monk Bhadrabahu. He spent his last days at Sharavanbelgola and supposed to
have died practicing Santhara there.
Chandragupta’s successor Bindusara (also known as Amitraghata- destroyer of enemies) carried
on the legacy of Mauryas and cemented good alliances with Greek King Antiochus-I. He ruled for
some 25 years and was successes by Ashoka after a bloody battle of succession among his sons.
During the time of Ashoka, the boundaries of Maurya empire extended to maximum by that time.
He invaded and annexed Kalinga mainly because Kalinga controlled land and sea routes to South
India. However, this battle changed his mind and introduced a new element in the politics of India in
the form of cultural coherence based on the moral values of Buddhism and a norm of benignity,
civility and humanity in matters of governance.
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However, such a policy was bound to have its side effects on polity after Ashoka’s death. Asoka
died in 232 BC after ruling for four decades. His sons could not survive the waves of changes. His
six successors including Jaluka, Samprati and Dasaratha could rule for only 52 years.
The life of last Maurya ruler Brihadrath was troubled. By this time, there were repeated attacks of
Yavanas / Greeks from western side. His brave commander Pushyamitra Shunga was able to repel
two attacks of Greeks but was not happy with the attitude of his master. He killed Brihadrath in 185-
184 BC and thus closed the chapter of Mauryas from Indian history, thus founding Sunga dynasty.
Pushyamitra and his son Agnimitra ruled from Pataliputra. The later Shungas made Vidisha as their
capital. However, by the time of Shungas, many independent rulers had appeared in west as well
as south. The most remarkable was rise of Satavahanas in south and Indo-Greeks, Kushanas, and
many others in west and Kharvela in Kalinga (east). Thus, the boundaries of Magadh by the time
of Shunga had narrowed down to some parts of Central India.
The last Shunga ruler Devabhuti was killed by his own amatya (minister) Vasudeva Kanva around
73BC. Thus, Magadha slipped into hands of Kanvas, who were Brahmins by caste. Only few rulers
of this Kanva dynasty are known on the basis of numismatics. This dynasty was finally overthrown
by Satavahanas in 30BC and thus once mighty Magadha was broken into many small parts ruled
by different dynasties at different periods.
The age of Buddha- Important cites in Uttar Pradesh
Sarnath
About 10 km. from the holy city of Varanasi, Sarnath is the place where more than 2,500 years ago
Buddha delivered his first sermon after attaining enlightenment. An imposing conical structure, 34
meters in height, called Dhamek stupa signifies the "seat of the holy Buddha." There are also the
ruins of Dharmarajika Stupa, besides the original Mulgandhakuti Temple, which according to Hieun
Tsang was about 61 mtr. high. That's the place where Buddha rested and meditated in Sarnath.
After converting to Buddhism, Emperor Ashoka visited Sarnath in 273-232 B.C. and erected a
smooth glistening stone pillar here, to mark the foundation of the Buddhist Sangha. The Lion
Capital on top of this pillar is now India's National Emblem. Then there is the Chaukhandi Stupa,
which was a terraced temple during the Gupta period (4th to 6th century) All three stupas--
Dharmarajika, Chaukhandi and Dhamek are outstanding in their architectural features. A journey to
Sarnath would be incomplete without a visit to the library at Mugandh Kuti Vihara, which houses
some amazing frescoes done by Koset Nosu. The Sarnath Museum, not far from the site, also
houses some of the finest specimens of Buddhist sculpture.
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Sravasti
After attaining Enlightenment Lord Buddha was constantly mobile spreading his message of
humanity, Universal brotherhood and salvation amongst the different segments of the society. This
service to humanity would stop for a brief period in the monsoons. This period too, however, would
be used by Lord Buddha to meditate and preach, on choosing an ambient place. It was during this
process that Lord Buddha turned towards Shravasti, 134km. from Lucknow. The town played host
to Lord Buddha for 27 years and was his annual rainy season retreat. Believed to be founded by
the mythological King Sravast (hence names after him), the site holds ruins of many ancient
Stupas, majestic monasteries and beautiful temples. This place also has an Anand Bodhi tree, an
offspring of the original bodhi tree, planted by Buddha's main disciple Anand.
The site of Mahet is spread over an area of 400 acres. The two main attractions here are the Pakki
Kuti and the Kachchi Kuti while Sahet, spread over an area of 32 acres and a little distance away
from Mahet, it was here that Anathpindak, a wealthy merchant, constructed the Jetavana Vihar.
The remants of several temples, Stupas and Viharas have been found here. Like wise the huge
World Peace Bell is another attraction, which was established with the help of the Japanese. The
motive was to convey the message of humanity of Lord Buddha through the bell's toll. There are
also the Thai-Sri Lankan-MyanmarChinese-Korean Buddhist Temples, the Shobhnath Temple,
Swarna Gandha Kuti, the Ananda Bodhi Tree and the Angulimal Cave here.
Sankisa
Sankisa is identified with the present village of Basantpur in Farrukhabad district of Uttar Pradesh.
Situated on the banks of river Kali, Sankisa is most easily accessible from Agra which is 175 km
away on the Agra-Mainpuri road. The nearest railhead is Pakhna which is 11.5 km away. Sankisa is
the place where the Buddha descended from heaven along with Lord Brahma and Devraj Indra
after giving a discourse to his mother, Mayadevi. Emperor Ashoka erected an elephant pillar here
to mark this holy spot.
Kaushambi
In his bid to spread his message Lord Buddha also visited Kaushambi, 60km. from Allahabad,
counted one amongst the most prosperous cities of those times. It was the Capital city of the then
Vatsa Janpada, with Udayan as the king. This place is believed to have been visited by Lord
Buddha in the 6th and 9th year after attaining enlightenment. He delivered several sermons here,
elevating it to a centre of higher learning for the Buddhists. Excavations have revealed ruins of an
Ashokan Pillar, an old fort and the Ghositaram Monastery, besides a huge number of sculptures
and figurines, cast coins and terracotta, objects.
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Kushinagar
Kushinagar, is one of the principal centre of Buddhist pilgrimage, is the place where Lord Buddha
left his corporeal self and attained Mahaparinirvana. The credit for bringing this ancient site to light
goes to General A. Cunningham and A.C.I. Carlyl, who, after excavating the site in 1861, Later,
between 1904 and 1912, several excavations conducted by the Archaeological Survey of India at
Kushinagar confirmed its identity. The monuments of Kushinagar are situated in three distinct
groups comprising the main site of the Nirvana Temple, the central stupa and surrounding
monasteries, the Mathakuar shrine to the southwest, and the Ramabhar Stupa a kilometer to the
east.
Nirvana Stupa is a huge brickwork stupa, exposed by Carlyl in 1876, which stands at a height of
2.74 mtr. A copper vessel was unearthed at this site. It bore an inscription in ancient Brahmi, which
stated that Lord Buddha's remains had been deposited here. Mathakuar shrine lies about 400
yards from the Parinirvana stupa. A black stone image of the Buddha in the bhumi sparsha mudra
was recovered here. The last sermon by Lord Buddha was given here. Ramabhar Stupa is a large
stupa which rises to a height of 49 ft. It marks the site where the Lord Buddha was cremated. In
ancient Buddhist texts this stupa has been referred to as Mukut-Bandhan Vihar.
The age of Buddha- Introduction with reference to Uttar Pradesh
There are numerous sites in Uttar Pradesh that are associated with Lord Buddha and
Buddhism. In fact Uttar Pradesh along with modern Bihar form the hub of early
Buddhism. It was from these parts that the religion spread to the rest of the world.
Kapilvastu - The capital city of Shakya clan whose ruler was King Suddhodana, father of
the ‘Enlightened One’
Sarnath - Where the Buddha after attaining enlightenment delivered his first historical
sermon
Sravasti - Where he spent 27 monsoons and showed his divine prowess
Sankisa - It is said that Gautam Buddha descended here after giving a sermon to his
mother in heaven
Kaushambi - Where Buddha visited in the sixth and ninth years after attaining
enlightenment
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Kushinagar - Lord Buddha achieved his Mahaparinirvana, freedom from cycle of birth
and rebirth
Uttar Pradesh is a cradle of Buddhism where all significant aspects of Buddha’s life can
be seen and experienced.
The Buddha
Buddhism is a world religion and is based on the teachings of Siddhartha Gautama,
who is known as the Buddha (literally the Enlightened One or Awakened One).
Siddh rtha Gautama was the historical founder of Buddhism. After asceticism and
meditation, he discovered the Buddhist Middle Way—a path of moderation away from
the extremes of self-indulgence and self-mortification. Early texts suggest that Gautama
was not familiar with the dominant religious teachings of his time until he left on his
religious quest, which is said to have been motivated by existential concern for the
human condition.
Siddhartha was born in a royal Hindu Kshatriya family. The Buddha's father was King
uddhodana, the leader of Shakya clan, whose capital was Kapilavastu, Uttar Pradesh.
Queen Maya, his mother, on her way to her father's kingdom gave birth to her son at
Lumbini, Nepal, in a garden beneath a sal tree. The infant was given the name
Siddhartha (P li: Siddhattha), meaning "he who achieves his aim". During the birth
celebrations, the hermit seer Asita journeyed from his mountain abode and announced
that the child would either become a great king (chakravartin) or a great holy man.
When he reached the age of 16, his father arranged his marriage to a cousin Ya odhar They had a son, named Rahul. Siddhartha is then said to have spent 29 years as a
prince in Kapilavastu. Although his father ensured that Siddhartha was provided with
everything he could want or need, Buddhist scriptures say that the future Buddha felt
that material wealth was not life's ultimate goal.
At the age of 29, Siddhartha left his palace to meet his subjects. Despite his father's
efforts to hide from him the sick, aged and suffering, Siddhartha was said to have seen
an old man. When his charioteer Channa explained to him that all people grew old, the
prince went on further trips beyond the palace. On these he encountered a diseased
man, a decaying corpse, and an ascetic. These depressed him, and he initially strove to
overcome ageing, sickness, and death by living the life of an ascetic and hence left his
princely abode for the life of a mendicant.
Gautama initially went to Rajagaha and began his ascetic life by begging for alms in the
street. After King Bimbisara's men recognised Siddhartha and the king learned of his
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quest, Bimisara offered Siddhartha the throne. Siddhartha rejected the offer, but
promised to visit his kingdom of Magadha first, upon attaining enlightenment. He left
Rajagaha and practised under two hermit teachers. After mastering the teachings of
Alara Kalama (Skr. r da K l ma), he was asked by Kalama to succeed him.
Siddhartha and a group of five companions led by Kaundinya are then said to have set
out to take their austerities even further. They tried to find enlightenment through
deprivation of worldly goods, including food, practicing self-mortification. After nearly
starving himself to death by restricting his food intake to around a leaf or nut per day, he
collapsed in a river while bathing and almost drowned. Siddhartha began to reconsider
his path. Then, he remembered a moment in childhood in which he had been watching
his father start the season's plowing. He attained a concentrated and focused state that
was blissful and refreshing, the jh na.
According to the early Buddhist texts, after realizing that meditative jhana was the right
path to awakening, but that extreme asceticism didn't work, Gautama discovered what
Buddhists call the Middle Way—a path of moderation away from the extremes of self-
indulgence and self-mortification.
Gautama was famously seated under a banyan tree - now known as the Bodhi tree - in
Bodh Gaya, India, when he vowed never to arise until he had found the truth.
Kaundinya and four other companions, believing that he had abandoned his search and
become undisciplined, left. After a reputed 49 days of meditation, he is said to have
attained Enlightenment. From that time, Gautama was known to his followers as the
Buddha or "Awakened One" ("Buddha" is also sometimes translated as "The
Enlightened One"). He is often referred to in Buddhism as Shakyamuni Buddha, or "The
Awakened One of the Shakya Clan."
According to Buddhism, at the time of his awakening he realized complete insight into
the cause of suffering, and the steps necessary to eliminate it. These discoveries
became known as the "Four Noble Truths", which are at the heart of Buddhist teaching.
Through mastery of these truths, a state of supreme liberation, or Nirvana, is believed to
be possible for any being. The Buddha described Nirv na as the perfect peace of a
mind that's free from ignorance, greed, hatred and other afflictive states, or
"defilements" (kilesas). Nirvana is also regarded as the "end of the world", in that no
personal identity or boundaries of the mind remain. In such a state, a being is said to
possess the Ten Characteristics, belonging to every Buddha.
After his awakening, the Buddha met two merchants, named Tapussa and Bhallika, who
became his first lay disciples. The Buddha intended to visit Asita, and his former
teachers, Alara Kalama and Uddaka Ramaputta, to explain his findings, but they had
already died. He then travelled to the Deer Park near V r nasī (Benares) in northern
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India, where he set in motion what Buddhists call the Wheel of Dharma by delivering his
first sermon to the five companions with whom he had sought enlightenment. Together
with him, they formed the first Sangha: the company of Buddhist monks. All five become
Arahants, and within the first two months, with the conversion of Yasa and fifty four of
his friends, the number of such Arahants is said to have grown to 60. The conversion of
three brothers named Kassapa followed, with their reputed 200, 300 and 500 disciples,
respectively. This swelled the Sangha to more than 1000.
For the remaining years of his life, the Buddha is said to have travelled in the Gangetic
Plain, in Uttar Pradesh, Bihar and southern Nepal, teaching a diverse range of people:
from nobles to outcaste street sweepers, murderers such as Angulimala, and cannibals
such as Alavaka. From the outset, Buddhism was equally open to all races and classes,
and had no caste structure. The Sangha traveled through the subcontinent, expounding
the Dharma. This continued throughout the year, except during the four months of the
Vassana rainy season when ascetics of all religions rarely travelled. One reason was
that it was more difficult to do so without causing harm to animal life. At this time of
year, the Sangha would retreat to monasteries, public parks or forests, where people
would come to them.
The first Vassana was spent at Varanasi when the Sangha was formed. After this, the
Buddha kept a promise to travel to Rajagaha, capital of Magadha, to visit King
Bimbisara. During this visit, Sariputta and Maudgalyayana were converted by Assaji,
one of the first five disciples, after which they were to become the Buddha's two
foremost followers. The Buddha spent the next three seasons at Veluvana Bamboo
Grove monastery in Rajagaha, capital of Magadha.
Upon hearing of his son's awakening, King Suddhodana sent, over a period of time, ten
delegations to ask him to return to Kapilavastu. On the first nine occasions, the
delegates failed to deliver the message, and instead joined the Sangha to become
Arahants. The tenth delegation, led by Kaludayi, a childhood friend of Gautama's (who
also became an Arahant), however, delivered the message.
Two years after his awakening, the Buddha agreed to return, and made a two-month
journey by foot to Kapilavastu, teaching the Dharma as he went. Buddhist texts say that
King Suddhodana invited the Sangha into the palace for a meal, followed by a Dharma
talk. After this he is said to have become a Sotapanna. During the visit, many members
of the royal family joined the Sangha. The Buddha's cousins Ananda and Anuruddha
became two of his five chief disciples. At the age of seven, his son Rahul also joined,
and became one of his ten chief disciples. His half-brother Nanda also joined and
became an Arahant.
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Of the Buddha's disciples , Sariputta , Maudgalyayana , Mahakasyapa, Ananda and
Anuruddha are believed to have been the five closest to him. His ten foremost disciples
were reputedly completed by the quintet of Upali, Subhoti, Rahula, Mahakaccana and
Punna. In the fifth Vassana, the Buddha was staying at Mahavana near Vesali when he
heard news of the impending death of his father. He is said to have gone to King
Suddhodana and taught the Dharma, after which his father became an Arahant.
The king's death and cremation was to inspire the creation of an order of nuns. Buddhist
texts record that the Buddha was reluctant to ordain women. His foster mother Maha
Pajapati, for example, approached him, asking to join the Sangha, but he refused. Maha
Pajapati, however, was so intent on the path of awakening that she led a group of royal
Sakyan and Koliyan ladies, which followed the Sangha on a long journey to Rajagaha.
In time, after Ananda championed their cause, the Buddha is said to have reconsidered
and, five years after the formation of the Sangha, agreed to the ordination of women as
nuns. He reasoned that males and females had an equal capacity for awakening. But
he gave women additional rules (Vinaya) to follow.
Buddha found patronage in the ruler of Magadha, emperor Bimbisara. The emperor
accepted Buddhism as personal faith and allowed the establishment of many Buddhist
"Viharas." This eventually led to the renaming of the entire region as Bihar.
The Maurya empire reached its peak at the time of Emperor Asoka, who himself
converted to Buddhism after the Battle of Kalinga. This heralded a long period of
stability under the Buddhist emperor. The power of the empire was vast - ambassadors
were sent to other countries to propagate Buddhism. The Buddha did not appoint any
successor and asked his followers to work for personal salvation. The teachings of the
Buddha existed only in oral traditions. The Sangha held a number of Buddhist councils
in order to reach consensus on matters of Buddhist doctrine and practice. Buddha
attained Parinirvana in the abandoned jungles of Ku in ra, modern Kushinagar in Uttar
Pradesh.
Jainism with reference to
Uttar Pradesh
Jainism
Originated in India thousands of years
ago and is thought to have heavily
influenced the two other main belief
systems of the region at that time:
Hinduism and Buddhism. The religion
centres on the progress of one’s soul
towards a divine consciousness through
self-reformation, wisdom and self-
control and pacifism towards all living
creatures. There are two main sects of
Jains today; the Digambara and
the Svetambara. There are thought to
be 10 million Jains worldwide, the
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majority of them in India and amongst
Indian expatriate communities in North
America, Asia and East Africa.
Origins
Jainism grew in India many thousands
of years ago. As with Hinduism, some
Jains believe that the origins are millions
of years ago, although obviously it is
impossible to verify the exact origins.
The more realistic assessment is that
the religion dates back to the second or
third millennium BCE, and there are
archaeological remnants found among
the Indus Valley civilisations (sites such
as Harappa and Mohenjo-Daro in
modern Pakistan) from around 1500
BCE that appear to mention
Jain Tirthankaras.
Jains believe that there had been 24
great teachers known as ‘Tirthan-karas’ (‘those who have discovered and then
shown the way to eternal salvation’) who
taught people how to live in harmony
with the universe and ultimately to
achieve spiritual liberation through their
own example. The first of
these Tirthankaras was Rushabha. The
23rd was Parsva who lived from 872-
772 BCE according to some sources.
The last of these teachers born in
northern India in 599 BCE was
Virdhamana, the son of King
Siddhartha. At the age of 30, he went
into seclusion as an ascetic and
following twelve years of intense prayer
and contemplation, claimed to reach
enlightenment. It was at that point that
he was given the title Mahavira (great
hero). He spent the rest of his life
teaching others how to fulfil the purpose
of their existence and to achieve
complete liberation from the shackles of
modern life. He is widely accredited with
establishing the present ‘Jain’ belief
system. Mahavira passed away in 527
BCE at the age of 72 years leaving
behind 14,000 monks and 36,000 nuns.
The 24 Tirthankaras in order are:
Rushabha, Ajitnath, Sambhavanath,
Abhinandan Swami, Sumatinath,
Padmaprabhu, Suparshvanath,
Chandraprabhu, Pushpadanta,
Sheetalnath, Shreyansanath, Vasupujya
Swami, Vimalnath, Anantnath,
Dharmanath, Shantinath, Kunthananth,
Aranath, Mallinath, Munisuvrata Swami,
Nami Nath, Neminath, Parshavnath and
Mahavira.
As mentioned earlier, through various
interactions in India, Jainism had an
influence on Hinduism and Buddhism,
and they share concepts such as the
seeking of freedom from worldly life and
reincarnation of the soul. Some scholars
suggest that Hinduism adopted
vegetarianism through strong Jain
influence across India.
Sacred Texts
Jains believe that the knowledge of the
true path (dharma) reaches a zenith and
then wanes several times through the
cycle of history, and each time the
knowledge is revived through
a Tirthankara just as other monotheistic
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faiths believe that prophets were sent by
a Creator to revive faith.
Mahavira is believed to have recorded
his teachings in a series of texts known
as the Agamas, although the Jain texts
are the major source of controversy
between the sects. The Digambara sect
believes that following a vast famine in
350 BCE when many monks died, the
original texts were also lost, whereas
the Svetambara sect (whilst
acknowledging that the Purvas texts
were lost) believes that the majority of
the texts survived in the form that we
have today.
The most often cited book of the Jains is
the Tattvartha Sutra (Book of Reality)
thought to date from the second
millennium BCE, but only recorded in
written form in the 5th century CE by
Umasvati, and it is at that point that
Jainism splintered into the two main
sects.
Beliefs
The Jains have 5 great vows by which
they try to live their lives:
Non-violence (Ahimsa) towards all living
beings (human, animal or plant life)
including a spectrum of harm from insult
and injury to death;
Not getting too attached (Aparigraha) to
material possessions, people or places;
Not telling lies (Satya);
Not stealing (Asteya) or taking things
that are not willingly handed over;
Sexual restraint (Brahmacarya)
practised as celibacy by monks and
nuns, and monogamy by normal society.
They believe that all human, animal and
plant life has a soul and therefore all of
these life forms must be treated equally
and fairly.
Jains believe that the purpose of man
and creatures is to realise the soul’s true
nature through the triple gems of (1) true
perception, (2) true knowledge and (3)
true conduct.
Unlike many other faiths, the Jains do
not believe in a creator God or in
spiritual beings such as angels, but do
focus on the concept of reincarnation
through which the soul evolves in life
cycles until it reaches enlightenment
when the soul is called jina (victorious).
Whereas the major monotheistic faiths
also believe in a spiritual journey, in the
case of those faiths (Judaism,
Christianity and Islam), their followers
seek the help of the Creator God to
achieve spiritual liberation, whereas
Jains believe that this journey is
undertaken purely through their own
efforts to achieve inner peace.
Moreover, the philosophy is that every
soul is the architect of its own destiny.
As a result of these beliefs, Jains also
believe in an infinite Universe that was
never created and will never end, but
goes through major cycles.
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Uppcsnotes.in Page 25
The ultimate goal of self-reformation and
the application of the Jain triple gems is
to break free from the cycle of birth and
death. In Jainism, a soul that frees itself
(moksha) from the samsara cycle of life
and death is called siddha (liberated
soul) whereas those souls which are still
attached to the wordly life are
called samsarin (mundane souls). A
liberated soul experiences boundless
knowledge, power, perception and
happiness.
As a result of these beliefs, they are
vegetarians and aim to live in a manner
which minimises the use of natural
resources so as to limit the impact upon
other life forms. Rigid followers will allow
head lice to survive on their head and
not shave their head or take any
medicine. Even bacteria is not
supposed to be killed.
Jains believe in soul reincarnation
through phases including hell-being,
sub-human (animal, plant and insects),
human and super-human, and that there
are an infinite number of souls in the
Universe, that like matter, pre-existed
creation.
Modern Jains
Modern Jain society has a concept of
monks and nuns similar to Buddhism
and Christianity, but has no priestly
class. Monks and nuns live a celibate
and ascetic lifestyle and take on greater
vows and responsibilities than normal
society.
Jains are recognised by their symbol
which is the Swastika. Although this
symbol was misused by the Nazis of
Germany in the last century, the original
Jain symbol signifies peace and well-
being. The Jain Swastika appears in all
temples and holy books, and during
ceremonies, a swastika is created using
rice.
Jains do have some idols, but these
represent souls that have conquered
their passions rather than deities.
Jains have several days of fasting on
which they abstain from all food but can
take water. During the fast, they focus
on worship, contemplation and reading
scriptures. Although there are specific
fast days, Jains also perform voluntary
fasts at any time of the year to cleanse
themselves.
Their festivals include the following:
Mahavira Jayanti – a celebration of the
birth of Mahavira
Paryushana – 8 days of fasting
Divali – a festival of renewal and lights
also celebrated by Hindus, but
significant for Jains as the day that
Mahavira achieved enlightenment
Kartak Purnima – an annual pilgrimage
to the key Jain sites in India
Mauna Agyaras – a single day of fasting
Kshamavaani – a day to seek
forgiveness from everyone else
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Jains are renowned for the value that
they place on education, and are
recognised in India as the most literate
community. Their libraries are well
respected and complement the zeal for
knowledge to enrich the soul.
Jainism in Uttar Pradesh
Uttar Pradesh, a state in north India has
a long association with Jainism. Today
the state is home to a number of Jain
monuments, such as Jain
Temples and Jain Tirths.
Parshvanatha, the twenty-third
tirthankara, was born in Benaras (now
Varanasi) in 872 BCE. According to Jain
tradition, Kashi (now Varanasi) is the
birthplace of three more tithankaras,
namely Suparshvanatha,
Chandraprabha and Shreyansanatha.
According to Jain tradition, five
tirthankaras were born at Ayodhya
including Rishabhanatha, Ajitanatha,
Abhinandananatha, Sumatinatha and
Anantanatha. The famous naked Jain
male torso found at Lohanipur, whether
Mauryan or, more likely Kushana, is
generally taken as indicative evidence of
some sort of representational cult in
early Jainism which reached an early
height at Mathura, and certainly
inscriptions from the many ayagapatas
of the Mathura region make clear that
puja to the tirthankaras with lay and
ascetic involvement was an important
dimension to this.
The mahajanapadas
The literal meaning of Mahajanapadas
is great kingdoms. They flourished in the
north/north western parts of India before
the rise of Buddhism. Aryans have
migrated into India long time back and
there were regular friction between them
and the non aryan tribes concerning,
cattle, fodder, land etc. These tribes of
Aryans were called as Janas by many
Vedic texts. Later on there was a
merger of the Vedic Janas into
Janapadas. Different regions of
the Indian subcontinent were previously
divided into Janapadas, this was a clear
demarcation by boundaries. Many
Janapadas by 600 BCE further
developed into bigger political bodies.
These kingdoms came to be known as
Mahajanapadas in the Buddhist
traditions.
Sixteen great kingdoms as they are
referrd to by buddhist and other texts.
The sixteen mahajanapadas include
Kasi, Kosala, anga, Magadha, Vajji,
Malla, Chedi, Vatsa, Kuru,
Panchala,Machcha, Surasena, Assaka,
Avanti, Gandhara and Kamboja.
Out of the above 16 states Kuru,
Panchal, Shursen, Vats, Kaushal, Malla,
Kashi and Chedi were present in Uttar
Pradesh and are still in the state. More
known among them were Kaushal,
Kashi and Vats beides these certain
republican states were also within the
boundary of Uttar Pradesh.
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Uppcsnotes.in Page 27
Kasi:
The name Kasi is the tribe who settled
in the region around Varanasi where
itself the capital was located. There is a
belief that Varanasi got its name from
the rivers that surround the city, namely
Varuna and Asi. Kasi occupied a
predominant position among the sixteen
Mahajanapadas, before the rise
of Buddha. We come to know a lot
about Kasi from the Jatakas which were
a voluminous body of myths and folklore
revolving about prvious births of the
buddha. This supremacy called for a
long drawn conflict for mastery between
other cities, like Kosala, Anga and
Magadha with Kasi. Kasi was no doubt
influencial that is the reason why we get
a mention of Kasi in the Vedic
texts. Matsya Purana and Alberuni are
the texts where we read Kasi as
Kausika and Kaushika, others read it as
Kasi.
Kosala:
Among the sixteen Mahajanapadas,
Kosala is one, which comprised of
Shravasti, Kushavati, Saket and
Ayodhya. Kosala constituted of the
territories of modern Oudh or Awadh
which is located in Uttar pradesh. The
state capital of Kosala
was Ayodhya which was under the
command of Prosenjit the Kosala King,
a contemporary of Gautama Buddha.
The southern side it was bordered by
the Ganges, the east had river Gandhak
encircling it. Magadha was a
neighbouring state to Kosala, and there
were conflicts between them. Ajatshatru
who was the king of Magadha and
Prasenjit were in continuous struggle for
power which finally came to an end with
the alignment of the confederation of
Lichchavis with Magadha. After
Prasenjit, Vidudabha rose into power
and Kosala ultimately amalgamated into
Magadha.
Anga:
India's earliest empire was evolving
around the Gangetic plains, which
included the Mahajanapadas. Anga was
one of these evolving states, which is
one of the sixteen Mahajanapadas that
prospered during that period. Malini,
Champapuri, champa Malini, Kala Malini
etc were the different names by which
this sate was called. The Angas were
first referred to in the Atharva Veda as
the detested people. Atharva Veda
considers Anga an unholy place and
some even condemned it as a place
where wives and children were sold.
Mahabharata, testifies the people of
Anga to be of noble birth or 'Sujati'
proclaiming the sanctity of the place
Champa as a pilgrimage. During the
reign of Bimbisara, this Mahajanapada
was usurped and taken over by
Magadha. Champa was also a major
seat for the spread of Jainism and
Buddhism.
Magadha:
Magadha emerged as a powerful
kingdom in the reign of Bimbisara and
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Uppcsnotes.in Page 28
his son Ajatshatru. The earliest ruling
dynasty according to Mahabharata
and Puranas seems to be founded by
king Brihadratha. The Vedas have a
mention of the Magadhas as semi
'brahmanised' and this was a reason for
the not so good impression of the
people. Kikata was a non Aryan country
according to Yasaka and the king
Pramaganda is said to be the ruler of
Kikata. Kikata on the other hand was
considered a synonym for Magadha in
later Vedic literature.
The city was known by many other
names like Magadhapura,
Brihadrathapura, Vasumati,
Kushagrapura and Bimbisarapuri.
Buddhism and Jainism were in vogue in
the religious scenario during that time,
and Magadha became a dynamic center
of Jainism along with the first Budhist
Council being held in Rajagriha in the
Vaibhara Hills.
Vajji or Vriji:
Sixteen Mahajanapadas of ancient Inida
includes Vajji as one of them. The Vajji
was a confederation a many clans of
which the Licchhavis, the Vedehans,
Jnatrikas and the Vajjis were the most
important. It was actually known as the
Vajji Sangha or the union of Vajji, which
comprised of many janapadas, gramas
(villages), gosthas (groups). The
eminent people were chosen from each
khandas (districts) to represent on their
behalf in Vajji gana parishad (people's
council of Vajji). The chairman of the
council was called Ganapramukh (head
of the democracy), but often he was
addressed as the king.The other
executives were Mahabaladhrikrit
(equivalent to the minister of internal
security), binishchayamatya (chief
justice), dandadhikrit (other justices) etc.
Vajji had its capital at Vaishali.
Malla:
Malla was an ancient dynasty in India
and is one of the sixteen
mahajanapadas. Epics like
Mahabharata mentions that the Mallas
were considered along with the tribes of
the Angas, Vangas and Kalingas.
Buddhist and Jain works have the
mention of the Mallas who existed in a
republic that consisted of nine teritories.
In a more original context it is evident
that they actually had a monarchical
form of government in the beginning but
later they transformed into the republic
form{Samgha). The Mallas were very
warlike and brave people and have
been mentioned and referred as Vrtaya
Kshatriyas by Manusmriti, as Vasishthas
in the Mahapparnibbana Suttanta.
Mallas have also suffered domination by
the Magadha empire after Buddha's
death.
Chedi or Cheti:
The Chedis were group of ancient
people of India living on the south of the
river Yamuna. They are mentioned in
the Rigveda, and city called Suktimati is
mentioned as the capital of Chedi.
Chedi kingdom was one of the sixteen
Mahajanapadas, and was ruled by
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Uppcsnotes.in Page 29
Sisupala, an ally of Jarasandha of
Magadha and Duryodhana of Kuru.
Prominent Chedis during Kurukshetra
War included Damaghosha, Shishupala,
Dhrishtaketu, Suketu, Sarabha, Bhima's
wife and so on. Chedi was the place that
was chosen for spending the 13th year
of exile by the Pandavas.
Vamsa:
The Vamsa or the Vatsa was the
kingdom that followed the monarchical
form of government. This kingdom is
one of the sixteen Mahajanapadas, and
the capital of this was located at
Kausambi. One very important aspect of
this city was that it formed the hub of all
economic activitioes and had a
prosperous trade and business
relations. 6th century Bc has the
account of Udyana to be the ruler of the,
kingdom at the time of Buddha. About
Udayana it is said that earlier there were
resentments on his side regarding
Budhism as he was very warlike and
aggressive but in the later years
became more tolerant and finnaly a
folower of Buddha. So much he was
affected by his teachings that he made
buddhism his state religion.
Kuru:
The kuru janapada is one of the sixteen
mahajanapadas. Regarding the origin of
the Kurus it has been said that they
belong to the Puru-Bharata family.
Kurus were the specific origin of people
living in the Kurukshetra and according
to the Buddhist text Sumangavilasini,
the kurus came from the Uttarakuru.
Testified by the Vayu Purana, the
founder of Kurukshetra or kuru janapada
was Kuru who was the son of
Samvarsana of the Puru lineage. During
sixth/fifth century BCE, the Kurus are
believed to have shifted to republic form
of government.
Panchala:
Panchala was divided into Uttara-
Panchala and Dakshina-Panchala.
Counted among the sixteen
Mahajanapadas, the northen Panchala
had Chhatravati as its capital and the
south had its capital at Kampilya. In
Panchala is situated the renouned city
of Kanyakubja. Like many other
kingdoms it was seen that the Panchals
tooo had shifted to a republican form of
government in sixth and fifth century
BCE from being a monarchy.
Machcha or Matsya:
The Kingdom of Matsya was again an
important part of the sixten
mahajanapadas. This lay south of the
Kurus and west of the Yamuna which
separated them from the Panchalas.
The Machcha tribe inhabited this region
which had its capital at Viratanagara.
The Matsyas are generally linked up
with the Surasenas in Pali literature. The
Matsya tribe in comparison to the other
janapadas were of not much poolitical
emminence during the age of Buddha.
Matsyas and the chhedis have a
connection here when we see that they
were once ruled by the same king
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Uppcsnotes.in Page 30
Sujata, and Matsya was a part of the
kingdom ofn Chedi.
Surasena:
The kingdom of Surasena, underwent a
lot metamorphosis in terms of religion.
The capital which was Mathura, was the
centre of Krishna worship at the time of
Megasthenes. Whereas Avantipura who
was the king of Surasena was one of
the first desciples of Buddha, and it
gained prominence evr since then in
Mathura. The geographical locattion of
this kingdom among the sixteen
mahajanapadas was south west of
Matsya and west of the river Yamuna.
There were various tribe that in habited
the region and they were headed by a
chief.
Assaka or Ashmaka:
Kingdom of Assaka or Ashmaka was
situated in the southern part of India and
one of the sixteen mahajanapadas. The
Ashmaka had its capital located at
Potana or Potali which have
resemblences of Paudanya of
Mahabharatha. The Assakas are placed
in the north-west in the Markendeya
Purana and the Brhat Samhita. There
are numerous associations regarding
the identification of assakas. That is why
we have different views on this. Like the
commentator of Akutilya's Arthashahstra
identifies it with Maharashtra.
Avanti:
Avanti was an important kingdom of the
sixteen mahajanapadas, and it lay in the
western part of India. Buddhism rose to
its prominence in this kingdom and and
this was one of the other kingdoms
which initiated Buddhism in a larger
manner. The kingdom was divided as
north and south Avanti and the north
had its capital at Ujjaini. Mahissati was
the capital of Avanti in the beginning
which was integrated into Ujjaini during
the period of Mahavira and Buddha.
Avanti in the later stages of historu was
amalgamated into the Magadha empire
under the reign of Shishunaga.
Gandhara:
The Gandhara kingdom comprised of
the Gandharas who were highly trained
in the art of war and they have a
mention in the Atharva Veda as well .
though in the Vedas they are mentioned
as the despised people along with some
others due to their allegiance to non
Aryan group. Puranic and Buuddhistic
tradition included Gandharas in
Uttarapatha. The Gandhara kingdom of
the sixteen mahajanapadas was
founded by Gandhara, son of Aruddha
who was the son of Yayati. It was alos
believed once according to Gandhara
Jatakas that they they were a part of
Kashmir. Gandhara was an important
seat of international commercial
activities, and provided communication
with other countries like Iran and Central
Asia.
Kamboja:
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Uppcsnotes.in Page 31
Kamboja was believed to have
composed of parts that were o the either
side of the Hindukush. Whereas
originally they were located somewhre
else. The Kamboja Mahajanapada of
the Buddhist traditions refers to the 'cis-
Hindukush branch' of ancient Kambojas.
The kamboja being one of the sixteen
mahajanapadas were a republic since
ages. There are many evidence from
the Mahabharata, Kautiliya's
Arthashastra and Ashoka's Edict No.
XIII which affirms that the Kambojas
were a republic people.
Magadha emerged as a very powerful
mahajanapada with time and this
marked the annexation of sevaral
janapadas of the 'Majjhimadesa'. The
Kasis, Kurus, Panchalas, Vatsyas etc
were certainly among the exterminated
clans which had no trace in the folklore,
poetry and so on. The sixteen
Mahajanapadas were infact
distinguished as the ones belonging to
the Majjhimadesa or mid India, or
Uttarpatha or the north-west region.
Delhi sultanate
The Delhi Sultanate basically refers to the Muslim rulers who ruled India through Delhi. This basically came into existence after Mohammed Ghori captured Delhi after defeating Prithviraj. After Prithviraj was captured, the Delhi Sultanate went into the hands of one of Ghori's generals known as Qutub-ud-din Aibak. During the end of the 12th century, he established a series of rulers and this dynasty was called as the slave dynasty since the rulers had been
military slaves. Read more about the history of the Delhi sultanate in India. The extent of Delhi sultanate was till Bengal in the east and Deccan in the south. Even such a big sultanate faced constant threats from the North West and was also under pressure from internal politics within independent nobles. There was instability and unrest in the kingdom as there five dynasties that rose and fell which includes Slave dynasty, Khilji dynasty, Tughlaq dynasty, Sayyid dynasty and Lodhi dynasty. It was under the Khilji dynasty that most of South India was conquered. The territory was never fixed and depended upon the ability of the ruler as to how much was he able to conquer and control. The effectiveness of a ruler during this time depended entirely upon his ability to conquer the places that fell near military highways and trade routes, collect land tax for revenue of the state and have firm authority over military and state governors. Agriculture and its related activities were the main source of livelihood in the kingdom but due to continued political unrest and instability, thepeasants suffered greatly. During this time, Persian language developed to a great extent at the places where power was concentrated.
Mahmud of Ghazni
Ghazni was a small kingdom in
Afghanistan, which was founded
by a Turkish nobleman in the
tenth century. One of its
successors, namely Mahmud
wanted to make Ghazni into a
big and powerful kingdom;
Module 1a: Uttar Pradesh History
Uppcsnotes.in Page 32
therefore, he decided to conquer
a part of Central Asia.
In order to make his large and
powerful army, Mahmud had
needed a huge property; hence,
he decided to attack India to rob
Indian wealth (to accomplish his
great ambition).
The first raid of Mahmud began
in A.D. 1,000. In a short period
of twenty-five years, Mahmud
made seventeen raids.
Meanwhile, he fought battles in
Central Asia and in Afghanistan
as well.
Between A.D. 1,010 and 1025,
Mahmud attacked only on the
temple towns in northern India,
as he had heard that there were
much gold and jewelry kept in
the big temples in India.
One of these attacks, which is
frequently mentioned while
discussing Medieval History,
was the destruction of the
Somnath temple located in
western India.
In 1,030, Mahmud died and the
people of northern India get
relieved. Though Mahmud was
destructor for the Indians, but in
his own country, he was a
builder of a beautiful mosque
and a large library.
Mahmud was the patron of the
famous Persian poet, Firdausi,
who wrote the epic poem ‘Shah
Namah.’
Mahmud sent the Central Asian
scholar Alberuni to India, who
lived here for many years and
had written his experience,
describing the country and the
condition of the people.
Muhammad Ghori
Muhammad Ghori was the ruler
of the Ghor kingdom, a small
kingdom of Afghanistan. He was
the supreme ruler of Ghurid
Empire.
Ghori was more ambitious than
Mahmud, as he was not only
interested in robbing wealth of
India, but also intended in
conquering northern India and
adding it to his kingdom.
Since Punjab had already been a
part of the Ghazni kingdom;
therefore, it made easier to
Ghori to plan India campaign.
Muhammad's most important
campaign in India was against
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Uppcsnotes.in Page 33
the Chauhan ruler, Prithviraj III.
In 1191, Prithviraj defeated
Ghori; this battle is popularly
known as the ‘first battle of
Tarain.’
In 1192, Muhammad Ghori
defeated Prithviraj in the second
battle of Tarin. The defeat of
Prithviraj opened the Delhi area
to Muhammad and he began to
establish his power.
In 1206, Ghori was murdered
and his kingdom in northern
India was left in the control of his
general Qutb-ud-din Aibak.
After Muhammad Ghori’s death,
slave sultans were ruled India.
The Slave Sultans (AD. 1206-1290)
Mamluks were the earliest rulers
of the Delhi Sultanate. They are
also known as the Slave Kings
because many of them were
either slaves or were the sons of
slaves and became Sultans.
The first of the slave kings
was Qutb-ud-din Aibak, who was
the general of Muhammad
Ghori. After the death of Ghori,
Qutb-ud-din stayed in India and
established his kingdom.
The ruler of Ghazni tried to
annex the territory held by Qutb-
ud-din, but he failed. When
lltutmish succeeded Qutbud-din
as Sultan, a separate kingdom
was established in the northern
India, namely Delhi Sultanate.
Over a period of time, the
Sultans of Delhi extended their
control up to Bengal in the east
and Sind in the west.
During the Sultanate period,
there was the problem of the
local Indian rulers who had been
conquered. Sultans had taken
territories of some rulers and
some others were allowed to
keep it.
The rulers who were allowed to
keep their territories paid a sum
of money as a tribute and
agreed to help the Sultan with
military support when required.
Sultanate had also problems
from the north-west, for
example, the rulers of
Afghanistan were quiet, but the
Mongol people of Central Asia,
led by Chenghiz Khan, made
fresh conquests.
The Sultan Iltutmish had faced
the administrative problems.
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Uppcsnotes.in Page 34
However, when he died, his
daughter Raziya became the
sultan and she had to face the
problems.
After Iltutmish, the next important
Sultans was Balban, a strong
and iron-willed Sultan. He was
more successful in solving the
problems than his predecessors.
He defended the Sultanate from
the attacks of the Mongols.
Balban fought against the local
rulers who troubled him. His
biggest problem was the nobles
who had become very powerful
and were threatening the
position of the Sultan. Slowly but
firmly, Balban broke their power
and finally the position of the
Sultan became all-important.
Balban’s success was integrated
into his strategic administrative
policy. He successfully changed
the organization of the army and
curbed the revolt of the nobles.
Balban encouraged people to do
the ‘sijdah’ in his
presence. Sijdah means, people
had to kneel and touch the
ground with their forehead in
salutation to him (Balban).
Sijdah, horrified the orthodox
Muslims. According to Muslims
belief, “all men are equal, and
therefore, no one should do
the sijdah before anyone else
except God.”
Khilji dynasty came
after Mamluks and ruled until A.
D. 1320.
Khilji Dynasty (1290 – 1320)
In 1,290, the Slave Sultans were
succeeded by a new dynasty,
known as Khiljis. Jalal ud din
Firuz Khilji was the founder of
Khilji dynasty.
Alauddin Khilji, who was the
nephew and son-in-law of Jalal-
ud-din was one of the most
ambitious and powerful sultans
of Khilji dynasty. He wanted to
conquer the world (to become
second Alexander).
Alauddin Khilji, when became
sultan, gave presents (of gold) to
the citizens. At the same time,
he also contended that he was a
strong and powerful ruler and
hence, he would deal severely
with anyone who showed signs
of disloyalty.
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Uppcsnotes.in Page 35
Alauddin Khilji raised the land
taxes on the wealthier people of
the Doab (the fertile area
between the Ganga and
Yamuna rivers). Further, he
strictly monitored the revenue,
which the nobles got from their
land and hence, did not allow
them to keep anything, which
was not their due.
The prices of goods were also
closely controlled so that
everyone could afford to pay the
price demanded as well as no
one could make a large profit.
Alauddin Khilji made a new
policy i.e. he ordered a new
assessment of the cultivated
land and the revenue. First, the
land under cultivation (of his
kingdom) was measured. And
the revenue of these lands was
assessed on the basis of the
measurement.
Alauddin Khilji campaigned
against the kingdoms of Gujarat
and Malwa. He tried to establish
his control over Rajasthan by
capturing the famous forts of
Ranthambhor and Chittor.
Under the command of Malik
Kafur, Ala-ud-din sent a large
army towards the south with the
intention to conquer the
peninsula as well as obtain
money and wealth.
Malik Kafur plundered in all
directions and collected a large
amount of gold from the various
kingdoms of the south, including
the Yadavas (of Devagiri),
the Kakatiyas (of Warangal), and
the Hoyasalas (of
Dvarasamudra).
The defeated rulers were allowed
to keep their throne provided
they paid a tribute. Malik Kafur
also conquered the city of
Madurai. By the time, no north
Indian ruler attempted to
penetrate so far in the south
India.
In 1,315, Aladdin Khilji died. After
his death, there was a chaotic
situation for the succession.
Ambitious Malik Kafur made
himself as sultan, but lacked
support from Muslim amirs and
hence, he was killed only after
few months.
By 1,320, three more Khilji
successors assumed power, but
no one sustained rather killed
brutally. Likewise, a new dynasty
namely Tughlaq was founded.
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Uppcsnotes.in Page 36
Tughlaq dynasty came after the
Khilji dynasty and ruled from
A.D. 1320 to 1413.
Tughlaq Dynasty (1320 – 1413)
In 1,320, Ghazi Malik became
the king under the title
of Ghiyath al-Din Tughlaq.
Likewise, the ‘Tughlaq’ dynasty
began.
Muhammad-bin-Tughlaq
Muhammad-bin-Tughlaq (1325-
51), the eldest son and
successor of Ghiyath al-Din
Tughlaq, was one of the most
ambitious and powerful Sultans
of Tughlaq dynasty.
Ibn Battutah, the North African
Arab traveler, came India during
Muhammad-bin-Tughlaq’s
period and he had written the
detailed description of the
Muhammad’s kingdom.
Muhammad was a man of ideals
who attempted as far as
possible, to rule on the principles
of reason. He was a great
knowledgeable mathematician
and a logician.
Muhammad increased the taxes
of the peasants (especially who
were from the Doab area).
However, a famine in the Doab
region made condition worse.
As a result of famine, the people
refused to pay the extra taxes
and rose in rebellion; therefore,
finally, the Sultan had to cancel
his order.
Muhammad also moved the
capital from Delhi to Devagiri
(which he renamed Daulatabad).
As per his strategic plan,
Daulatabad (located nearby
modern Aurangabad in
Maharashtra) was a better place
for controlling the Deccan.
The moving of the capital was,
however, not successful, as it
was too far from northern India,
and hence, the Sultan could not
keep a watch on the northern
frontiers. Therefore, Muhammad
returned the capital back to
Delhi.
Muhammad decided to issue
'token' coins on brass and
copper, which could be
exchanged for silver coins from
the treasury. This scheme would
have worked, if he had
monitored it carefully and
allowed strictly only to the
government body to issue token
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Uppcsnotes.in Page 37
coins. But it did not happen
rather many people started
making brass and copper
‘tokens’ and the Sultan,
therefore, had no control over
the finances. The token coins
had to be withdrawn.
Unfortunately, Muhammad’s
many administrative policies
failed; hence, gradually he lost
the support not only of the
people, but also many of the
nobles and the ulema.
The ulema were the scholars of
Islamic learning who were
generally orthodox in their
outlook.
Firoz Shah Tughlaq
In March, 1351, Muhammad
died. After his death, his
cousin Firoz Shah came to the
throne who ruled till 1388.
Firoz realized that one of the
reasons for the failure of
Muhammad was that he did not
have the support of the nobles.
Therefore, Firoz first established
a friendly relation with them and
made them happy by giving
them, grants or revenue.
Firoz, further, allowed the
orthodox ulema to influence
state policy in certain matters.
Thus Firoz improved his
relationship with the powerful
groups at the court; however, in
spite of all these, the power of
the Sultan decreased.
In the meantime, the governors
of certain provinces, including
Bihar and Bengal, had rebelled
against the Sultanate. Firoz tried
to control them, but was not very
successful.
Firoz was interested in improving
the general welfare of his
subjects. He improved parts of
the kingdom by starting new
irrigation schemes. The Yamuna
Canal was one of his schemes.
Firoz also established a few new
towns, such as Ferozpur,
Ferozabad, Hissar-Firoza, and
Jaunpur.
Firoz also constructed many
educational centers and
hospitals. He was interested in
the ancient culture of India. Firoz
order to translate a number of
Sanskrit books into Persian and
Arabic languages.
Firoz also owned two of the
pillars of the emperor Ashoka
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Uppcsnotes.in Page 38
and one of them was placed on
the roof of his palace.
In September 1388, Firoz died,
after which there was a civil war
among his descendants.
Because of the political
instability, the governors of
many provinces became
independent kings and finally
only a small area around Delhi
remained in the hands of the
Tughluq Sultans.
Sayyid Dynasty (1413 – 1451)
By 1413, the Tughlaq dynasty
ended completely and local
governor occupied Delhi and
given way to Sayyid Dynasty.
In 1398, Timur, the Turkish chief
invaded India and robbed Indian
wealth. While returning back, he
appointed Khizr Khan as the
governor of Delhi.
Khizr Khan had taken Delhi from
Daulat Khan Lodi and founded
Sayyid dynasty in 1414. Sayyid
dynasty ruled Delhi until 1451.
In 1421, Khizr Khan died, hence,
his son Mubarrak Khan
succeeded. Mubarrak Khan
represented himself as ‘Muizz-
ud-Din Mubarak Shah’ on his
coins.
Mubarrak Khan ruled till 1434
and he was succeeded by his
nephew Muhammad Shah.
Muhammad Shah ruled till 1445.
Muhammad succeeded by Ala-
ud-din Alam Sham, who ruled till
1451. In 1451, Bahlul Lodi
became the Sultan and founded
the Lodi dynasty.
Lodi Dynasty came after Sayyid
dynasty and ruled until A.D.
1526.
Lodi Dynasty (1451–1526)
Lodi dynasty was originally from
Afghan who ruled Delhi
Sultanate for about 75 years.
Bahlul Lodi
Bahlul Lodi, who founded the
dynasty and ruled Delhi from
1451 to 1489. After his death in
1489, his second son Sikandar
Lodi succeeded the throne.
Sikandar Lodi
Sikandar Lodi took the title of
Sikandar Shah. It was Sikandar
Lodi who founded Agra city in
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Uppcsnotes.in Page 39
1504 and moved capital from
Delhi to Agra.
Sikandar Lodi, further, abolished
the corn duties and patronized
trade and commerce in his
kingdom.
Ibrahim Lodi
After Sikandar Lodi, Ibrahim Lodi
(the youngest son of Sikandar
Lodi) became sultan. Ibrahim
Lodi was the last ruler of Lodi
dynasty who ruled from 1517 to
1526.
Ibrahim Lodi was defeated by
Babur in 1526, in the first battle
of Panipat and from now Mughal
Empire established.
Lodi Administration
The Lodi kings tried to
consolidate the Sultanate and
attempted to curb the power of
rebellious governor.
Sikandar Lodi who ruled from
1489-1517, controlled the
Ganges valley up to western
Bengal.
Sikandar Lodi moved capital
from Delhi to Agra, as he felt
that he could control his
kingdom better from A gra. He
also tried to strengthen the
loyalty of the people by various
measures of public welfare.
The Nobles
During the sultanate period, the
nobles played a powerful role.
Sometimes, they even
influenced state policy and
sometimes (as governors), they
revolted and became
independent rulers or else
usurped the throne of Delhi.
Many of these nobles were
Turkish or Afghani, who had
settled in India.
Some of the nobles were men
who came to India only in search
of their fortune and worked for
the Sultan.
After Ala-ud-din Khilji, Indian
Muslims and Hindus were also
appointed as officers (nobles).
The Sultan followed the earlier
system of granting the revenue
from a piece of land or a village
to the (noble) officer instead of
paying them salary.
As the power of the Sultanate
gradually declined, the number
of new kingdoms arose in
different parts of the
subcontinent. Most of them
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Uppcsnotes.in Page 40
began as provinces of the
Sultanate, but later became
independent province.
Gurjar Prathihar
Facts related to Uttar Pradesh
The line of Nagabhata ruled first
at Ujjain and later
at Kannauj during the 8th to 11th
centuries.
In the complicated and badly
documented wars of the early 9th
century—involving Pratiharas,
Rastrakutas, and Palas—Nagabhata II played an important
part. About 816 he invaded
the Indo-Gangetic Plain and
captured Kannauj from the local
king Chakrayudha, who had the
protection of the Pala
ruler Dharmapala.
With the power of the
Rastrakutas weakened,
Nagabhata II became the most
powerful ruler of northern India
and established his new capital
at Kannauj.
After the death of Mahendrapala,
the succession is obscure. The
power of the Pratiharas was
apparently weakened by dynastic
strife. It was further diminished
as a result of a great raid from
the Deccan, led by the
Rastrakuta king Indra III, who
about 916 sacked Kannauj.
Their last important
king, Rajyapala, was driven from
Kannauj by Maḥmūd of
Ghazna in 1018 and was later
killed by the forces of
the Chandela king Vidyadhara.
For about a generation longer a
small Pratihara principality
apparently survived in the area
of Allahabad.
Sources of Gurjara Pratiharas’ History
Historians believe that after the
Gupta period, Gurjara Pratiharas
came to India from the central
Asian region and settled in
Rajasthan. Gradually, they
gained political importance.
The bardic tradition of Rajasthan
claims that the Gurjara
Pratiharas, Chalukyas,
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Uppcsnotes.in Page 41
Parmaras, and Chahmanas
were born out of a yajna done at
Mount Abu. Therefore, these
four dynasties are also known
as agnikulas (fire-clans).
The four dynasties of Rajputs
were created for the protection
of the country from external
aggressions.
The literary meaning of Pratihara
is ‘door keeper.’ It is believed
that their ancestor Lakshmana
served as a door keeper to his
brother Rama. Therefore, they
were called as Pratihara.
The geographical name of
Gujarat is supposed to be
derived from Gurjara.
Rulers of Gurjara Pratiharas
The Gwalior inscription
mentioned the early history of
the family. The inscription was
founded by King Bhoja in the
7th century. He was the most
famous king of the Gurjara
Pratiharas dynasty.
Nagabhatta-I was the real
founder of the fame of family. He
defeated the Muslim forces from
the Arabs.
During A.D. 775-800, Vatsaraja
followed an aggressive imperial
policy. He defeated Pala king
Dharmapala of Bengal.
The Rashtrakuta king Dhruva
defeated Vatsaraja and took
away the political benefit of the
defeat of Pala king.
Dharmapala took advantage of
the defeat of Vatsaraja and
installed his own nominee
Chakrayudba on the throne of
Kanauj.
Vatsaraja’s son, Nagabhatta II
(A.D.815) made an alliance with
Andhra, Vidharbha, and Kalinga.
He made extensive preparation
to fight against his rivals.
Nagabhatta II first defeated
Chakrayudha and captured
Kanauj. Then he defeated
Dharmapala and fought with
Govinda-III, the Rashtrakuta
king.
Nagabhatta also defeated Sultan
Vega who was the son of the
governor of Sind under the
Caliph-l Mamun.
Nagabhatta-II was succeeded by
his son Ramabhadra.
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Uppcsnotes.in Page 42
Ramabhadra was succeeded by
his son Bhoja-I about A.D. 836.
Bhoja-I restored the falling
prosperities and reputation of his
dynasty.
A golden opportunity to the king
Bhoja-I was provided by the
death of Devapala of Bengal and
Rashtrakuta's invasion of Bengal
thereafter.
The Rashtrakuta king, Krishna II
was involved in the struggle with
the Eastern Chalukyas.
Bhoja-I defeated Krishna-II and
captured the region of Malwa
and Gujarat.
After victory over two great rivals,
Bhoja-I founded his sovereignty
over the Punjab, Avadh, and
other territories of north India
and consolidated his empire.
Bhoja-I was a devotee of Vishnu,
and adopted the title
of ‘Adivaraha.’ It has been
inscribed in some of his coins.
He is also known by other
names as 'Mihir', 'Prabhasa,' etc.
Bhoja-I was succeeded by his
son Mahendrapala-I about A.D.
885.
Mahendrapala-I also extended
the boundaries of his empire.
During his reign, the Pratihara
Empire stretched almost from
the Himalayas in the north to the
Vindhyas in the south and from
Bengal in the east to Gujarat in
the west.
Mahendrapala-I was also known
as 'Mahendrayudha',
and 'Nirbhayanarendra.' He was
a liberal patron of learned men.
Rajashehara was learned man of
his court. He had
written Karpuramanjari, Bala-
Ramayana, Bala Bharata,
Kavyamimansa, Bhuvana
Kosha, and Haravilasa.
The Pratiharas dynasty
dominated north India for over
two hundred years from the
8th century to the 10th century
A.D.
Arab scholar, Al-Masudi, visited
India in A.D. 915-916.
Al-Masudi mentioned about the
great powers and prestige of the
Pratihara rulers and the
vastness of their empire.
Al-Masudi says that empire of AI-
Juzr (Gurjara) had 1,800,000
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Uppcsnotes.in Page 43
villages, the cities and rural
areas were about 2,000 km in
length and 2,000 km in breadth.
The Rashtrakuta king, Indra-II
again attacked Kanauj between
A.D. 915 and A.D. 918 and
completely destroyed it. This
weakened the Pratihara Empire.
Krishna-III was other
Rashtrakuta ruler invaded north
India in about A.D. 963. He
defeated the Pratihara rulers.
This led to decline of Pratihara
Empire.
The Pratiharas were patrons of
learning and literature.
Rajashekhar (Sanskrit poet) lived
at the court of Mahendrapala-I.
The Pratihara kings were
followers of Hinduism.
They build with many fine
buildings and temples at Kanauj.
The epigraphic records show that
the building of temples and the
educational institutions attached
with them, formed community
projects, in which the entire
village community participated.
Many Indian scholars went to the
court of the Caliph at Baghdad
along with embassies. However,
the names of the Indian kings
are not known who sent these
embassies.
This interaction between India
and Arab led to the spread of
Indian culture, literature, and
science, especially mathematics,
algebra, and medicine to the
Arab world from where these
were further transmitted to
Europe.
Although the Pratiharas were
well known for their aggression
to the Arab rulers of Sindh.
Despite all this, the movement of
scholars and trade between
India and west Asia remained
uninterrupted.
Important Jain sites in Uttar
Pradesh
Shri Ahichchhatra Tirth
Geographic location: It is near the
Ramnagar village of district Bareilly.
Various Jain idols and inscriptions found
during the land excavations tell us about
the historical importance of this
place.This place is known for ages for
the event that took place while
BhagwanParshwanatha attained
‘KevalGyan’ here through deep
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Uppcsnotes.in Page 44
‘Tapashcharan’.In the ancient
Parshvanath Temple, there are 5 Vedis
dedicated toTikhal Baba (black idol of
Lord Parshvanath with engraved
footprints), Lord Parshvanath and Lord
Chandraprabhu (white statues of Lord
Mahavir), Lord Mahaveer, Lord
Parshvanath (white Idol in khandagasan
posture) and a statue of Lord
Sheetalnath.
Shri Ayodhya Tirth
Ayodhya is a famous tirthkshetra in
Eastern Uttar Pradesh. It is located on
Delhi-Luknow-Mughalsarai rail route. It
is about 6 kilometers away from
Faizabad and 139 kilometers away from
Lucknow. There are very ancient
temples belonging to different society
and culture. For Jains the importance of
this place is due to that
BhagwanAdinathji adopted diksa at this
place. After diksa, many times he came
wandering here and his samavasranas
were set here. This holy land is the
birthplace of Bhahubali, Brahmi,
Sundari, King Dashrath,
AcharyaPadaliptasurisvarji, King
Harishchandra, ShriRamchandra,
Achalbhrata, and the ninth Gandhara of
Mahavir Swami and others.
There are four temples, two
Svetambar’s and two Digambar’s
temples. During 1965 an idol of
Bhagawan Rishabhdev 885 centimeters
or 31 feet high in Kayotsarga posture in
RaiganjDigambar temple a really
speculator was installed (Figure 2).
There are Tonks of Bhagwananantnath
Swami Bhagwan Abhinandan Nath,
Bhagwansheetalnath, Bhagwan Ajitnath
and Bhagwan Adinath at Ayodhya.
During a digging project undertaken
twenty-five years age, broken idols of
Jains were found and it is considered
that these pertain to the Maurya period.
Shri Kampilaji Tirth
The tirthkampilaji (kampilapur) village is
situated 10 kilometers away from the
nearest railway station kyamganj. This
comes under the district Farrukabad of
Uttar Pradesh.There are literary
references in Jain scriptures of temples,
which existed even before 6th century
B.C. in Mathura, Kampila and other
places. Temple making appears to have
its start from North India. Kampil, a
small village that has been erased from
the memory of the mankind, is actually a
very important place from historical and
mythological point of view. Two famous
pilgrimage centers of Jains religion i.e.
the Shwetambar Jains temple,
dedicated to the 13th Teerthankar of the
Jains & Digambar Jain temple are also
situated in Kampil. The idol is nearly 60
centimeters in height and black –
colored. This marvelous idol of
Bhagawan Vimlanath is in the
Padmasana Posture (a Digambar
temple) and the other one in Swetambar
temple the idol is 45 centimeters in
height having white color of Bhagawan
Vimalnath in the Padmasana posture. It
is believed that Draupadi, the daughter
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Uppcsnotes.in Page 45
of Drupad, the king of Paanchaal, was
born in Kampil. The sacrificial alter
(Yagyakund) from which Draupadi is
believed to have been born from the fire
of knowledge, is situated in Kampil till
date.
Two famous pilgrimage centers of Jains
religion i.e., the Shwetambar Jain
temple, dedicated to the 13th
Teerthankar of the Jains & Digambar
Jains temple are also situated in Kampil.
Apart from these, there are many old
temples, which prove the historical &
religious importance of Kampil. The
idols of this place belong to the Gupta
Age.
Jain Shrines of Kakandi
The village is called Kuhukan (Kakandi)
where this temple is situated.Jain’s 9th
Tirthankar Lord Pushpdantji was born
here and had his Kalynaka’s of chayan,
births, diksa here. He took his Diksha in
Pushpak-van, meditated for 4 years and
went on a fast. Ultimately he attained
the true light of knowledge, 'The Kewal
Gyan. The nearby villages Kukubh and
Kakandi stand in ruins today, with
several mounds in the vicinity. The local
people call them 'Dedara' which
represent the Jain Devalaya. The place
commands obeisance because four
Kalyanaks of Bhagwan Suvidhinath, the
9thTirthankar of the set of 24 for the
present cycle of time occurred here. A
grey colored Manastambh has also
been found in the forest is known as
Kukubh Van and it is 24 ft. high. King
Samudragupta had this Manastambh
erected in the year 460 A.D.The present
name of this place is Khukkhundu.
Jain Shrines of Kaushambi
This shrine is located on the northern
bank of the Yamuna River some 60
kilometers away from Allahabad in Uttar
Pradesh. Ancient Jain scriptures reveal
that there had been 16 Mahajanpadas in
the 6th century B.C. Vats Desh was one
such Mahajanpada whose capital was
Kaushambi. With the end of the
legendary Hastinapur Kingdom, which is
believed to have been flooded and
destroyed by the river Ganges, the
Chandravanshi kings made Kaushambi
their capital, 22 of their descendants are
said to have ruled from here. The town,
however, got its due importance with the
presence of the 6th Tirthankar
Padmaprabhu, who was born here. His
Kalynaka’s of chayan, births, diksa and
'The Kewal Gyan' took place here.
There is beautiful temple dedicated to
Lord Bhagwan Padmaprabhuji. Apart
from above many ancient idols were
found during excavation, which prove
the historical and religious importance of
this place.
Shri Chandrapuri Teerth
This holy place is on the bank of the
river Ganga near the Chandravati
village. The nearest railway Kadipur is at
a distance of 5 kilometers and Varanasi
is at a distance of 23 kilometers. This is
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Uppcsnotes.in Page 46
the birthplace of Bhagwan
Chandraprabhu the 8thTirthankar. At
this holy place, four kalyanak, Chyavan,
Janam, Deeksha and Kevalgyan, took
place. Both Shwetambar and Digambar
temples are situated at the bank of holy
river Ganga. They are adjusent to each
other and managed by single trust. Shri
Chandraprabh Bhagwan, Swetvarn idol
in padmasan mudra about 45
centimeters in height is placed in each
temple. The pilgrim’s get enlighten in
prayer to Bhagawan, and experience
spiritual peace here.
History of this tirth starts from the period
of 8thTeerthankar Shri Chandraprabh
Bhagwan. Once upon a time, King
Mahasen was the ruler of this place. On
a lucky day his wife Queen Laxmimati
has seen a miraculous nightmare giving
indications of birth of Teerthankar. Right
on that moment, the soul (jeev) of
Padmanabh entered in the kukchhi
(ovary) of Laxmimati. She gave birth to
a son on Poush Krishna 11 in
Anuradhanakshatra. As she desired
moon (Chandra) during her pregnancy,
the newborn child was named As
Chandraprabh. He was married in his
younger days and after ruling many
years he decided to take deeksha.
Prabhu took Deeksha after performing
Varshidaan with eleven thousand kings
on Poush Krishna Teras in
Anuradhanakshatra at Sahasamra Van.
He came to same place after roaming
for three years and started meditation
under a Punnag tree. It was here that
Prabhu attained Kevalgyan on Falgun
Krishna Saptami in Anuradhanakshatra.
The Indra along with many other dev
has organisedsamavasaran on this
occasion. Many Sashtras & TeerthMalas
describe this teerth.
Shri Ratnapuri
It is located on the Ayodhya- Lucknow
national highway, to the west of
Ayodhya near village Ronahi. Ratnapuri
is the birthplace of Lord Dharamnath
and the site of his sacred grove.
Bhagwan Dharamnath had a
Kalyanakas Chyavan, Janam, Tap
(Penance) and Gayan (Knowledge) here
as such it is called a KalyanakKshetra.
There is only one small temple in a
village Rohini where the idol of
Tirthankara Dharamnath of about 25
Centimeters, a very antique one is
placed. There are Shwetambar and
Digambar temples. The footprints of
Bhagwan Shri Dharmanath, blue
colored in Shwetambar temples. The
white colored idol (90 centimeters) of
Bhagwan Shri Dharmanath in
padmasanastha in Digambar Jain
templeis the main attraction of this
place.
Varanasi (Kashi Banaras)
According to the Jain traditions, Kashi
has the honor of being the birth place of
four Tirthankars namely, Bhagwan
Suparshavathji, Chandraprabhji,
Shreansnathji and Parshvanathji. Where
Parshavnathji and Suparshavnathji were
born in Varansai, Bhagwan
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Uppcsnotes.in Page 47
Chandraprabhji was born in Chandrapur
about 15 km away from Varanasi. Shree
Shreansnathji was born in Singhpur
village which is presently known as
Sarnath.
Bhadaini Jain Pilgrimage
The birthplace of the 7thTirthankar Sri
Suparshavnathji was in 'Bhandani'
Muhallah', situated near the banks of the
river Ganga. The place is about 1.5 km.
Away from Bhelupura and known s the
Jainghat'. This place is believed to be
very sacred not only because it was
Lord Sri Suparshvanath's birth place,
but he had his Kalyanakas Chyavan,
Janam, Tap (Penance) and Gayan
(Knowledge) here at present, there is a
white coloured 68 cm high idol placed
here and worshipped by the
shwetambars. On the other hand, a
black idol of 46 cm. height is placed
here and is worshiped by the believers
of Digambar sect.
Bhelupura
This place is also located near the
Varanasi. This is the birthplace of
23rdTirthankar, Lord Sri Parshavnath.
This place has a white stature of 60
centimeter height, which is worshipped
by the believers of Svetambara sect,
and a black idol with a height of 75
centimeters is worshipped by the
believers of Digambara sect.These
temples are definitely worth seeing. This
place is believed to be one of the most
sacred places of pilgrimage for the Jain
devotees. There are number of other
temples belonging to both sects of
Jains.
Singhpuri Teerth
Digambar temple is at a distance of 7
kilometers from Varanasi Chhavani
station situated at Sarnath crossing. The
shwetambar temple is at a distance of 8
kilometers from the station situated in
Hiravanpur Village nearby
Chandravatiteerth is only at a difference
of 15 kilometers. This is an ancient
place widely known for 4 kalyanak of
Shri Shreyansnath Bhagwan 11th
Tirthankar. A huge ashtakod stoop
(octagonal pillar) of 103 feet height is
still present showing its historical
establishment. It is considered to be
2200 years old. The artistic work on it is
unmatched. At present one Shwetambar
Jain temple, a Digambar Jain temple,
one pillar exists there. The White
colored idols of Shri Shreyanshnath
Bhagwan in Padmasanastha 30
centimeters in height, (Shwetambar)
and the other one Blue coloured idol 75
cms of Shri Shreyanshnath Bhagwan in
Padmasanastha, (Digambar) are placed
in the temples. Somenath Bodh temple
also exists here.
Shauripur Tirth
The Shauripur village is on the bank of
the Yamuna River near to railway
station in Agra Fort. It is 2 kilometers
Module 1a: Uttar Pradesh History
Uppcsnotes.in Page 48
from Bateshwar, another Jain Tirth. It
can also be reached from Ferozabad via
Shikohabad. This temple of Shri
Neminath Bhagwan is located at
Shauripur village on the bank of river
Yamuna, about 75 kilometers from
Agara and 25 kilometers from
Shikohabad on the Northern railway.
Shri Neminath was born at this place.
Since this is the land of Chyavan and
birth Kalyanakas of Bhagawan
Neminath, the twenty-second of the 24
Tirthankaras of the present the group,
this is known as a holy Kshetra.
Moreover, this was the lane of
attainment of omniscience and nirvana
of many saints. This was also the
birthplace of Karna the donor. In
addition to Old Jain DigambarMandir,
The Baruamatt and 5 Tonks known as
panchmathi are very impressive and
mentionable. Idols of Bhagawan
Neminathinpadmasana posture are
placed in these temples.
Jain Siddha Kshetra of Mathura
Sri Jambu Swami was born in Champa
and was the son of a rich man, Seth
Rishabhdutt. Even though he was
married at the age of 16, he was
initiated by Lord Mahavir's disciple
Sudhama Swami and lived as a
Brahmachari for the rest of his life. After
20 years of hard penance he attained
the light of true knowledge and was
enlightened at Chaurasi. He is the last
Kewal Gyani of the Jains. A temple has
been built here in his memory and
dedicated to this holiness. This place is
better known as Chawrasi. The present
Main temple has Tirthankar Ajitnath as
main deity with charan of Jambuswami
adorning the main vedi. After
Jambuswami his charan were obtained
and later on temple was built and they
were placed by Mathura samaj. The
mulnayak Ajitnathbhagwanpratima is
really impressive and very beautiful
made of white stone. It was discovered
from Gwalior during some excavation
work of land. There are 9 more vedis in
main temple of Parasnath, Neminath,
Mahavirbhagwan. Two special vedis are
made here of standing karyotsargs
statues of Pratham (first) Kevali
Bahubali swami and Antim (last)
KevaliJambu swami facing each other
adding glory and dignity to temple.
Hastinapur
According to Jain tradition, Hastinapur
was one of the earliest Indian cities like
Ayodhya and Kashi and came into
existence during the time of
Rishabhadeva also known as
Bhagawan Adinatha (the first
tirthankara) whose grandson,
Somaprabha, was the first ruler of the
place. It is also said to be the birthplace
of three Jain tirthankars, Shantinatha,
Kunthnnath and Arahanatha. The
Buddhists say that this city was the
capital of Kururattam. The Mahabharata
also gives the early history of the place,
the founder of which is generally
believed to be King Hastin, fifth in
Module 1a: Uttar Pradesh History
Uppcsnotes.in Page 49
descent from Bharta. It was the capital
of the Kauravas and Pandavas. It is said
to have extended as far as Barnawa in
the west and Puth in the south. At the
time of the Mahabharata War it was in
the heyday of its prosperity which,
however, began to decline thereafter.
The severe floods in the Ganga, which
washed away the city, and the transfer
of the capital of Kaushambi left in
complete obscurity but it was
rehabilitated twice within the next few
centuries though it never achieved its
former glory. Hastinapur is considered
to be the most ancient capital city of
India. Though it has been the venue of
all the politics related to the mahabharat
but it has a history that dates back to the
times of Bhagawan Adinatha. It is said
that after relinquishing his throne
Bhagawan Adinatha entered the life of
an ascetic at this place. The conception,
birth, ordaining and enlightenment of
Lords Shantinath, Kunthunath and
Arahnath had also occurred at this very
place. Hastinapur is said to be the
birthplace of the Tirthankaras
Shantinath, Kunthunath and Aranatha;
their footprints can be seen on a small
hill nearby. Right now there are huge
temples of both the Shwetambar and
the Digambar sects.
Jamboodweep
With the completion of the Jambu-
dweep shrine in 1985, Hastinapur has
become a favorite center for studying
Jaina cosmology and cosmography,
'Jamboodweep' is a special feature of
Hastinapur pilgrimage. It has come up
with the inspiration and keen interest of
ascetic Aryika Jnanmatiji. Apart from
Jamboodweep' there are lotus temple,
meditation temple and Indradhawaj
temples. All these new temples are
worth seeing.
Rishabhanchal Tirth
This new Jain Pilgrimage centre has
been recently established at a village
Morta, which is 8 km. away from
Ghaziabad and 25 km. from Delhi on the
Meerut road. President of India laid
down the foundation stone of this teerth
on 20th October 1991. The main temple
carries the idol of Bhagwan Shri
Rishabh Dev, which is 4.5 feet tall in
white marble, in Padamasan posture.
Rishbhanchal is a grand and big temple,
having 52-kalash and 81 feet high
artistic shikhar and popular as a center
of meditation, yoga, worship and human
welfare. It is a unique religious place. It
is established under the able guidance
of Great Sadhivi Pujjya Bal Bramcharini
Maa Shri Kaushalji and is indicative of
peace and prosperity for this area.
Primary medical services, moral
education, yoga and meditation training,
library and boarding and lodging
facilities are all available here.
political history
Module 1a: Uttar Pradesh History
Uppcsnotes.in Page 50
In ancient times, Uttar Pradesh was
known as the Madhya Desh. Being on
the route of invaders from north-west
and forming part of the rich fertile plain
between Delhi and Patna, its history is
closely linked to the history of north
India. Although not much is known
about its pre and post historic periods,
discovery of arms and implements of
ancient and neo-paleolithic age in
excavations in Mirzapur, Sonebhadra,
Bundelkhand and Sarai Nahar area of
Pratapgarh and of Harappan objects in
Almgirpur in Meerut take us back to
remore antiquity.
Aryan Age
It is only from the Rigvedic age that
some coherent historical account is
found. Initially, the centre of Aryan
colonization in India was Sapta Sindhu
or the region irrigated by seven rivers
(undivided Punjab). The seven rivers
were Sindhu (Indus), Vitasta (Jhelum),
Askini (Chenab), Purushni(Ravi),
Vipasa(Beas), Shatudri (Sutlej) and
Saraswati (now lost in the Rajasthan
desert). More important of the Aryan
clans were Puru, Turvasu, Yadu, Anu
and Druh. These five clans were known
as Panchjan. Besides, there was one
more prominent clan known as Bharat.
Gradually, the Aryans extended their
territory towards the east. The Shatpath
Brahman gives an interesting account of
the victory of Kosal (Awadh) and Videh
(north Bihar) by tej Brahmans and the
Kshatriyas. Expansion of territory saw
the creation of new States (Janpadas)
and emergence of new people and new
centres. The Sapta Sindhu gradually
lost importance and the centre of culture
shifted to the plains between Saraswati
and Ganga ruled by the kingdoms of
Kuru, Panchal, Kashi and Kosal.
S.No
.
Country Capital
1. Kuru (Meerut,
Delhi and
Thaneshwar)
Indraprasth
(Indropal near
Delhi)
2. Panchal
(Bareilly,
Budaun and
Farrukhabad)
Ahichhatra
(Ramnagar near
Bareilly) and
Kampilya
(Farrukhabad)
3. Vats (Area
around
Mathura)
Mathura
4. Vats
(Allahabad
and nearby
area)
Kaushambi
(Kosam near
Allahabad)
5. Kosal
(Awadh)
Saket (Ayodhya)
and Shravasti
(Sahet-Mahet
in Gonda District)
6. Malla (District
Deoria)
Kushinagar
(Kasia) and Pawa
(Padrauna)
Module 1a: Uttar Pradesh History
Uppcsnotes.in Page 51
7. Kashi
(Varanasi)
Varanasi
8. Ang
(Bhagalpur)
Champa
9. Magadh
(South Bihar)
Girivraj (Rajgraha
-Rajgiri near
Bihar-Sharif)
10. Vajji (District
Darbhanga
and
Muzaffarpur)
Mithila, Janakpur,
(on Nepal border)
and Vaishali
(Basra in
Muzaffarpur
district)
11. Chedi
(Bundelkhand
)
Shuktimati
(Probablynear
Banda)
12. Matsya
(Jaipur)
Virat (near
Jaipur)
13. Ashmak
(Godawari
valley)
Pandanya (Place
not known)
14. Avanti
(Malva)
Ujjaini (Ujjain)
15. Gandhar
(north-west
region, now in
Pakistan)
Taxshila (near
Rawalpindi)
16. Kamboj Rajapur (place
not known)
The entire region extending up to
Prayag in the east bore the name of
Madhya Desh. Modern Uttar Pradesh
corresponds to this region. It was
considered sacred in Hindu mythology
as Gods and heroes, whose deeds are
recorded in the Ramayan and
Mahabharat, lived here. To be the most
cultured Aryans as their speech formed
the norm and their conduct was
prescribed as the model. They were fully
conversant with rituals and could
worship and sacrifice without any flaw or
fault.
Out of the above 16 States, eight (at
serial number 1-7 and 11) were in
present Uttar Pradesh. More known
among them were Kashi, Kosal and
Vatsa. Besides these, certain republic
states were also within the boundries of
present Uttar Pradesh example: Shakya
state of Kapilvastu, Bhagga state of
Samsumergiri and Malla state of
Pawapuri and Kushinagar.
Just Before Christ
All the States were perpetually at war
with each other. Kosal annexed Kashi
and Avanti grabbed Vatsa. Kosal and
Avanti, in turn, were subjugated one by
one by Magadha which became
powerful in the entire region. Magadh
was ruled in succession by Haryank,
Shishunag and Nand dynasties. The
Nandas ruled from 343 B.C. to 321 B.C.
The Nand Empire extended almost to
the whole of India except Punjab and
Module 1a: Uttar Pradesh History
Uppcsnotes.in Page 52
probably Bengal. It was during their
reign that the Alexander invaded India in
326 B.C. Several historians are of the
view that the apprehension, that they
will not be able to face the forces of the
powerful Magadh State, was at the root
of Alexander's forces not advancing
beyond Beas river, which compelled him
to go back. With Alexander's retreat,
India witnessed a great revolution. As a
result the Nand rulers had to give reins
of power to Chandragupta, a scion of
the Kshatriya clan "Moriya" of
Pippalivana. The whole of Uttar Pradesh
enjoyed peace and prospeity during the
reigns of Chandragupta, his son
Bindusara and grandson Ashok.
For long, Mathura remained a prominent
city of Menander's empire.Menander or
Milind ruled up to about 145 B.c. Later
on, small Indo-Greek and Greek states
flourished in Punjab up to the first
century of Chistain era. During this
period the Shung dynasty was replaced
by the danasty in Magadh. It is said that
the last king of Shung dynasty was of
bad character and he was killed by his
minister Vasudev. Vasdev established
Kanva dynasty in 75 B.C. by Simuk, the
founder of the Satavahana or the
Andhra Dynasty. It was at this time that
the attention of Central Asian rulers was
drawn towards India for the first time. By
60 B.C. they had set up their
Kashatraps in Mathura. The first Saka
king was Maues who died around 38
B.C. After the Sakas, the Parthians
attacked north India and by the
beginning of first century A.D. they
started defeating the Sakas. The
Kushanas also mounted an attack
around 40 A.D. The Kushanas too were
one of the five Yueh-Chih castes of
Central Asia. Soon the Kushanas rulers
established their empire right from
Central Asia up to the Indus river.
Gradually, They occupied the whole of
north India.
Kushan Dynasty
The Kushan dynasty was established by
Kujul Kadphises I. His son and
sucessor, Vim Kadphises or Kadphises
II had come upto the Ganga valley. His
sucessor, Kanishk was doubtlessly the
greartest among all Kushan
rulers.Stories of war which Kanishk
fought with the king of Soked (Saket)
have been preserved in the accounts of
Chinese and Tibetan historians and
several inscriptions and coins found in
excavations in extensive parts of Uttar
Pradesh indicate that this territory was
at sometime part of the Kushan empire.
Mathura was at that time a well known
centre of art.
The reign of Kanishk and genealogy of
Kushan rulers are uncertain. Some
scholars are of the view that Kanishk
ascended the throne in 78 AD, while
some others are of the view that
Kanishk ruled between 120 and 140 AD.
His capital was Purushpur of Peshawar
and other capital was in Mathura.
Gandhar, Kashmir and basins of Indus
and Ganga Valleys came under his
kingdom. After Kanishk his son Huvishk
Module 1a: Uttar Pradesh History
Uppcsnotes.in Page 53
succeeded to the throne and was
followed by his son.Vasudev.The empire
of the Kushanas was greatly reduced
during Vasudev's rule and after him
disintegrated and split into several small
border kingdoms. With the approach of
third century AD, the Kushan
sovereignty in Madhya Desh had
collapsed and a number of smaller
states had once again sprung up in the
place. Although the names of some of
them are still preserved in the pillar
inscription of Samudragupta (4th
century AD) at Allahabad, the most
powerful dynasty to rule north India
during this period was of the Nagas.
Another sect of the Nagas, the
Bharshivas also rose to power during
this period. An idea of their power and
the extent of their empire can be had
from the fact that they performed ten
ashwamedh Yajnas and were anointed
with sacred water brought from the
Ganga for their coronation.
The history of the period from the middle
of the second century up to the rise of
the Gupta rulers in the 4th century is
very febulous. The Kushanas were
losing power and several smaller states
has once again started establishing their
suverainty. The Panchalas of Ahichhatra
had a powerful kingdom which probably
extended upto Mathura. The entire area
comprising Kumaon and Garhwal and
probably extending upto Kulu and Simla
hills formed the kingdom of the
Kunindas. The remains found in
Kashipur and various places in Terai
show that it was an important and
powerful kindgom. After the decline of
the Kushan power, Kaushambi (Kosam
near allahabad) probably became
independent. A local dynasty reled over
Magadh and subsequently the Guptas
also emerged from this very region.
The Gupta Dynasty and its Downfall
With the accession of Harsha, the ruling
dynasty of Thaneshwar and Kannuaj
joined hands. Kannauj became a major
city of north India. For centuries, it
enjoyed the same prestige which
Patalipurta had enjoyed earlier.
Because of its grandeur and prosperity,
it was known as 'Mahodaya Shri' and its
possession became the goal of
successive Hindu rulers after Harsha
(i.e. after 647 AD). The Chinese
trabveller, Yuan-Chwang, who visited
the country at that time, has given a
vivid description of Kannauj. After
Harsha, north India was once again
thrown in turmoil. It is not possible to
construct a coherent history of the
period on the basis of available material.
Only a few events can be narrated.
Age of Instability
During the first quarter of 8th century
AD, Yashovarman established away
over Kannauj. He overran almost the
whole of India and once again made
Kannauj a city of splendour. In alliance
with Lalitaditya Muktapid of Kashmir, he
also sent his army into Tibet and
Module 1a: Uttar Pradesh History
Uppcsnotes.in Page 54
attained substantial success also but
later on Lalitadity dethroned and killed
him in 740AD. During the reign of later
Ayudh rules, Kannauj became a bone of
contention betwen Palas of Bengal,
Rashtrakuts of south and Gurjar
Pratihars of western India but ultimately
the Gurjar Pratihars were successful.
The empire that they established was in
no way inferior to the empires of any
Gupta in its extend and fame. The
Gurjar Pratihars held sway over north
India during the whole of the 9th and
10th centuries. They were vanquished
by Mahmud of Ghazni in 1018-19 AD.
The Chandel rulers of Jejak-Bhukti of
present bundelkhand successfully met
the onslaught of Mahmud of Ghazni,
thanks to their fortress at Kalinjar. Two
Chandel rulers, Dhang and Vidyadhar
played a glorious role in the wars with
invaders.
After the decline of Pratihars, anarchy
once again gripped madhya Desh but
rise of Gaharwars at the time helped in
restoration of peace and order and a
new era a prosperity began in theregion.
The two prominent Gaharwar Rulers
were Govind Chandra (1104-1154 AD)
and Jaichandra (1170 -1193 AD). Due
to short-singhtedness of Jaichandra,
Chauhan king Prithvaraj III had to face
defeat at the hands of Mahammad Ghori
at the Battle of Taran in 1192 AD and he
himself was defeated and slain at
Chhandwar in Etawah next year. Soon,
Meerut, Koil (Aligarh), Asani, Kannauj
and Varanasi also fell victims to
invaders. Though the Chandel ruler
Parmardidew (Veer Parmal of folk-lore)
was defeated in a battle with Qutub-ud-
din Aibak in 1203 AD, the Chandels
later retrieved the situtaion and
continued to rule Jeijak-Bhukti, albeit
with reduced territory for over about two
centuries. Similarly, the distant north hill
region also remained safe from the
invaders.
Muslim Rulers of Delhi:
Qutub-ud-din Aibak ascended the
throne of Delhi in 1206 AD and founded
the Slave dynasty. The Slaves and after
them, the Khilijis and Tughlaqs gradually
extended the frontiers of Delhi
Sultanate. The present Uttar Pradesh
formed part of their empires. Although
Sambhal, Kara and Budaun were given
to important feudal lords but by and
large the entire State continued to
oppose the Sultans of Delhi. The names
of Katehar, Kampil, Bhojpur and Patiali
stand out prominently in this context.
The history of Madhya Desh in 13th and
14th centuries is a saga of brave
resistance and barbaric repression stray
glimpses of which are found in the
works of contemporary historians. Even
before the beginning of the end of this
period, the empire of Tughlaqs of Delhi
had started to disintegrate and in 1394
AD. an independent State was
established in the eastern part of this
region. It was the Sharqi empire which
was foundedin Jaunpur by Malik Sarvar
Khwajajahan, a rebel Governor of the
Tughlaq ruler. The Sharqi rulers
constantly contended with the Sultans of
Module 1a: Uttar Pradesh History
Uppcsnotes.in Page 55
Delhi for 84 long years and did not
accept Delhi's suzerainty over Kannauj
and border districts.
Four years after the secession of
Jaunpur i.e., in 1398 AD, a Chughtai
Turk of Samarkand known as Timur of
Taimur Lang or Tamerlane, invaded
India. Though the brunt of Taimur's
barbarism was mainly borne by Delhi
and Punjab, the Doab region also did
not escape it. For instance, meerut,
Harwar and Katehar had to go through a
bitter experience of the invasion.
Taimur's invasion brought the Tughlaq
rule to an end. The last Tughlaq ruler,
Mohamamed Tughlq died in 1412 AD
heralding the end of the Tughlaq
dynasty in Delhi. The Syeds and the
Lodies ruled over the remnants of the
Delhi empire from 1414 AD to 1526 AD,
but most of the Doab continued to be
under several Hindu and Muslim
chieftains. An important event of the
contemporay history was that Sikandar
Lodi made Agra his sub-capital.
The Mughal Period
Babar defeated Ibrahim Lodi, the last of
the Lodi rulers at the Battle of Panipat in
1526 AD and occupied Agra, But even
after this, the Afghans continued their
resistance in the Ganga valley and
Sambhal, Jaunpur, Ghazipur, Kalpi,
Etawah and Kannauj had surrendered
only after a bitter fight. Babar founded
the Mughal empire but his son Humayun
had to face a crushing defeat at the
hands of Afghan chief Sher Shah. The
main battlefield in the war between the
Mughals and Sher Shah were Chunar,
Chausa and Bilgram. Sher Shah himself
was killed in 1545 AD fighting the
Chandels in his bid to occupy the
famous Kalinjar fort. With the death of
Sher Shah, a luminous star on the
horizon of Mediaeval history had set.
After this, a series of important events
took place.
Humayun ascended the throne once
again and after his death the second
battle of Panipat was fought. Akbar
ascended the throne in 1556 AD
ushering in a new era in Indian history. It
was an era of peace, prosperity and
strong administration, of liberalism and
integration of Hindu and Muslim
cultures. This process of integration
continued during the period of his
successors, Jahangir and Shahjahan.
As contemporary Muslim historians
observe, the role of Uttar Pradesh in
taking 'Hindustan' to the pinnacle of
progress, prosperity and glory was
significant. Two famous ministers of
Akbar, namely Birbal and Todermal,
belonged to Uttar Pradesh. Agra
continued to be the capital of the
Mughal empire till Shahjahan shifted the
capital to Delhi. The reversal of this
liberal policy by Aurangzeb was a great
setback to the Mughal empire. Within a
few decades of his death, the mighty
Mighal empire was finished. Even during
his life time, Bundelkhand had sounded
the siren of revolt under Veer
Chhatrasal. This war of Bundelas was
fought intermittantly for 50 years and
Chhatrasal had to accept help of
Module 1a: Uttar Pradesh History
Uppcsnotes.in Page 56
Peshwa Bajirao which helped the
Marathas to get a foothold in Uttar
Pradesh.
In Avadh the local governor, Saadat Ali
Khan declared independenace in 1732
AD and his successors continued to rule
up to 1850 AD. Almost simultaneously
the Rohillas also established an
independent State in Rohilkhand and
continued to rule up to 1774 AD, when
the then Nawab of Avadh defeated them
with the help of East India Company.
The Marathas tried for sometime to
establish themselves in the Ganga-
Yamuna Doab, but their defeat at
Panipat in 1761 AD put an end to their
expansionist ambitions.
Nawabs of Avadh
The British East India Company came
into contact with the Avadh rulers
during the reign of the third Nawab of
Avadh, Shuja-ud-daula (1754-1775
AD). Shuja-ud- daula had entered into
an alliance with Mir Qasim, the fugitive
Nawab of Bengal, against the
Company, In 1784. Mir Qasim was
defeated by the British and was forced
to cede Kara and Allahabad. Thereafter
the Britishers pursued a policy to
usurpe large territories by coercing the
rulers of Avadh at one time and cajoling
them at the other.The territories
obtained from the Nawabs in
1775,1779 and 1801 AD and those won
by Lord Lake from the Scindia in 1803
AD were initially attached to the Bengal
province and were named as
Conquered and Ceded Provinces.
In 1816 AD, the districts of present
Kumaon, Garhwal and Dehra Dun were
taken from the Gurkha invaders under
the Treaty of Sanguli and annexed to
British territories. The large territory thus
formed was made an administrative unit
called the North-Western Provinces in
1836 AD. Pursuing a policy of annexing
States, Lord Dalhousie ultimately
annexed Avadh in 1856 AD and placed
it under a Chief Commissioner. The last
Nawab of Avadh, Wajid Ali Shah was
externed to Calcutta and put on a
pension. At the same time Jhansi was
also annexed by the British
First War of Independence and After
The relations between the Nawabs and
the East India Company remind us of
the weaknesses of the Nawabs on the
one hand and arrogance, might and
betrayal on the part of the British on the
other. When the British usurped Avadh,
it was but natural that there should be a
ravolt at the national level. It happened
in 1857 A.D. In this revolt, which was, in
effect, the first war of Indian
independance, the people of Uttar
Pradesh played a glorious role. The
sense of duty and dedication to the
cause of freedom displayed in this
historic struggle by Rani Lakshmi Bai of
Jhansi, Begum Hazrat Mahal of Avadh,
Bakht Khan, Nana Saheb, Maulvi
Ahmadullas Shah, Raja Beni Madhav
Module 1a: Uttar Pradesh History
Uppcsnotes.in Page 57
Singh, Azimullas Khan and a host of
other patriots have made them immortal.
In 1858 AD, the Delhi Division was
taken out from the North-Western
Provinces and the State's capital was
shifted from Agra to Allahabad. On
November 1, the same year, political
power was tranferred from East India
Company to Queen Victoria through a
Royal Proclamation. In 1877 AD, the
posts of Lt. Governor of North-Western
Provinces and Chief Commissioner of
Avadh were merged. From then, this
large territory was called North Western
Provinces of Agra and Avadh. The
name was again changed in 1902 AD to
United Provinces of Agra and Avadh. It
was made a Governor's province in
1921 AD and after some time its capital
was shifted to Lucknow. Its name was
shortened to United Provinces in 1937
AD. About two and a half years after
independance i.e. January 12, 1950, it
got its present name of Uttar Pradesh.
When the Constitution of free India
came into force on January 26, 1950,
Uttar Pradesh became a full-fledged
province of the Republic of India. There
is not doubt the the history of Uttar
Pradesh has run concurrently with the
history of the country during and after
the British rule, but it is also well know
that the contribution of the people of the
State in National Freedom Movement
had been significant.
Pre Medival History
Harsha or Harshvardhana (590-647)
ruled Northern India for over forty years.
He was the son of Prabhakar Vardhan
and younger brother of Rajyavardhan,
king of Thaneshwar. At the height of his
power his kingdom spanned the Punjab,
Bengal, Orissa and the entire Indo
Gangetic plain.
As a consequence to the coronation of
Harshavardhana, dynasty of
Thaneshwar and Kannauj
amalgamated. Kannauj became a
prominent city of North India and for
centuries its glory perpetuated, only
comparable to Patliputra. It was the
desire of every state to rule kannauj.
The Chinese traveler, Yhan-Chawang
visited the country at the time of Harsha
and praised his reign.
After Harsha, there was again political
instability in North India. It was difficult
to put on record and congruous and
consistent history of that period on the
basis material available. Only few
events, here and there can be reckoned.
In the first quarter of the 8th century,
Yashoverman established his
supremacy over Kannauj. Almost entire
India came under his rule and Kannauj
regained its lost fame and glory. With
the co- operation of Lalitaditya
Muktapeed he defended India from
Arab’s attack. During that time there
was a fear among the neighbouring
states due to the Arab’s strength by
which they ruled from China, Turkistan
to Carboda city of Spain.
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Later on, Lalitaditya dethroned and
assassinated him in 740 AD. There was
a long drawn rivalry among Pals of
Bengal, Rashtrakutas of South and
Gurjar Pratihars of Gujarat to gain the
control of Kannauj. However the
ultimate success was achieved by the
Gurjar Pratihars. Their empire was vast
and famed one, comparable to any king
of the Gupta dynasty or emperor
Harshavardhan. Gurjar Pratihars
dominated the entire 9th and 10th
centuries in India. They were defeated
by Mohammad Ghaznavi in the year
1018-18.
The Madhyadesh was again in the grip
of anarchy with the downfall of
Pratihars, but with the emergence of
Gaharwar dynasty peace and order was
restored and a new era of prosperity
began. There were two Gaharwar kings-
Govind Chandra and Jaichand. It was
the betrayal of Jaichand that Prithviraj
was defeated at the hands of
Muhammad Ghori at the Tarain in the
year 1192. Jaichand himself was later
on defeated and killed at Chandwar
(Etawah). There was further unrest and
invasions continued till the Chandels
came to rule. They ruled more than two
centuries and brought peace and order.
Shung and Kanwa dynasty
Facts related to Uttar Pradesh
The coins found in excavations have indicated that entire Uttar Pradesh was ruled by Shung
dynasty in 1 century BC or even thereafter.
The stone inscriptions of Ayodhya are related to Shung dynasty.
SUNGA EMPIRE(187 to 78 BCE)
Pushyamitra Sunga(187–151 BCE):
The dynasty was established by Pushyamitra Sunga, after the fall of the Maurya Empire(when the emperor Brhadratha, the last of the Mauryan rulers, was assassinated by the then Senapati of the Mauryan armed forces, Pushyamitra Sunga). Its capital was Pataliputra, but later emperors such as Bhagabhadra also held court at Besnagar, modern Vidisha in Eastern Malwa.
The empire of Pushyamitra was
extended up to Narmada in the
south, and controlled Jalandhar
and Sialkot in the Punjab in the
north-western regions, and the
city of Ujjain in central India. The
Kabul Valley and much of the
Punjab passed into the hands of
the Indo-Greeks and the Deccan
to the Satavahanas.
Origin:
Patanjali in his Mahabhashya and Panini in his Ashtadhyayi clearly states Pushyamitra Sunga was a Brahmin from Bhardwaj Gotra.
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The meaning of “Sunga” is the fig tree in Sanskrit. So Sungas took their dynastic name from the fig tree. (Other example of Indian dynasties like Kadamba (a tree name) of Banavasi, Pallava(Sanskrit word for “branch and twig”) of Kanchi who took their dynastic name from tree.)
Prosecution of Buddhists
It believed by some historians to have persecuted Buddhists and contributed to a resurgence of Brahmanism that forced Buddhism outwards to Kashmir, Gandhara and Bactria.
The earliest reference to persecution of Buddhists by Pushyamitra Sunga is from the Sarvastivadin Buddhist text of 2nd Century CE, Divyavadana and its constituent part, the Ashokavadana.Tibetan Buddhist Historian Taranatha also mentions proscution.
Pushyamitra Sunga might have withdrawn royal patronage of Buddhist institutions. With patronage shifting from Buddhism to Brahmanism, the Buddhists sided with Sunga’s enemies, the Indo-Greeks.
According to some historians, Pushyamitra Sunga prosecuted Buddhists because:
1. There is evidence of damage to Buddhist establishments at Takshashila around the time of Sunga.
2. Sanchi stupa was destroyed by Pushyamitra Sunga, but later
restored by his successor Agnimitra.
3. The Bharhut Stupa gateway was not constructed during the time of Pushyamitra Sunga, but was constructed by his successors who had a more tolerant attitude to Buddhism, compared to Pushyamitra Sunga.
4. The destruction of Ghositarama monastery at Kaushambi, in 2nd century CE, is attributed to Pushyamitra Sunga.
5. Deokothar Stupas (located between Sanchi and Barhut) suffered destruction during the same period, also suggesting some kind of involvement of Sunga rule.
Some historians have expressed skepticism of Pushyamitra’ s persecution of Buddhists because:
1. The account of the Tibetan Buddhist Historian Taranatha is absurd.
2. Archaeological evidence casts doubt on the claims of Buddhist persecution by Pushyamitra.
3. The Ashokavadana legend is likely a Buddhist version of Pushyamitra’s attack on the Mauryas, reflecting the declining influence of Buddhism in the Sunga Imperial court. The very same Ashokavadana attributes similar cruelty to Ashoka against the Ajivikas.
4. Support of Buddhism by the Sungas at some point is suggested by an epigraph on the gateway of Bharhut, which mentions its erection “during the supremacy of the Sungas(but
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they may be Pushyamitra’s Successor)
5. The existence of Buddhism in Bengal in the Sunga period can also be inferred from a terracotta tablet that was found at Tamralipti.
Sunga Dynasty ended, Buddhism flourished under the Kushanas and the Shakas; and hence Buddhism did not suffer any real set-back due to the Sunga Dynasty.
Agnimitra(149–141 BCE):
He was the second King of the Sunga Dynasty of northern India. He succeeded his father, Pushyamitra Sunga.
He was hero of Kalidasa’s play Malavikagnimitra. According to Kalidasa in the Malavikagnimitra, Agnimitra belonged to the Baimbika family (Baimbika-kula), while the Puranas mention him as a Sunga.
The Malavikagnimitra, informs us that , a war broke out between the Sungas and neighboring Vidarbha kingdom during Agnimitra’s reign. Before the rise of the Sungas, Vidarbha(under Yajnasena) had become independent from the Mauryan Empire. Yajnasena was defeated and recognized the suzerainty of the Sunga rulers.
Vasumitra:
In the Malavikagnimitram, Kalidasa tells us that Vasumitra guarded the sacrificial horse let loose by his grandfather
Pushyamitra, and he defeated the armies of the “Yavana” (or Indo-Greeks) on the banks of the Sindhu River.
Devabhuti (83–73 BCE):
The last of the Sunga emperor was Devabhuti (83–73 BCE). He was assassinated by his minister (Vasudeva Kanva).The Sunga dynasty was then replaced by the subsequent Kanvas.
Cultural contributions of Sungas:
Art, education, philosophy, and other learning flowered during this period. Most notably, Patanjali’s Yoga Sutras and Mahabhasya were composed in this period.
It is also noted for its subsequent mention in the Malavikaagnimitra. This work was composed by Kalidasa in the later Gupta period, and romanticized the love of Malavika and King Agnimitra, with a background of court intrigue.
Artistry on the subcontinent also progressed with the rise of the Mathura school of art, which is considered the indigenous counterpart to the more Hellenistic Gandhara school of art.
During the historical Sunga period (185 to 73 BCE), Buddhist activity also managed to survive somewhat in central India (Madhya Pradesh) as suggested by some architectural expansions that were done at the stupas of Sanchi and Barhut, originally started under Emperor Ashoka. It
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remains uncertain whether these works were due to the weakness of the control of the Sungas in these areas, or a sign of tolerance on their part.
Later Sunga emperors were seen as amenable to Buddhism and as having contributed to the building of the stupa at Bharhut.
Kanva dynasty(75 BCE – 30 BCE):
The Kanva or Kanvayana Dynasty replaced the Sunga dynasty in Magadha, and ruled in the Eastern part of India.
Vasudeva Kanva (75–66 BCE) was the founder of the Kanva dynasty.He was originally an Amatya (minister) of last Sunga ruler Devabhuti.
The Kanvas were Brahmins and considered themselves as descendents from Rishi Kanva.
At the time of Vasudeva Kanva’s accession, the Shunga kingdom was already finished as the Punjab region was under the Greeks and most parts of the Gangetic planes was under different rulers.
Magadha was ruled by four Kanva rulers.Much detail about these kings has been ascertained only on the basis of Numismatics. Last ruler was Susharman (40 – 30 BCE).
Their dynasty was brought to an end by the ruler of the Satavahana Dynasty or
‘Andhra bhritya’ dynasty in Amaravati, Andhra Pradesh.
The Chandelas
Facts related to Uttar Pradesh
Yashovarman, also known as
Lakshavarman, was a king of
the Chandela dynasty of India.
He ruled in the Jejakabhukti
region (Bundelkhand in present-
day Madhya Pradesh and Uttar
Pradesh).
The Khajuraho inscription also
states that Yashovarman turned
the
rivers Ganga and Yamuna into
his "pleasure-lakes", and that the
waters of these rivers became
muddy when his might elephants
bathed in them. This suggests
that Yashovarman controlled the
area around present-
day Allahabad.
The Chandelas initially ruled as
feudatories of
the Pratiharas of Kanyakubja (Ka
nnauj).
From the ninth century to the 13th
century, the Chandelas ruled over
central India. Their first capital city was
Khajuraho, which was later shifted to
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Mahotsava Nagar or Mahoba. They are
regarded to be Chandravanshi; i.e., the
descendents of Soma (Sanskrit literal
meaning: moon). The roots of Chandela
Rajput can be traced to Sapai, which
was popularly known as Samapada
Nagar. The title given to them was Rao.
They are the only hereditary title holders
of Kanpur district. After the Muslim
invasion the royals resided in Sapai. It
was also called Sampada Nagar.
The kingdom of the Chandels of
Khajuraho were always a part of this
large empire of the Gurjara Pratiharas,
the extent of which varied with the
fortunes of the kings. The Chandel
rulers for about hundred years that is,
from Nannuk till Harsh Dev, were but
vassals of the Pratiharas. They
proclaimed themselves independent
when the Pratihara empire weakened
and disintegrated. Earlier, the Pratiharas
helped the Chandels and other kings of
the region in defending the country from
the aggression of Muslim invaders from
the Middle East. This collective defence
against the invaders rendered security
in the region which created favourable
circumstances for encouraging art and
culture.
The founder of the Chandel dynasty,
Nannuk was the ruler of a small
kingdom. According to inscriptions, he
was the chief of his clan in the first
quarter of the ninth century. Epigraphic
records show that Khajuraho, then
called Khajuravatika -Bearer of Dates or
Khajuravatika – Garden of Dates, was
the stronghold of Nannuk and his
people. Later on, his descendants linked
their lineage with the Moon or with
Chandratreya of the legend, in order to
attribute some divine links to the origin
of their dynasty. Vakapati succeeded his
father Nannuk during the second quarter
of the ninth century.
The celebrated Gurjar king, Mihir Bhoja
was his contemporary. Samrat Mihir
Bhoj had to fight many battles against
his two enemies, the Devapala of
Bengal and Kokal, the Kalchuri king.
Vakapati the ruler of Khajuraho, had to
often assist Pratiharas in the battle field,
because he was a vassal of the
Pratiharas. The inscription mention the
Vindhya Hills, one of the frequent places
of warfare, as the pleasure mount
(Krida-giri) of Vakapati. It can be
inferred on the basis of this inscription
that Vakapati managed to extend his
territory so as to include some hills of
the Vindhyas, Jaishakti and Vijayshakti,
the two sons of Vakapti, succeeded him,
one after the other. Both the princes
were strong and valorous and annexed
considerable territories to their kingdom.
Jaishakti, the elder brother who ruled
first, was also called Jai Jak and from
this name the region ruled by the
Chandelas acquired the name of
Jaijikbhukti. He was succeeded on the
throne by his younger brother,
Vajaishakti. According to Khajuraho
inscriptions, Vijaishakti fought many
battles and subjugated a number of
neighbouring areas. The exploits and
deeds of bravery of Jai and Vijai are
oftern sung in ballands as if the two
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were joint rulers. Nannuk, Jai and Vijai
over a period of time added large
chunks of adjoining territories to their
domain, and whatever was their status
viz a viz the Palas of Bengal and
Pratiharas their overlords, they always
were the master of the land they held.
Rahil, the son of Vijaishakti, ascended
the throne after him.
The village Rahilya which is 3 km south
west of Mohaba was named after him.
There he also built a tank known as
Rahilyasagar and a temple on its banks,
which is now in ruins. The period of rule
of Rahil is said to be of only twenty
years and is credited to the end of the
ninth century. He was succeeded by his
son Harshdev around 900 AD.
Harshdev earned for himself a
memorable place in the history of
Chandel rulers. In the 25 years or so of
his rule, he extended his territory and
enhanced the prestige of his dynasty.
He was the first Chandel prince whose
power was to be reckoned with in those
times.
The Chauhans
Origins
According to the Rajput bards, Chauhan
is one of the four Agnikula or 'fire
sprung' clans who were created by the
Gods in the anali kund or 'fountain of
fire' on Mount Abu to fight against the
Asuras or demons. Chauhan is also one
of the 36 ruling races of the Rajputs.
Agnikula origin was perpetuated by
Raso from the 16th century onwards.
Chauhan gotracharya: Samved,
Somvansh, Madhyandini Shakha,
Gotracharya is used for marriage
relationship and has not changed from
time immemorial. Chauhans are termed
as Agnivanshi khstriyas.
History
According to the Rajput bards the
Chauhan is one of the four Agnikula or
'fire sprung' tribes who were created by
the gods in the Agni kund or 'fountain of
fire'on Mount Abu to fight against the
Asuras or demons. There was an Asur
Named Dhunda at Mount Abu. All
Rajputs of the world were unable to kill
him. Then Guru Vashistha make a
Yagya at Mount Abu. In the agni of that
Yagya 4 Rajputs took Birth Ist was
solanki, 2nd was Parmar ,3rd was
parihar but those 3 were also unable to
kill asur Dhundha. Then 4th birth from
that Kund Was Anhil, his name was
Anhil, Guru Vashishtha take the 4
Swear from Anhil those were Satya,
Dharm,Karm & Daya, those were 4
Aans for Anhil So he named as The
follower of charaans ie. Chauhan.The
Anhil killed that Asur Dhundha & free
the Earth from Asurs. Chauhan is also
one of the 36 ruling races of the
Rajputs. Chauhans were mainly used as
foot soldiers in many battles due to their
huge population.
The Chauhan dynasty flourished from
the 8th to 12th centuries AD. It was one
of the four main Rajput dynasties of that
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era, the others being Pratiharas,
Paramaras and Chalukyas. Chauhan
dynasties established themselves in
several places in North India and in the
state ofGujarat in Western India. They
were also prominent at Sirohi in the
southwest of Rajputana, and at Bundi
and Kota in the east. Inscriptions also
associate them with Sambhar, the salt
lake area in the Amber (later Jaipur)
district (the Sakhambari branch
remained near lake Sambhar and
married into the ruling Gurjara-Pratihara,
who then ruled an empire in Northern
India). Chauhans adopted a political
policy that saw them indulge largely in
campaigns against the Chalukyas and
the invading Muslim hordes. In the 11th
century they founded the city of
Ajayameru (Ajmer) in the southern part
of their kingdom, and in the 12th century
captured Dhilika (the ancient name of
Delhi) from the Tomaras and annexed
some of their territory along the Yamuna
River. Prithviraj III has become famous
in folk tales and historical literature as
the Chauhan king of Delhi who resisted
the Muslim attack in the First Battle of
Tarain (1191). Armies from other Rajput
kingdoms, including Mewar assisted
him. However, Prithviraj was defeated in
the Second Battle of Tarain the following
year. This failure ushered in Muslim rule
in North India in the form of the Slave
Dynasty, the first of the Delhi
Sultanates.
Ajmer,erected its castle of Taragarh.
The name of Ajaipal is one of the most
conspicuous that tradition has
preserved, and is always followed by the
epithet of Chakravartin, or universal
potentate. His era must ever remain
doubtful, unless, as already observed,
we should master the characters said to
belong to this race, and which are still
extant, both on stone and on copper.
Prithi Pahar was brought from
Mahishmati to Ajmer. By a single wife
he had twenty-four sons, whose
progeny peopled these regions, one of
whose descendants, Manika Rae, was
lord of Ajmer and Sambhar, in the year
S. 741, or A.D. 685. Prithiraj, the
descen-dant of Manika Rae, even when
emperor of all Northern India. Manika
Rae, whom we may consider as the
founder of the Chauhans of the north,
recovered Ajmer. He had a numerous
progeny, who established many petty
dynasties throughout Western Rajwara,
giving birth to various tribes, which are
spread even to the Indus. The Khichi,
the Hara, the Mohil, the Nirwana,
Bhadauria, the Bhaurecha ,the
Dhanetiya, and the Baghrecha, are all
descended from him.
The Chauhans later asserted their
independence from the Pratiharas, and
in the early eleventh century, the
Sakhambari king Ajaya-Raja founded
the city of Ajayameru (Ajmer) in the
southern part of their kingdom, and in
the mid twelfth century, his successor
Vigraharaja enlarged the state, captured
Dhilika (the ancient name of Delhi) from
the Tomaras and annexed some of their
territory along the Yamuna River,
including Haryana and Delhi. In 12th
century the Chauhans dominated Delhi,
Ajmer and Ranthambhor. They were
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also prominent at Godwar in the
southwest of Rajputana, and at Hadoti
(Bundi and Kota) in the east. Chauhans
adopted a political policy that saw them
indulge largely in campaigns against the
Chalukyas and the invading Muslim
hordes.
The Chauhan kingdom became the
leading state and a powerful kingdom in
Northern India under King Prithviraj III
(1165-1192), also known as Prithvi Raj
Chauhan or Rai Pithora. Prithviraj III
has become famous in folk tales and
historical literature as the Chauhan king
of Delhi who resisted and repelled the
invasion by Mohammed of Ghor at the
first Battle of Tarain in 1191. Armies
from other Rajput kingdoms, including
Mewar, assisted him. The Chauhan
kingdom collapsed after Prithviraj faced
defeat in the war against Mohammed of
Ghor in 1192 at the Second Battle of
Tarain.
After Prithviraj III
Prithviraj's defeat and capture at Tarain
ushered in Muslim rule in North India by
the Delhi Sultanate. The Chauhans of
Ajmer remained in exile due to
Muhammad of Ghor and his successors,
the Sultans of Delhi, and thus swelled
the ranks of the armed forces of the
Maharana of Mewar, until 1365, when
Ajmer was captured by the Sisodias
rulers of Mewar, and Ajmer was then
returned to the Chauhans.
A branch of the Chauhans, led by
Govinda, the grandson of Pritviraj III,
established themselves as rulers of
Ranthambore from the thirteenth to the
fifteenth centuries, until Ranthambore
was captured by Rana Kumbha of
Mewar. The Hadas, great dynasty of the
Chauhans, moved into the Hadoti region
in the twelfth century, capturing Bundi in
1241 and ruled there until the twentieth
century. One sect of these Hada
Rajputswon Kota The Dhanetiyas of
Shahabad, which by a singular fatality
has at length come into the possession
of the Hadas of Kota and ruled their till
the merger of state in independent India.
Chauhans of the Deora branch
established the state of Sirohi in
southern Rajasthan, and ruled there
from the fifteenth century until Indian
Independence. In western India,
Chauhans are found at Devgadh Baria,
founded by Dungarsinhji, a member of
the Khichi Chauhan clan about 700
years ago. Rajkumar (Bhadaiyan State
of Awadh) and Bachgoti (Diyara State of
Awadh) are two other branches of
Chauhans in Uttar Pradesh. Chauhan's
are also found in Khurja Dasheri and
Arnia.
Religion
In India, Chauhans are predominantly
Hindu.
Some Chauhan Rajputs of the Doab
region of Punjab also adopted Sikhism
and are called Sikh Rajputs, not to be
confused with Jat Chohans of the
Punjab (who happen to write the
transliteration of their name in English
differently).
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85 villages of chauhan's lies in western
uttarpradesh, in the district of
Bulandshahr, Aligarh, Agra Etc. Village
Davkoura lies in Bulandshahr have 75%
population of Chauhan's.
The gahadavala
Introduction. The Gahadvala or sometime spelled as Gadhwal is a Suryavanshi Kshatriya dynasty that ruled the kingdom of Kannauj for approximately a hundred years, beginning in the late eleventh century. Rajput Rathore claim being descendants of Gaharwars Rebuilding the Kannuj Kingdom.
The Kannauj kingdom was established in the tenth century by Som Chand, who came from Kannuaj near Allahabad; Chand ousted the Katyuri Kings originally from Katyur valley near Joshimath, who had ruled the area since the seventh century AD. Chand retained the name of Kurmanchal for the state,
and Kurm for the people, leaving the capital in Champawat. Kurmanchal named this region Kumaon. Foundation of the Gahadwar Dynasty at Kannuj. Chandradeva founded the Kannauj Gaharwar dynasty in 1090 A.D.. Chandradeva expanded the kingdom to include Delhi, Ayodhya, and Varanasi (modern Benares). During the rule of his successor, Govindachandra, from 1114–1154, the state of Gaharwar reached the pinnacle of its power, occupying much of present-day Uttar Pradesh and Bihar. Govindachandra moved his capital from Kannauj to Varanasi. His queen Kumaradevi was a devout Buddhist, and Govindachandra was a patron of both Hindu temples and Buddhist monasteries. Expansion to Include Delhi. During the Rajput Raaj in India, the Gaharwar king, Chandradev, successfully commanded Delhi and annexed it to his State of Kannauj. Delhi was under Pratihara sovereignty at that time, who was being attacked by Rashtrakuta. Chandradev attacked both Rashtrakuta and Pratihara amid their battle with each other, defeated the two enemies now united against him, and took over the state of Delhi. After the dissolution of the Pratihara empire, Chandradev fought off repeated incursions, which laid down the foundation of the renaissance era in Delhi. Gaharwar dynasty rule of the district is proved by the discovery at Kudarkot of a
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copper plate grant dated in the reign of Chandradeva. Chandradeva founded the Gaharwar dynasty at Kanyakubja after defeating a chief named Gopala of Tuar clan. His jurisdiction extended over nearly all of what is modern Uttar Pradesh including this district. Chandradeva was succeeded by Madanpala, who ruled for a very short period. Madanpala was succeeded by his son Govindachandra. Two copper plate grants of Govindachandra, dated respectively Samvat 1161, or A. D. 1104, and Samvat 1174 or 1117 A. D. have been found in Bisahi, two miles north-east of Tehsil Bidhuna. Another copper plate grant of this king dated Samvat 1166 or A. D. 1109 was found at Rahan. Govindachandra seems to have wielded substantial power in the State while he was only a Yuvaraja, or Crown Prince. He defeated the invading Muslims prior to 1109 A.D., for the Rahan plate records that he "again and again by the play of his matchless fighting" compelled the Hammira (i.e. Amir) to "lay aside his enmity". The Rahan plate further described Govindachandra as "terrific" in cleaving the frontal gloves of arrays of irresistible mighty large elephants from Gauda", which shows that Govindachandra must have made some encroachments on Magadha. In short, Govindachandra made himself a power and revised the glories of this region. Govindachandra was succeeded by his son Vijayachandra in 1155 A. D. Like his father, Vijayachandra also successfully faced Muslim aggressions. As Vijayachandra' reign began, an unmistakable symptom of decline of the Gaharwar power manifested itself in the loss of Delhi, the Tuar rulers there
stopped recognizing Vijaychandra as their sovereign and probably aligned with Chauhans of Ajmer. The full significance of this loss was realised when, about a generation later, the Muslims attacked Delhi and occupied it, rendering the Gaharwar frontier defenceless. Vijayachandra was succeeded by his son, Jaichandra, in 1170 A. D. Jaichandra may be described as the last great king of the Gahadavala dynasty, whose power and extensive jurisdiction struck even Muslim historians. During the reign of Jaichandra, the Chauhans, from Ajmer, had annexed Delhi and were at this time bidding for supremacy in the North under Prathviraja ChauhanIII. The Chandellas were to the south there; at this time, their power was at its height. Additionally, there were repeated Muslim invasions of North-western India, which had already threatened the unity of India. Prithviraj carried off Samyukta, daughter of Jaichandra. Samyukta's elopement with Prithviraj III, heir to the rival Chauhan Rajput kingdom to the west, is the subject of many romantic tales, although this may have been the seed of the dissension between the kingdoms. Jaichand was destined to be the last Gaharwar king of Kannauj. He sought help from Muslims of North to invade Chauhans of Ajmer-Delhi. After fall of Delhi, the city of Kannauj was also attacked by Muhammad of Ghor in 1194; Jaichandra drowned in the Ganges fighting the battle; his kingdom was conquered and sacked by Muhammad's armies. Some survivors, led by Jaichand's son or grandson Siyaji (Shiv ji), fled west to the Marwar desert region of Rajasthan, where they
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established themselves as rulers in the early thirteenth century, founding the Rathore clan which ruled the princely state of Marwar or Jodhpur. Collateral Branches of Gahadvala Dynasty. Chand Kings of Kumaon.
Another branch escaped to the Kumaon hills, where 300 years later they usurped power in Kumaon by defeating the ruling Katyuri dynasty. The Chand kings mention Rathore as their kul The present king of Kumaon is Raja Mahendra Chand of Lamakhet (Pithoragarh), married to Rani Gita Chand of Rina and has three children (Rajkumari Aakanksha Chand, Rajkumari Mallika Chand, Rajkumar Aryan Chand) Vijaypur-Kantit. Another grandson, Bijai Chand, fled to Kantit in the Mīrz pur District and, overcoming the Bhar R ja of that place, founded the family of the Gaharw r R jas of Bijaipur-Kantit. All the other Gaharw rs trace their lineage to Ben res or Bijaipur. Dahia kingdom is an extension of this line also. Manda Kings. Kings of Manda trace their line from a younger brother of Jaichandra of Kannauj. The last king was Raja Vishvanath Pratap Singh of Manda, prime - minister of India from 1989-91. Gaharwar, Rathore and Bundela share the Kashyap Gautra, and Gaharwar is
considered the original bloodline for both Bundela and Rathore. The Gaharwar era in India was brief, but its impact has lasted through the era of renaissance in India. Bundela. All the other Gaharw rs trace their lineage to Ben res or Bijaipur. Another group of warriors that migrated southward from Kannauj came to occupy territory immediately west of Daiya, Manda, and Vijaypur. This line came to be known as Bundela and gave its name to the Bundelkhand that comprises parts of both current Madhya Pradesh and Uttar Pradesh.
the Gupta Dynasty
Facts related to Uttar Pradesh
There is controversy among scholars about the original homeland of the Guptas. Jayaswal has pointed out that the Guptas were originally inhabitants of Prayaga (Allahabad), Uttar Pradesh, in north India, as the vassal of the Nagas or Bhaarshivas. Thereafter they rose in prominence.
Early Gupta coins and inscriptions have been mainly found in Uttar Pradesh.
The Guptas were possibly the feudatories of the Kushanas in Uttar Pradesh, and seem to have succeeded them without any wide time-lag.
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Chandragupta I conquests are known from a lengthy eulogy composed by his court-poet Harishena and inscribed on an Asokan pillar at Allahabad.
in the Allahabad Pillar Inscription, Samudragupta is referred to as a god dwelling on earth.
A large number of Buddha images have been unearthed at Sarnath, and one of them is justly regarded as the finest in the whole of India. Stone and bronze images of Buddha have also been found at Mathura and other places.
The images of Siva, Vishnu and other Brahmanical gods are sculptured in some of the finest panels of the Deogarh temple (Jhansi district). Of the Brahmanical images perhaps the most impressive is the Great Boar (Varaha), at the entrance of a cave in Udayagiri.
Gupta Empire
The start of Gupta Empire is considered by many historian from the reign of Maharaja Shrigupta.
Chandragupta-I was the first powerful ruler of Gupta Empire and ascended the throne in 320 AD.
The Gupta Period from 320 AD to 550 AD is also known as the Golden Age of India.
In the Gupta period India attained the peak of glory in every aspects starting from science, art, literature, mathematics, astronomy and philosophy.
Emperors of Gupta Empire
Shrigupta and Ghatotkacha. The reign of Maharaja Shrigupta (240 AD to 280 AD) is considered by many historians to be the starting point of Gupta Empire.
Ghatotkacha succeeded his father Shrigupta and ruled from 280AD to 319 AD.
Chandragupta I
Chandragupta I was the son of Ghatotkacha and succeeded his father. He was the first powerful king of the dynasty. He ruled the Empire from 320 AD to 335 AD.
Chandragupta I adopted the title of Maharajadhiraja: meaning King of Kings.
He married princess Kumaradevi of neighboring kingdom Lichchhavi and gained the control of the territory of north Bihar.
The starting of the reign of Chandragupta-I is considered by many historians as the beginning of Gupta era.
Samudragupta and Chandragupta II
Samudragupta,succeeded his father Chandragupta I and ruled the Gupta dynasty for
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about 45 years from 335 AD to 380 AD. He is also known as 'Napolean of India'.
Many historians believe that Chandragupta II was nominated by his father Samudragupta as the next heir of Gupta Empire.But Ramagupta,the eldest son of Samudragupta succeeded his father and became the emperor.
Chandragupta II killed him and ascended the throne. He was an extremely powerful emperor. Chandragupta II is most commonly known as Vikramaditya,ruled the Gupta Empire from 380 AD to 413 AD.
Other Emperors
Kumaragupta I,the son of Chandragupta II succeeded his father and ruled the dynasty till 455 AD. After Kumaragupta I, Skandagupta succeeded his father.
He is considered to be the last of the great Gupta emperors.
He also adopted the title of Vikramaditya.
After Skandagupta, the Gupta dynasty didn't get any powerful ruler and finally the dynasty was overpowered by the Vardhana ruler Harshavardhana.
Note:Some of the weak rulers who ruled after Skandagupta were, Purugupta, Kumaragupta II, Budhagupta, Narasimhagupta, Kumaragupta
III, Vishnugupta, Vainyagupta and Bhanugupta.
Fa-hien's India Visit
Fa-hien was the first Chinese pilgrim who visited India during the reign of Gupta emperor Chandragupta II.
Nine Gems or Navaratnas
At the time of Vikramadityas reign, the glory of Gupta Empire reached its peak.
A circle of famous nine persons known as Nine Gems or Navaratnas were present in the court of Vikramaditya.
The group comprised of
Kalidasa Vetala Bhatta Varahamihira Vararuchi Amarasimha Dhanvantari kshapanak Shanku Ghatakarpura
Kalidasa
Kalidasa was a famous Sanskrit writer and poet in the court of Chandragupta II (Vikramaditya).
Kalidasa was the author of three famous plays.
Abhijnanasakuntalam : tells the story of King Dushyanta and Shakuntala
Malavikagnimitram tells the story love of King Agnimitra with Malavika
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Vikramorvasiyam tells the love story of King Pururavas and celestial fairy Urvashi
Kalidasa was also the author of two famous Sanskrit epic poems:
Raghuvamsa ("Raghu Dynasty ") and
Kumarasambhava.
Vetala Bhatta
Vetala Bhatta was a Brahmin in the court of Vikramaditya.
He is known for his contribution of "Nitipradipa ".
Varahamihira
Varahamihira was an Indian astronomer, astrologer and mathematician of Gupta era.
He is famously known for his great work Pancha Siddhantika,a book on mathematical astronomy.
His other important contribution to the Indian Sanskrit literature is the Brihat-Samhita, an encyclopedia of astrology and other subjects of human interest.
Vararuci
Vararuci was one of the nine Gems in the court of Chandragupta II of Gupta era.
Amarasimha
Amarasimha was one of the nine Gems in the court of Vikramaditya of Gupta era.
He is notably known for his famous Sanskrit thesaurus Amarakosha.
It is also known as Namalinganushasana.
Dhanvantari
Dhanvantari is regarded as one of the worlds first surgeons and medical practitioner from Gupta era.
He is considered as the origin exponent of Ayurveda.
He is also worshipped as the God of Medicine.
Sushruta, the author of famous Sushruta Samhita was the student of Dhanvantari.
He is also credited for the discovery of the antiseptic properties of turmeric and the preservative properties of salt.
Dhanvantri is considered to be the pioneer of modern plastic surgery.
The Huna Invasion
Facts related to Uttar Pradesh
In the beginning of the sixth century A.D. when the Gupta empire was disintegrating, they repeated their invasion under their ruler Toramana. Though there is no conclusive evidence that Toramana was a Huna yet, mostly he had been accepted so. This time the Hunas succeeded
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and occupied Kashmir, then Punjab, Rajasthan and parts of Madhya Pradesh and Uttar Pradesh. Bhanu Gupta had to fight against Toramana.
The Maukharis held the region of western Uttar Pradesh around Kanauj, had conquerred a part of Magadha.
The Maukhri dynasty king of Kannauj Ishanverma defeated the Huns are freed the north India.
The nomadic savages or tribes who lived in the neighbourhood of China were the Hephthalites (the Sanskrit name of which is Hunas). Studies show that the Hunas extended their kingdom from the border of Persia to Khotan in Central Asia. There were two branches of Hunas that advanced towards the west. One branch of the Hunas moved towards the Roman Empire and the other towards India. This branch of the Hunas, which came to India, was referred to as the White Hunas. The invasion of India by the Hunas began about a hundred years after the Kushanas’ invasion. In historical studies, one of the most warlike tribes, popular for their barbarism and cruelty, was the Huna tribe. There were two major invasions of the Hunas in the subcontinent. The reasons that led to the invasions While the Gupta Empire ruled over a major part of India, after the death of the
Gupta emperor, Samudragupta, there was less control of the Guptas in Western India. During this time, the Hunas armed forces attacked the Gupta dynasty and they were able to win Jammu, Kashmir, Himachal, Rajasthan, Punjab, and parts of Malwa. This way, the Hunas established their kingdom in some parts of India and Tormana was the white Hun leader. First major invasion of India by the Hunas: 458 AD The Gupta Empire in India reigned in the Ganges basin during the 5th century, and the Kushan dynasty occupied the area along the Indus. After defeating the Kushanas, the Hunas entered the subcontinent from the Kabul valley. They entered Punjab and the Gupta Empire failed to protect the northeast frontier of the empire and this made easier for the Huns to enter an unguarded entrance in the Gangetic valley, just into the heart of the Gupta Empire. This was in 458 AD. The Hephthalites, known as the Hunas in India kept on invading India until the Gupta ruler Skandagupta repulsed them. The Hunas, under the leadership of Toramana, suffered a crushing defeat by the Gupta emperor Skandagupta. Second invasion of India by the Hunas: About 470 AD The Hunas waited till 470 AD, till the death of the Gupta ruler Skandagupta to invade India again in a proper manner. During this time, the Guptas had been ruling over a greater part of India. This time Hunas were under the leadership of Mihirkula (also known, as Mihirgula or the “Indian Attila”). He was the successor and son of Toramana, and
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known as a very tyrant ruler and a destroyer. This time, the Hunas were successful in their invasion of India. They temporarily overthrew the Gupta Empire. Mihirkula ruled from his capital at Sakal, which is today the modern Sialkot. The Huna power in India collapsed after the defeat of Mihirkula. Mihirkula was defeated successively by two Indian rulers, Yasodharman of Malwa and Narasimhagupta Baladitya of the later Gupta dynasty. Aftermath of the battles: Winner and Loser Before the defeat of the Hunas by Skandagupta, the first invasions of the Hunas displaced the Gupta Empire rule from the North Western part of India. This invasion also influenced the chieftains and regional kings to become more ambitious and rebel against the Gupta Empire. The Hunas ruled over Gandhar and central Punjab and also controlled the Kushans. The first Hun king Toramana ruled northern India as far as Malwa in central India. After his death, his son Mihirkula, who destroyed the Gupta Empire, ruled over North Western India for thirty years. However, Mihirakula was driven out of the plains and into Kashmir and died in about 542 A.D. After his death, the political power of the Hunas declined. The larger implications of the battle
Toramana, the first white Huna king, conquered Punjab, Rajputana, Kashmir, parts of Doab and Malwa. He ruled and operated the interiors of India by keeping his base at Punjab.
During his rule, he reduced the power of a number of local kings and chieftains as his subordinates and assumed the title of "Maharajadhiraja".
Some of the provincial governors of the Gupta Empire also joined Toramana during the course of his invasion in India.
In extensive regions of Sutlej and Yamuna, the coins and inscriptions of Toramana were found.
However, Toramana's rule in India did not last long and he was defeated by Skandagupta, which forced him to flee to the other side of India.
When Toramana was succeeded by his son Mihirkula, he entered and ruined every city and town along the Ganges. The capital town Pataliputra was reduced to a small village. The Hunas persecuted Buddhists and destroyed all the monasteries and the Gupta regime was completely extinguished.
However, when Mihirkula was defeated by two major rulers Yasodharman and Narasimhagupta Baladitya, he had to leave India forever. The Hunas suffered a great loss.
The overall place and significance of the invasions in the Indian History The Hunas' invasion in India had far reaching effects and significance in Indian History, as mentioned below:
First of all, the Hunas had destroyed the dominance of the
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Gupta Empire in India and on their feudatories.
Small kingdoms began to grow and prosper on the ruins of the Gupta Empire.
The trade connections between the Guptas in India and the Roman Empire also weakened after the Huna invasion that completely devastated the Gupta economy. Due to this, the economic and cultural cities like Pataliputra or Ujjain lost their glory.
The socio-political and economic life during the later Guptas also deteriorated.
On the other hand, trade with South East Asia and China prospered through ports like Tamralipta, Kaveri Pattanam, etc.
There was a racial admixture in India after the Huna invasion and this was one of the most significant effects.
Various tribes entered India through North West, same as the central Asian tribes, some of whom remained in Northern India and some moved further to the south and the west.
For the first time, Indian culture got introduced to the Hunas’ martial culture.
After the Hunas were driven out of India in 528, few of them blended with the Indian population and became a part of the local population, which exists even today such as Gurjaras and the ancestors of some of the Rajput families.
The Huna invasions of India led to
socio-economic and cultural
transformation of the Indian society as a
whole.
The Kushana Dynasty
Facts related to Uttar Pradesh
Under the rule of Kanishka, the Kushana empire reached its maximum territorial limits. This empire extended from the Central Asia to the northern India, while including Varanasi, Kaushambi and Sravasti in Uttar Pradesh region.
The Kushanas patronized the Gandhara and the Mathura schools of sculptural art which are known for producing the earliest images of Buddha and Buddhisattavas.
The successors of Kanishka had ruled for another one hundred and fifty years. His son Huvishka kept the empire intact. While Mathura became an important city under his rule, like his father Kanishka he was also a patron of Buddhism religion.
The last significant Kushana ruler was Vasudeva. The Kushana empire got much reduced in his rule. Various inscription with his name are found in and around Mathura. He was a worshipper of Siva. And after Vasudeva, petty Kushan princes ruled for sometime in northwestern India after which the empire faded away.
Wema Kadphises further extended the Kushana empire atleast upto Mathura, although one of his inscription is found from Ganwaria (Siddharthnagar
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district of Uttar Pradesh) and his coins are discovered all over Uttar Pradesh and from Bihar as well.
Mathura was most probably the eastern head-quarter of the Kushane empire. Most sites in Uttar Pradesh attained their peak of prosperity during the Sunga-Kushana phase when a large number of flourishing urban centres can be archaeologically attested.
KUSHANS
In the post-Mauryan era, central Asia and north-western India witnessed hectic and shifting political scenes. The Great Yuehi-chi driven out of fertile lend in Western china migrated towards the Aral Sea. There they encountered the Sakas near Syr Darya river and evicted them. The Great Yuehi-Chi tribes settled in the valley of Oxus and with the occupation of the Bactrian lands the great hordes were divided into five principalities. A century later the Kushan section or sect of Yuehi-Chi attained predominance over the otheres. Their leader was Kadphises. Thus began the history of Kushans. The unique geographical position of the Kushans empire made it a colossus astride on the spine of Asia uniting the Greco-Roman civilization in the west the Chinese civilization in the east and Indian civilisation in the south-east.
The leader of the Kushans was
kadphises and his rule probably began
in 40 A.D. He attacked the regions south
of Hindu Kush, conquered Kabul and
annexed Gandhara including the
kingdom of Taxila. Kadphises died in 77
A.D. or 78 A.D. By then the Kushans
had supplanted the princes belonging to
the Indo-Greek saka and Indo-Parthian
communities along the frontiers of India.
The successor of kadphises was Vima-
Kadphses. He conquered large parts of
norther India. His coins show that his
authority extended as far as Banaras
and as well as the Indus basin. In all
likelihood his power extended as far as
Narbada and the Saka satraps in Malwa
and Western India acknowledged his
sovereignty.
By that time the Chinese reasserted
their authority in the north and this led to
a collusion with the Kushans. The
Chinese general pan-chao conquered
Chinese Turkistan and established the
Chinese authority in parthia that is on
the territory south of the Caspian sea.
These advances frightened the
Kushans. In 87 AD Kadphises II,
claimed the hand of a Chiese princes,
an acknowledgement of his equality with
the son of Heaven. The proposal was
rejected and Kadphises, dispatched a
large army, But the army was decimated
because of the difficult terrain. And it
was easily defeated by the Chinese.
The Kushan ruler was compelled to pay
tribute the China and the Chinese
records so that the Kushans continued
to send missions to Cnina till the close
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of the century. Rossibly the reign of
Kadphises II ended C. 110 A.D.
The next ruler, Kanishka probably
belonged to the little Yuehi-chi section of
the horde. His capital was Purushapura
and here he erected a large number of
Buddhist buildings. In his early years he
annexed Kashmir and consolidated his
rule in the Indus and the Gangetic basin.
His army crossed the Pamirs and
inflicted a defeat on the Chinese. The
chief of Khotan, Yarkand and the
Ksshgar were made to pay tribute.
Tradition states that while Kanishka was
on his return from the Chinese
Turkistan, he was sothered to death by
his officers who had got weary of his
campaigns. Most of his time was spent
on waging wars.
A large number of inscriptions were
incised during the times of Kanishka and
his successor. According to evidence,
Kanishka became an active partron of
the Buddhist Church during the later
part of his reign. Althouth the Buddhist
records gloat over this fact and regard
him as the second Asoka, his coins
prove that he honoured a medley of
gods - zoroastrain, Greek, Mitraic, and
Indian. The prominent Indian duty on the
coins was Shiva. The peculiar assembly
of deities by the Kushans offers a great
deal of speculation. May be Kansihka
follwed a loose from of Zorostrianism
and freely venerated the deities of other
greeds.
Also, Kanishka covened a council of
Buddhist theologians to settle disputes
relating to Buddhist faith and practices.
The conclusions of this council were
engraved on copper sheets and
preserved in the stupa of the capital.
The delgates to the council primarily
belonged to the Hinayana sect.
The Buddhism of this period was
definitely a lax one. The Mahayana sect
was popular. But early Buddhism was
an India product and was based on the
Indian ideas of rebirth, transmigration of
souls and the blessedness of escape
from the pains of being. This Buddhism
was supported by a practical system of
ethics inculcating a stoic devotion to
duty for its own sake. Such a teaching
needed fundamental changes to attract
the sturdy mountaineer, the nomad
horseman and the Helloe rized
Alexandrian. The veneration for a dead
teacher passed into a worship of living
seviour.
Soon the Kushan power declined.
Within the Kingdom, harm was done to
the Kushan Empire by the Nagas and
Yaudheyas. A Naga ruler probably
performed ten ashvamedha sacrifices.
Apart from these two communities, a
few other tribes also, like the Malavas
and the Kunindas, probably regained
their importance at the expense of the
Kushan empire.
Apart from the weaknesses to the
successors of Kanishka, developments
in the Persia influenced the history of
North western India. The Parthians were
overthrown byArdashir in 226 A.D. who
established theSassanian dynasty. His
successors annxed Peshawar and
Taxila during the middle of the 3rd
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century. And Kushan kings in the north-
west became the vassals of the
Sasssanians. The successors of
Kanishka, as established today, are the
following : Vashiska (102-106),
Hyvishka (106-138), and Vasudeva (c.
152-176). The history after this period is
extremely vague. Over the ruins of the
empire, in Central Asia and the west,
rose the Sassanian empire of Persia
and in India. The Gupta empire.
Speaking in general about the
achievement of the Kushans, the first is
the economic prosperity. As the Kushan
empire was situated in a crucial
geographical region. There was brisk
trade. Moreover, the very area covered
by the Kushan empire helped the flow of
trade between the east and the west.
Some trade routes which came into
existence in this period continued to
serve the future also. Gold coins of
great complexity were issued by the
Kushans.
These coins speak of the prosperity of
the people. The coins of Kanishka
usually show the figure of Kanishka
standing and sacrificing at altar, and on
the obverse, deities belonging to various
religions. The coins of the Kushans also
show that the Kushans were in contact
with the Romans - the weight of the
Kushan coins has certain similarities
with the Roman coins. According to the
author of the Periplus god and silver
species were imported at Barygaza
(Broach).
As regards art and literature, we have to
state that their greatest contribution was
the Gandhara art. It was in this period
that the stone images of the Buddha
and the Bodhisattavas were craved out.
The chief of quality of this art is the
blending of Buddhist subjects with
Greek forms. Images of the Buddha
appear in the likeness of Apollo, and
theYakshakubera is posed in the fasino
of Zeus. The imprint of this school of art
is still to be found in Mathura and
Amarvati. Indeed, the carving of images
and the building of temples was not
neglected in earlier days, but under the
Kushans they attained a refinement.
The Chaitya built at Peshawar was as
high as four storeys. Fa-Hien, passing
through Gandhara, during the fifth
century, praised the images of the
Buddha, Bodhisattavas and numerous
other deities. The early rulers fostered
the Hellenistic art of Gandhara and also
the Bhikshu Bela, and from this place
artistic products were sent to Sarasvati
and Sarnath. Kanishka was a great
builder - tower at Peshawar, a new city
in Taxila, a town in Kashmir and fine
buildings and sculptures at Mathura. It
was at the last place a portrait stature of
Kanishka has been found but its head is
not there. Further, the die-engravers
employed by the Kushans were far from
negligible. A special note is to be taken
of coinage. The Kushan coins became
the prototypes for many varieities of
coins of Yadheyas, the imperial Guptas,
some kings of Nepa and several Kings
of Chedi. Eminent Buddhist writers -
Nagajuna, Asvaghosha and Vasumitra
were the names associated with
Kanishka. The first was a poet,
musician, scholar and a zealous
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Buddhist monk. Charaka was the court
physician of Kanishka.
The next thing to be noted about the
Kushana is their religion. In all
likelihood, missionaries propagated
Buddhism in central Asia and China in
this period. Possibly, it was during the
time of Kanishka that Mahayana
Buddhism was sanctified. The fourth
Buddhist council that was summoned by
Kanishka canonized the doctrines of
Hinayana and Mahayana. The
deliberations of the conference were
engraved on sheets of copper and were
sealed and deposited in a stupa, but
they have not been found so far. But to
regard Kanishka as the founder patron
of the Mahayana sect, which came into
existence under the Kushans, is a
disputable point. Even though many
scholars regard Kanishka as the second
Asoka some writers do not agree with
this view. In addition to these things, we
must mention that the Kushana kings
patronized all kinds of religions,
including Hinduism. Kanishka was
definitely and eclectic monarch as he
honored a medley of gods belonging to
the Greek, Zoroastrian and Hindu faiths.
Not only Buddhism flourished under the
Kushanas but there were definitely
stirrings of Hinduism. Many brahminical
sects started merging. Along with
religion, Sanskrit language received an
impetus. In a way the Kushan age
constituted the prelude to the Gupta
age.
In this ammner, the services rendered
by the Kushanas are commendable. A
mere evaluation of the personality of
Kanishka alone would not help us to
estimate the importance of the
Kushanas as the empire lasted for three
centuries. To a certain extent, the
prosperious time of peace during the
Gupta period was directly due to the
Kushans undertaking the unconscious
role of the shield and buckler of Indian
civiliszation and culture. The Kushan
state was a buffer between the Aryan
civilization and the nomadic hordes in
central Asia who from time to time, had
overrun the civilized worlds with the
sweep of avalanches. It was also
responsible for the exchange of ideas
and goods between different civilization
because of the peculiar geographical
position occupied by the Kushanas a
clearing house for the ideas and goods
of different civilization.
The Mughals 1
Introduction
In the fourteenth century, the
disintegration of the Mongol empire led
Timur to unite Iran and Turan under one
rule. Timur's empire was spread from
the lower Volga to the river Indus,
including Iran,
Asia Minor (modern Turkey), Trans-
Oxiana, Afghanistan, and some part of
Punjab.
In 1404, Timur died and Shahrukh
Mirza, his grandson, succeeded his
empire.
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Timur gave patronage to arts and
letters and he promoted Samarqand and
Herat as the cultural centers of West
Asia.
During the second half of the fifteenth
century, the power of Timurids declined,
largely because of the Timurid practice
of partitioning of the empire.
The various Timund territories that
developed during his time, were kept
fighting and backbiting to each other.
Their conflicting acts gave an
opportunity to two new powers to come
to the forefront:
a) The Uzbeks: In the north, the Uzbeks
thrust into Trans-Oxiana. Though the
Uzbeks had become Muslims, but
Timurids looked them down because
they (Timurids) considered them to be
uncultured barbarians.
b) Safavid Dynasty: In the west (i.e.
Iran), the Safavid dynasty appeared.
They were descended from an order of
saints who traced their ancestry to the
Prophet.
Safavids dynasty promoted the Shi’ite
sect among the Muslims, and
persecuted to all those who were not
ready to accept the Shia views.
The Uzbeks, on the other hand, were
Sunnis. Thus, the political conflict
between these two elements was
estranged on the basis of sectarian
views.
The power of the Ottoman Turks had
escalated in the west of Iran and they
wanted to rule Eastern Europe as well
as Iran and Iraq.
Zahiruddin Muhammad Babur
Babur born on 14 February 1483 at Andijan in Mughalistan (present day Uzbekistan). Babur had the prestige of being a descendant of two of the most legendary warriors of Asia namely Changez, and Timur. Babur groomed himself to his begs by his personal qualities. He was always prepared to share the hardships with his soldiers. Babur was fond of wine and good company and was a good and cheerful companion. At the same time, he was a strict disciplinarian and a hard taskmaster. Babur took good care of his army and other employees, and was prepared to excuse many of their faults as long as they were not disloyal. Though Babur was an orthodox Sunni, but he was not prejudiced or led by the religious divines. Once, there was a bitter sectarian conflict between the Shias and the Sunnis in Iran and Turan; however, in such a condition, Babur’s court was free from theological and sectarian conflicts. Though Babur declared the battle against Rana Sanga a jihad and assumed the title of ‘ghazi’ after the
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victory, but the reasons were noticeably political. Babur was master of Persian and Arabic languages, and is regarded as one of the most famous writers in the Turkish language (which was his mother tongue). Babur’s famous memoirs, the Tuzuk-i-Baburi is considered as one of the classics of world literature. His other popular works are masnavi and the Turkish translation of a well-known Sufi work. Babur was a keen naturalist, as he described the flora and fauna of India in considerable details. Babur introduced a new concept of the state, which was to be based on: a) The strength and prestige of the Crown; b) The absence of religious and sectarian bigotry; and c) The careful fostering of culture and the fine arts. Babur, with all these three features provided a precedent and a direction for his successors
In 1494, Babur, at the young age of merely 14, succeeded to Farghana. Farghana was a small state in Trans-Oxiana.
Shaibani Khan, the Uzbek chief,
defeated Babur and conquered
Samarqand.
In 1504, Babur conquered Kabul; at
that time, Kabul was under the rule of
the infant heir of Ulugh Begh.
Almost 15 years, Babur struggled hard
and kept attempting to re-conquest his
homeland from the Uzbeks. He
approached the ruler of Herat (who was
also his uncle) for the help, but he did
not receive any positive response.
Shaibani Khan defeated Herat, which
led to a direct conflict between the
Uzbeks and the Safavids because
Safavids was also claiming Herat and its
surrounding area, namely Khorasan.
In the battle of 1510, Shaibani Khan
defeated and killed by Kasim Khan.
By taking the help of Iranian power,
Babur attempted to recover Samarqand.
As a result of this, the Iranian generals
wanted to treat Babur as the governor of
an Iran rather than as an independent
ruler.
After the massive defeat, the Uzbeks
swiftly recovered; resultantly, Babur had
been overthrown again from Samarqand
and he had to return back to Kabul.
Shah Ismail (Shah of Iran) was
defeated in a battle by the Ottoman
sultan; the changes in geo-political
scenario forced Babur to move towards
India.
Once Babur said that from the time he
won Kabul (i.e. in 1504) to his victory of
Panipat, he had never ceased to think of
the conquest of Hindustan.
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Timur, the ancestor of Babur, had
carried away a vast treasure along with
many skilful artisans from India. The
artisans helped Timur to consolidate his
Asian empire and beautify the capital.
They (the artisans) also helped Timur to
annex some areas of Punjab.
Reasons of India Conquest
Abul Fazl, the contemporary historian
said that "Babur ruled over Badakhshan,
Qandhar, and Kabul which did not yield
sufficient income for the requirements of
his army; in fact, in some of the border
territories, the expense on controlling
the armies and administration was
greater than the income".
Babur was also always remained
apprehensive about an Uzbek attack on
his territory Kabul, and hence,
considered India to be a safe place of
refuge, as well as a suitable base for
operations against the Uzbeks.
By the time, the political scenario of north-west India was much suitable for Babur's entry (into India).
In 1517, Sikandar Lodi had died and Ibrahim Lodi (his son) had succeeded him.
Ibrahim Lodi was an ambitious emperor whose efforts to build a large centralized empire had alarmed the Afghan chief as well as the Rajputs.
Daulat Khan Lodi was one of the most powerful chiefs of his time. Though, he
was the governor of Punjab, but he was almost an Independent ruler.
Daulat Khan wanted to conciliate with Ibrahim Lodi; therefore, he sent his son to his (Ibrahim’s) court to pay homage. However, he was also intended to strengthen his power by annexing the frontier tracts of Bhira.
In 1518-19, Babur seized the powerful fort of Bhira and sent letters as well as verbal messages to Ibrahim Lodi and Daulat Khan. Babur asked them for the cession of all those areas, which had belonged to the Turks.
Daulat Khan detained Babur's envoy at Lahore, neither granted him audience nor allowed him to go and meet Ibrahim Lodi. Daulat Khan expelled Babur’s agent from Bhira.
Once again in 1520-21, Babur crossed the Indus, and easily clutched Bhira and Sialkot (popular as the twin gateways to Hindustan) and then, Lahore was also surrendered to him.
After capturing Bhira and Sialkot, Babur planned to proceed further, but because of the revolt in Qandhar, he returned back.
Babur recaptured Qandhar after almost one and half years. His political stability again encouraged him to move towards India.
Daulat Khan sent Dilawar Khan (his son) to Babur’s court and invited Babur to come India. Daulat Khan suggested Babur to replace Ibrahim Lodi, as he (Ibrahim Lodi) was a tyrant ruler.
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Rana Sanga (Rana of Mewar), most likely at the same time, also sent a message to Babur inviting him to attack India. Two embassies from the powerful kingdom convinced Babur to conquest India again.
In 1525, when Babur was in Peshawar, he received a message that Daulat Khan Lodi had changed the sides.
Daulat Khan had collected an army of 30,000-40,000 men and ousted Babur's soldiers from Sialkot, and tried to advance towards Lahore. However, as Babur came, Daulat Khan’s army ran away; resultantly, Daulat Khan got surrendered and was pardoned. Babur became the ruler of Punjab. Major Battles First Battle of Panipat
On 20th April 1526, the First Battle of Panipat, was fought between Babur and the Ibrahim Lodi Empire (ruler of Delhi). The battle took place in north India (Panipat) and marked as the beginning of the Mughal Empire.
The first battle of Panipat was one of the earliest battles in which gunpowder firearms and field artillery were used. However, Babur said that he used it for the first time in his attack on the Bhira fortress.
Ibrahim Lodi met Babur at Panipat with the force estimated at 100,000 men and 1,000 elephants.
Babur had crossed the Indus with a force of merely 12,000; however, in
India, a large number of Hindustani nobles and soldiers joined Babur in Punjab. In spite of Indian army support, Babur's army was numerically inferior.
Babur made a master plan and strengthened his position. He ordered one of his army wings to rest in the city of Panipat, which had a large number of houses. Further, he protected another wing by means of a ditch filled with branches of trees. On the front side, Babur lashed with a large number of cans, to act as a defending wall. Between two carts, breastworks were erected so that soldiers could rest their guns and fire.
Babur used the Ottoman (Rumi) device technique, which had been used by the Ottomans in their well-known battle against Shah Ismail of Iran.
Babur had also invited two Ottoman master-gunners namely Ustad Ali and Mustafa.
Ibrahim Lodi, however, with huge army men, could not assume the strongly defended position of Babur.
Ibrahim Lodi had apparently expected Babur to fight a mobile mode of warfare, which was common with the Central Asians.
Babur's gunners used their guns strategically with good effect from the front; however, Babur gave a large part of the credit of his victory to his bowmen.
After the seven or eight days fight, Ibrahim Lodi realized Babur’s strong position. Further, Lodi’s forces were also
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hesitant to fight with Babur’s modern technological warfare.
Ibrahim Lodi battled to the last with a group of 5,000 to 6,000 forces, but he (Lodi) had been killed in the battle field.
It is estimated that more than 15,000 men (of Lodi kingdom) were killed in the first battle of Panipat. Battle of Khanwa On March 17, 1527, the Battle of Khanwa was fought near the village of Khanwa (about 60 km west of Agra). It was fought between the first Mughal Emperor Babur and Rajput ruler Rana Sanga.
The Rajput ruler, Rana Sanga, was the great threat for Babur to establish a strong Mughal empire in the Indo-Gangetic Valley, as Sanga planned to expel Babur from India or else confined him at Punjab.
Babur had an authentic reason to accuse Rana Sanga i.e. of breach of an agreement. In fact, Sanga invited him (Babur) to India with a promise to fight with him against Ibrahim Lodi, but he (Rana) refused.
The battle of Khanwa was aggressively fought. As Babur reported, Sanga had more than 200,000 men including 10,000 Afghan cavalrymen, supported with an equal force fielded by Hasan Khan Mewati.
Babur’s strategy, in the battle ground, was highly technical; he ordered his soldiers (who had been sheltering behind their tripods) to attack in the
center. Thus Sanga's forces were hemmed in, and finally defeated. Rana Sanga escaped from the battle field. Later he (Rana) wanted to renew the conflict with Babur, but he was poisoned by his own nobles.
The battle of Khanwa strengthened Babur's position in the Delhi-Agra region. Later, Babur conquered the chain of forts including Gwalior, Dholpur, east of Agra, etc.
Babur also conquered Alwar from Hasan Khan Mewati and Chanderi (Malwa) from Medini Rai. Chanderi was captured after killing almost all the Rajput defenders men and their women performed jauhar (it was the custom of self-immolation of queens and royal female of the Rajput kingdoms). The Afghans Eastern Uttar Pradesh, which was under the domination of the Afghan chiefs had submitted their allegiance to Babur, but internally planned to throw it off at any time.
Nusrat Shah, the ruler of Bengal, who had married a daughter of Ibrahim Lodi, had supported the Afghan sardars.
The Afghans had ousted the Mughal officials in eastern Uttar Pradesh and reached up to Kanauj many times, but their major weakness was the lack of a competent leader. Afghan leaders invited Mahmud Lodi. He (Mahmud Lodi) was a brother of Ibrahim Lodi and also had fought against Babur at Khanwa. The Afghan
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leaders welcomed him as their ruler, and congregated strength under his leadership.
The Afghans, under Mahmud Lodi’s leadership, was a great threat for Babur, which he (Babur) could not ignore. At the beginning of 1529, Babur left Agra for the east and he faced the combined forces of the Afghans and Nusrat Shah of Bengal at the crossing of the Ghagra River.
While Babur was fighting with the Afghans (in the east), he received a message i.e. crisis situation in Central Asia. Thus Babur decided to conclude the war with an agreement with the Afghans. He made a vague claim for the suzerainty over Bihar, and left the large parts in the Afghan’s hands.
On 26 December, 1530, when Babur was returning to Kabul (Afghanistan) died near Lahore.
The Mughals 2
Humayun’s Conquest
-1556), Humayun had faced many adverse conditions; however, he did not lose his patience rather fought with courage.
succeeded Babur (his father) in December 1530 at the young age of 23.
Babur, because of his pre-matured death, could not consolidate his empire; therefore, Humayun, when became the ruler, he had to struggle with various problems. Major Problems
Major problems (left behind by Babur) were: o The administration systems of Mughal Empire were weak and the finances were unjustifiable. o The Afghans had not been subdued entirely; hence, they were cultivating the hope of expelling the Mughals from India. o When Humayun ascended the throne at Agra, the Mughal Empire included Kabul and Qandhar; however, there was loose control over Badakhshan (beyond the Hindukush Mountains). o Kabul and Qandhar were under the charge of Kamran, Humayun's younger brother. Kamran was not satisfied with these poverty-stricken areas therefore, he marched towards Lahore and Multan, and occupied them.
reluctantly accepted his brother’s autocratic act, as he was not interested in starting a civil war. However, Kamran accepted the suzerainty of Humayun, and promised to help him whenever it required.
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Afghans in the east and Bahadur Shah (ruler of Gujarat) in the west were becoming problems that Humayun had to suppress.
and overrun Jaunpur in eastern Uttar Pradesh, but in 1532, Humayun had defeated the Afghan forces.
besieged Chunar (from the Afghan ruler Sher Shah Suri).
powerful fort that commanded the land and the river route resting between Agra and the east; Chunar was popular as the gateway of eastern India.
Suri (also known as Sher Khan) persuaded Humayun to get permission to retain possession of the fort and he promised to be loyal to the Mughals. Sher Shah also sent one of his sons to Humayun court as a hostage. Humayun was in haste to return back to Agra; therefore, he accepted Sher Shah’s offer.
who was of the same age of Humayun had strengthened himself enough to threaten him (Humayun) in the north.
Bahadur Shah had overrun and conquered Malwa and then moved towards Rajasthan and besieged Chittor and soon abridged the Rajput defenders to sore straits.
Karnavati (the widow of Rana Sanga),
sent a rakhi (a thread that normally sister gives her brother and in return brother promises to protect her) to Humayun seeking his help and Humayun courteously responded.
intervention, Bahadur Shah made an agreement with the Rana Sanga and left the fort in his (Rana Sanga’s) hands; however, he (Bahadur Shah) extracted a large indemnity in cash and kind.
yun spent one and half years of his time in building a new city nearby Delhi, and he named it as Dinpanah.
to impress friends and foes alike. Another intention was, Dinpanah could also serve as a second capital, in case, Agra was threatened by the Gujarat ruler Bahadur Shah (who already had conquered Ajmer and overrun eastern Rajasthan.
simultaneously, he supplied arms and men to Tatar Khan (Tatar Khan was a cousin of Ibrahim Lodi), to invade Agra with a force of 40,000 men.
The Afghan forces run away, as the Mughal forces arrived. Tatar Khan was defeated, and he was killed.
now invaded Malwa. He advanced forward slowly and cautiously, and covered a position midway between Chittoor and Mandu. Likewise, Humayun cut off Bahadur Shah from Malwa.
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Chittoor to surrender. It became possible because Bahadur Shah had fine artillery, which was commanded by Rumi Khan, an Ottoman master gunner.
with the Mughals and he left his fortified camp and escaped to Mandu to Champaner, then to Ahmadabad and finally to Kathiawar. Thus the rich provinces of Malwa and Gujarat, as well as the huge treasure boarded by the Gujarat rulers at Mandu and Champaner, came into the hands of Humayun.
’s attack (on Mughal Empire) was gone with his death, as he died while fighting with the Portuguese. Sher Shah’s Upsurge
Humayun’s absence from Agra (between February 1535 and February 1537), gave an opportunity to Sher Shah to strengthened his power and position.
continued to acknowledge loyalty to the Mughals, but steadily he planned to expel the Mughals from India.
Bahadur Shah, as he (Bahadur Shah) had helped him with heavy subsidies, which enabled him to recruit and maintain a large and competent army including 1,200 elephants.
Humayun attacked Sher Khan and captured Chunar and then he invaded
Bengal for the second time, and seized Gaur (the capital of Bengal).
sent a proposal to Humayun that he would surrender Bihar and pay an annual tribute of ten lakhs of dinars if he was allowed to retain Bengal. However, Humayun was not in a mood to leave Bengal to Sher Khan.
manufactures, and a center for foreign trade. Secondly, the ruler of Bengal who had reached Humayun's camp in a wounded condition, informed that resistance to Sher Khan was still continued.
suspicious intention of Sher Shah, Humayun rejected Sher Khan's proposal and decided a campaign to Bengal. Soon after, the Bengal ruler submitted to his wounds; therefore, Humayun had to undertake the Bengal campaign all alone.
yun was not much beneficial, but rather was the prelude to the disaster, which overtook his army at Chausa after a year.
south Bihar. With a master plan, he let Humayun campaign Bengal so that he might disrupt Humayun's communications with Agra and bottle him up in Bengal.
took steps to establish law and order. But this did not solve any of his problems. On the other hand, Humayun’s situation was further made worse by his younger brother, Handal,
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as he attempted to crown himself of Agra. However, because of Sher Khan's master plans, Humayun was totally cut off from all news and supplies from Agra. Humayun’s Downfall Humayun’s Difficulties
After a stay of three to four months at Gaur, Humayun planned back to Agra, leaving a small garrison behind. In spite of having a series of problems such as the rainy season, discontent in the nobility, and the constant harrying attacks of the Afghans, Humayun managed to get his army back to Chausa near Buxar, without any serious loss.
’s act, he left Lahore to suppress Hindal’s rebellion at Agra. But Kamran, though not disloyal, made no attempt to send any help to Humayun.
Sher Shah, Humayun crossed to the eastern bank of the Karmnasa River and gave full opportunity to the Afghan horsemen encamped there. It was the great mistake of Humayun that reflected not only a bad political sense, but also a bad generalship as well.
’s forces attacked on Humayun surreptitiously; however, Humayun, somehow managed to escape from the battle field. He swam across the river with the help of a water-carrier. Sher Shah robbed Humayun’s treasures. In this war, about 7,000
Mughal soldiers and many prominent nobles were killed.
1539, only the fullest unity among the Timurid princes and the nobles could have saved Humayun.
-hardened force of 10,000 Mughals under his command at Agra. But he had not come forward to help Humayun, probably, he had lost confidence in Humayun's leadership. On the other hand, Humayun was not ready to assign the command of the armies to Kamran, as he could misuse it to store power for himself. The confusions between the two brothers grew till Kamran decided to return back to Lahore with his army.
Humayun at Agra was no match against Sher Shah. However, in May 1540, the battle of Kanauj was bitterly contested. Both the younger brothers of Humayun namely Askari and Hindal, fought courageously, but to no avail.
battle of Kanauj taken away Humayun’s empire and he became a prince without a kingdom; Kabul and Qandhar remaining under Kamran. Sher Shah, now became the sole powerful ruler of north India.
and its neighboring countries for the next two and a half years, planning various schemes to regain his kingdom. But hardly anyone was ready to help him. Surprisingly, his own brothers were against him, and even had tried to kill or imprison him. Nevertheless, Humayun faced all these trials and tribulations with great fortitude and courage. The
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downfall period of Humayun reflected the best part of his character.
Humayun reached at the court of the Iranian king. In 1545, with the help of Iranian king, Humayun recaptured Qandhar and Kabul. Reasons of Humayun’s Downfall
The major reasons for Humayun's failure were: o Humayun’s inability to understand the nature of the Afghan power and Sher Shah’s deceptive trick. o The presence of large numbers of Afghan tribes across the north India and their nature of getting united under a capable leader (like Sher Shah). o Without getting the support of the local rulers and zamindars, the Mughals were bound to remain numerically inferior. o The differences of Humayun with his brothers, and his alleged faults of character. o Though Humayun was a competent general and politician, his two mistakes i.e. ill-conceived Bengal campaign and wrong interpretation of Sher Shah’s proposal made him lose.
as he experienced from rich to rag and again from rag to rich.
-up of the Sher Shah’s empire, Humayun again recovered Delhi; however, he did not live long to enjoy his victory.
the first floor of the library building in his fort at Delhi.
the orders of Akbar (son of Humayun) and Humayun's first wife (Bega Begum). And, the tomb was designed by Mirak Mirza Ghiyas, a Persian architect appointed by Bega Begum.
1565 (nine years after the death of Humayun) and completed in 1572. The total cost spent in the building (of tomb) was 1.5 million rupees (at the time). Sur Empire Sher Shah
Sher Shah Suri ascended the throne of Delhi at the age of 67. His original name was Farid and his father was a jagirdar at Jaunpur.
Sher Shah spent his childhood with his father and remained actively involved in the affairs of his father’s jagir. Because of this, he learned rich administrative knowledge and experience.
never let any opportunity to go in vain. The defeat and death of Ibrahim Lodi and the misunderstanding in Afghan affairs let Sher Shah emerge as the most important Afghan sardars (of that time).
Because of his smart skill set and administrative quality, Sher Shah
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became as the right hand of the ruler of Bihar.
Shah adorned him the title of ‘Sher Khan.’
mightiest empire, which had come into existence (in north India) since the time of Muhammad bin Tughlaq.
’s empire was extended from Bengal to the Indus River (excluding Kashmir). In the west, he conquered Malwa, and almost the entire Rajasthan.
Maldeo, the ruler of Marwar, ascended the gaddi (kingdom) in 1532, and in a short span of time, took the control of whole of western and northern Rajasthan. He further expanded his territories during Humayun's conflict with Sher Shah.
Maldeo was killed after a courageous resistance. His sons, Kalyan Das and Bhim, took shelter at the court of Sher Shah.
clashed at Samel (located between Ajmer and Jodhpur). While invading different jagirs of Rajasthan, Sher Shah had taken the great precautions; at every step, he would throw up entrenchments to guard against a surprise attack.
besieged and conquered Ajmer and Jodhpur, forced Maldeo into the desert.
Sher Shah overran almost the entire Rajasthan. His last campaign was against Kalmjar; it was a strong fort and the key to Bundelkhand.
a gun burst and severely injured Sher Shah; the incident took, Sher Shah’s life.
Islam Shah (his second son), who ruled till 1553.
and general, but most of his energies were lost in controlling the rebels raised by his brothers. Besides, rebels of tribal feuds also pulled Islam Shah’s attention.
’s death (November 1554) led to a civil war among his successors. The civil war created a vacuum that ultimately provided an opportunity to Humayun to recover empire of India.
Afghans, and recovered Delhi and Agra. Sher Shah’s Work
Sher Shah was one of the most distinguished rulers of north India who had done a number of developmental works (along with well-planned administrative works). His works can be studied under the following heads: Administrative Works
-established law and order across the length and breadth of his empire.
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emphasis on justice, as he used to say, "Justice is the most excellent of religious rites, and it is approved alike by the king of infidels and of the faithful".
whether they were high nobles, men of his own tribe or near relations.
Qazis were appointed at different places for justice, but as before, the village panchayats and zamindars also dealt with civil and criminal cases at the local level.
and dacoits.
zamindars who refused to pay land revenue or disobeyed the orders of the government. Economic & Development Works
promotion of trade and commerce and also the improvement of communications in his kingdom.
the old imperial road known as the Grand Trunk Road, from the river Indus in the west to Sonargaon in Bengal.
Jodhpur and Chittoor, noticeably linking up with the road to the Gujarat seaports.
Sher Shah built about 1,700 sarai; some of them are still existing, which reflect how strong these sarai were.
sarai developed into qasbas (market-
towns) where peasants flocked to sell their produce.
’s roads and sarai have been called as "the arteries of the empire." These development works strengthened and fasten the trade and commerce in the country.
’s entire empire, customs duty was paid only at two places: the goods produced in Bengal or imported from outside paid customs duty at the border of Bengal and Bihar at Sikrigali and goods coming, from West and Central Asia paid custom duty at the Indus. No one was allowed to levy custom duty at roads, ferries, or town. The duty was paid a second time at the time of sale.
compel the people to treat merchants and travelers well and not to harm them in any way.
goods.
Shaikh Nizami i.e. "If a merchant should die in your country it is a perfidy to lay hands on his property."
Shah made the local village headmen and zamindars responsible for any loss that the merchant suffered on the roads.
s of a merchant were stolen, the headmen and/or the zamindars had to produce them, or to trace the haunts of the thieves or highway robbers, failing which they had to undergo the punishment meant for the thieves and robbers.
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(to make
innocent responsible), but the same law (discussed in the immediate above point) was applied in cases of murders on the roads.
Shah’s law and order in the picturesque language i.e. "a decrepit old woman might place a basketful of gold ornaments on her head and go on a journey, and no thief or robber would come near her for fear of the punishment which Sher Shah inflicted."
’s currency reforms also promoted the growth of commerce and handicrafts.
the trade and commerce purpose, Sher Shah made an attempt to fix standard weights and measures across his empire.
to Multan. At that time, Multan was one of the central points for the caravans going to West and Central Asia.
Shah built a number of sarai at a distance of every two kos (about eight km) on all the major roads.
sarai was a fortified lodging or inn where travelers could pass the night and also keep their goods in safe custody.
Hindus and Muslims were provided in the sarai. Brahmanas were appointed for providing bed and food to the Hindu travelers, and grains for their horses.
‘Tarikh-i-Sher Shahi’ or history of Sher Shah) says, "It was a rule in the sarai that whoever entered there, received provision suitable to his rank, and food and litter for his cattle, from the government."
down villages around the sarai, and the land was set apart in these villages for the expenses of the sarai. Administrative Division
A number of villages comprised a pargana. The pargana was under the charge of the shiqdar, who looked after law and order and general administration, and the munsif or amil looked after the collection of Land revenue.
Above the pargana, there was the shiq or sarkar under the charge of the shiqdar-i-shiqdran and a munsif-i-munsifan.
ounts were maintained both in the Persian and the local languages (Hindavi).
central machinery of administration, which had been developed during the Sultanate period. Most likely, Sher Shah did not favor leaving too much authority in the hands of ministers.
devoting himself to the affairs of the state from early morning to late at night. He also toured the country regularly to know the condition of the people.
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xcessive centralization of authority, in his hands, has later become a source of weakness, and its harmful effects became apparent when a masterful sovereign (like him) ceased to sit on the throne.
be based on the guess work, or by dividing the crops in the fields, or on the threshing floor rather Sher Shah insisted on measurement of the sown land.
ray) was drawn up, laying down the state's share of the different types of crops. This could then be converted into cash on the basis of the prevailing market rates in different areas. Normally, the share of the state was one-third of the produce.
’s measurement system let peasants to know how much they had to pay to the state only after sowing the crops.
crops cultivated, and the amount each peasant had to pay was written down on a paper called patta and each peasant was informed of it.
the peasants anything extra. The rates which the members of the measuring party were to get for their work were laid down.
other natural calamities, a cess at the rate of two and half seers per bigha was also levied.
was very solicitous for the welfare of the peasantry, as he used to say, "The cultivators are blameless, they
submit to those in power, and if I oppress them they will abandon their villages, and the country will be ruined and deserted, and it will be a long time before it again becomes prosperous".
in order to administer his vast empire. He dispensed with tribal levies under tribal chiefs, and recruited soldiers directly after verifying their character.
th of Sher Shah's personal army was recorded as: o 150,000 cavalry; o 25,000 infantry armed with matchlocks or bows; o 5,000 elephants; and o A park of artillery.
different parts of his empire; besides, a strong garrison was posted in each of them.
on the bank of the Yamuna River near Delhi. The sole survivor of this city is the Old Fort (Purana Qila) and the fine mosque within it.
Malik Muhammad Jaisi (who had written Padmavat in Hindi) was the patron of Sher Shah’s reign. Religious Views
any new liberal policies. Jizyah continued to be collected from the Hindus.
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’s nobility was drawn
exclusively from the Afghans.
The Mughals 3
Akbar the Great
Mughal rulers, was born at Amarkot.
(brother of Humayun) captured young Akbar. Kamran treated the child well; however, Akbar was re-united with his parents after the capture of Qandhar.
When Humayun died, Akbar was in Punjab, commanding operations against the Afghan rebels.
Kalanaur at the age of merely thirteen years and four months.
were still strong beyond Agra, and were reorganizing their forces under the leadership of Hemu.
besieged. Sikandar Sur, the defeated Afghan ruler, was forced to loiter in the Siwalik Hills.
Akbar and a loyal and favorite officer of Humayun, became the wakil (advocate) of the kingdom and received the title of ‘khan.i.khanan;’ . He united the Mughal forces.
considered the most serious for Akbar. Further, the area from Chunar to the border of Bengal was under the domination of Adil Shah, a nephew of Sher Shah.
’s reign, Hemu had started his career as a superintendent of the market, but soon promoted under Adil Shah. Surprisingly, Hemu had not lost a single one of the twenty-two battles in which he had fought.
Hemu as wazir, gave the title of ‘Vikramajit,’ and entrusted him with the task to expel the Mughals. Second Battle of Panipat
army of 50,000 cavalry, 500 elephants and a strong park of artillery marched towards Delhi.
-contested battle, Hemu defeated the Mughals near Delhi and captured the city. But Bairam Khan took an energetic and smart step to meet the critical situation. Bairam Khan strengthened his army marched towards
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Delhi before Hemu could have time to consolidate his position again.
between the Mughals (led by Bairam Khan) and the Afghan forces (led by Hemu), took place once again at Panipat.
’s artillery had been captured by a Mughal force, the tide of battle was in favor of Hemu. Meanwhile, an arrow hit in the eye of Hemu and he fainted. Hemu was arrested and executed. Akbar had virtually reconquered his empire.
teen age; he had been supported by a group of nobles. Bairam Khan’s Conquest
Bairam Khan remained at the helm of affairs of the Mughal Empire for almost next four years and during this period, he kept the nobility fully under control.
The territories of the Mughal Empire were extended from Kabul (in the north) to Jaunpur (in the east) and Ajmer (in the west).
vigorous efforts were made to conquer Ranthambhor and Malwa. Bairam Khan’s Downfall
Over a period of time, Akbar was approaching the age of maturity. On the other hand, Bairam Khan became arrogant and had offended many powerful persons and nobles of Mughal court (as he held supreme power). Many of the nobles complained to Akbar that
Bairam Khan was a Shia, and that he was appointing his own supporters and Shias to high offices, while neglecting the old nobles.
were not much serious in themselves, but he (Bairam Khan) became egoistical, and hence failed to realize that Akbar was growing up. In fact, there was friction on a petty matter, which made Akbar realize that he could not leave the state affairs in someone else's hands for any more.
his cards cleverly. He left Agra on the pretext of hunting, and came Delhi. From Delhi, Akbar issued a farman (summon) dismissed Bairam Khan from his office, and ordered all the nobles to come and submit to him personally.
farman made Bairam Khan realize that Akbar wanted to take power in his own hands; so, he was prepared to submit, but his opponents were keen to ruin him. They heaped humiliation upon him until he was goaded to rebel.
almost six months. Finally, Bairam Khan was forced to submit in Akbar’s court; Akbar received him cordially, and gave him the option of serving at the court (anywhere), or retiring to Mecca.
Mecca. On his way to Mecca, he was assassinated at Patan near Ahmadabad by an Afghan who bore him a personal grudge.
child were brought to Akbar at Agra. Akbar married Bairam Khan's widow (who was
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also his cousin), and brought up the child as his own son.
’s child later became popular as Abdur Rahim Khan-i-Khanan and held some of the most significant offices and commands in the Mughal Empire.
groups and individuals in the nobility became politically active. The group included Akbar's foster-mother, Maham Anaga, and her relatives. However, Maham Anaga soon withdrew from politics.
’s son, Adham Khan, was an impetuous young man. He assumed independent airs when he had been sent to command an expedition against Malwa. He claimed the post of the wazir, and when this was not accepted, he stabbed the acting wazir in his office. His tyrannical act enraged Akbar. In 1561, Adham Khan had been thrown down from the parapet of the fort and he died.
’s maturity and establishing his full authority, the Uzbeks formed a powerful group. They held important positions in eastern Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, and Malwa.
Between the period of 1561 and 1567, the Uzbeks rebelled many times, forced Akbar to take the field against them. Every time Akbar was induced to pardon them. However, 1565 rebel exasperated Akbar at such a level that he vowed to make Jaunpur his capital till he had rooted them out.
’ rebellions, Akbar's half-brother, Mirza Hakim, who
had seized control of Kabul, advanced into Punjab, and besieged Lahore. As a result of this, the Uzbek rebels formally proclaimed him as their ruler.
’s attack was the most serious crisis Akbar had to face since Hemu's capture of Delhi. However, Akbar's bravery and a certain amount of luck enabled him to triumph.
to Lahore, forced Mirza Hakim to retire. Meanwhile, the rebellion of the Mirza’s was crushed, the Mirzas fled to Malwa and thence to Gujarat.
Jaunpur from Lahore. Crossing the river Yamuna nearby Allahabad (at the peak of the rainy season), Akbar surprised the rebels led by the Uzbek nobles and completely routed them out.
Uzbek leaders were killed in the battle; likewise, their protracted rebellion came to an end. Expansion of Mughal Empire
During Akbar’s initial period, Malwa was being ruled by a young prince, Baz Bahadur. Baz Bahadur’s accomplishments were a mastery of music and poetry. Besides, the romantic story of Baz Bahadur and Rani Rupmati is also very famous. Rani Rupmati is known in history because of her beauty.
Because of Baz Bahadur’s interest in music and poetry, Mandu (Baz Bahadur’s capital) had become a celebrated center for music. The army, however, had been neglected by Baz Bahadur.
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Malwa was led by Adham Khan, son of Akbar's foster-mother, Maham Anaga. Baz Bahadur was badly defeated (in the battle of Sarangpur) and the Mughals took valuable assets, including Rupmati. However, she refused to go with Adham Khan and preferred to commit suicide.
After defeating Malwa, Adham Khan ruled with cruelties, because of this, there was a reaction against the Mughals, which supported Baz Bahadur to recover Malwa.
expedition to Malwa (led by Abdullah Khan). Baz Bahadur defeated again and he had to flee west. He took shelter with the Rana of Mewar.
to another, Baz Bahadur, finally approached to Akbar's court and was enrolled as a Mughal mansabdar. Likewise, the extensive territory of Malwa came under Mughal rule. Kingdom of Garh-Katanga
In 1564, Mughal arms (led by Asaf Khan) overran the kingdom of Garh-Katanga. The kingdom of Garh-Katanga included the Narmada valley and the northern portions of present Madhya Pradesh.
-Katanga consisted of a number of Gond and Rajput principalities.
Sangram Shah), ruler of Garh-Katanga married his eldest son Dalpati Shah with
Rani Durgawati (daughter of famous Rajput Chandel Emperor Keerat Rai of Mahoba) and strengthened his position.
i Shah died soon after his marriage and the princess Durgavati became a widow. But she made her minor son king and ruled with great courage.
markswoman with both guns and bow & arrow. She fought many successful battles against her neighbors, including Baz Bahadur of Malwa.
Allahabad moved towards Garh-Katanga with 10,000 cavalries. Some of the semi-independent rulers of Garha-Katanga found it an opportune moment to throw off the Gond supremacy.
supported by her nobles rather left with a small force. She fought bravely but defeated. Once finding that she lost the battle and was in danger of being captured, she stabbed herself to death.
ime, Asaf Khan also became despotic; however, when Akbar had dealt with the rebellion of the Uzbek nobles, he forced Asaf Khan to expel his illegal games.
-Katanga to Chandra Shah, the younger son of Sangram Shah and took ten forts to round off the kingdom of Malwa. Gujarat Expedition
In 1572, after defeating Rajputs (namely Chittoor, Ranthambhor, Jodhpur, etc.), Akbar advanced towards
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Ahmadabad via Ajmer; however, Ahmadabad surrendered without a fight.
turned his attention towards the Mirzas who held Broach, Baroda, and Surat (regions of Gujarat).
saw the sea for the first time at Cambay, he rode on it in a boat.
In 1573, when Akbar returned back, after defeating Gujarat, a fresh rebel broke out all over Gujarat. Immediately after hearing the news, Akbar moved out of Agra and traversed across Rajasthan in merely nine days.
Ahmadabad. In this journey, which normally took six weeks, only 3,000 soldiers were accompanied with Akbar. But with only 3,000 soldiers, Akbar overcame the 20,000 rebellions.
(the Afghan ruler) in Bihar and executed him on the spot. Likewise, ended the last Afghan kingdom from northern India. Akbar’s Administrative System
Though Akbar adopted Sher Shah’s administrative system, he did not find it that much beneficial hence he had started his own administrative system.
73, just after returning from Gujarat expedition, Akbar paid personal attention to the land revenue system. Officials called as ‘karoris’ were appointed throughout the north India. Karoris were responsible for the
collection of a crore of dams (i.e. Rs. 250,000).
system called the dahsala; under this system, the average produce of different crops along with the average prices prevailing over the last ten (dah) years were calculated. However, the state demand was stated in cash. This was done by converting the state share into money on the basis of a schedule of average prices over the past ten years.
measurement system (known as the zabti system) covering from Lahore to Allahabad, including Malwa and Gujarat.
zabti system, the shown area was measured by means of the bamboos attached with iron rings.
zabti system, originally, is associated with Raja Todar Mal (one of the nobles of Akbar), therefore, sometimes, it is called as Todar Mal's bandobast.
officer of his time. He first served on Sher Shah’s court, but later joined Akbar.
zabti system, a number of other systems of assessment were also introduced by Akbar. The most common and, perhaps the oldest one was ‘batai’ or ‘ghalla-bakshi.’
batai system, the produce was divided between the peasants and the state in a fixed proportion.
between zabti and batai under certain
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conditions. However, such a choice was given when the crops had been ruined by natural calamity.
batai system, the peasants were given the choice of paying in cash or in kind, though the state preferred cash.
indigo, oil-seeds, sugarcane, etc., the state demand was customarily in cash. Therefore, these crops were called as cash-crops.
widely used (particularly in Bengal) in Akbar's time was nasaq.
Most likely (but not confirmed), under the nasaq system, a rough calculation was made on the basis of the past revenue receipts paid by the peasants. This system required no actual measurement, however, the area was ascertained from the records.
er cultivation almost every year was called ‘polaj.’
called ‘parati’ (fallow). Cess on Parati land was at the full (polaj) rate when it was cultivated.
two to three years was called ‘chachar,’ and if longer than that, it was known as ‘banjar.’
good, middling, and bad. Though one-third of the average produce was the state demand, it varied according to the
productivity of the land, the method of assessment, etc.
development and extension of cultivation; therefore, he offered taccavi (loans) to the peasants for seeds, equipment, animals, etc. Akbar made policy to recover the loans in easy installments. Army
Akbar organized and strengthened his army and encouraged the mansabdari system. “Mansab” is an Arabic word, which means ‘rank’ or ‘position.’
mansabdari system, every officer was assigned a rank (mansab). The lowest rank was 10, and the highest was 5,000 for the nobles; however, towards the end of the reign, it was raised to 7,000. Princes of the blood received higher mansabs.
mansabs (ranks) were categorized as: o Zat o Sawar
‘zat’ means personal. It fixed the personal status of a person, and also his salary.
‘sawar’ rank indicated the number of cavalrymen (sawars) a person was required to maintain.
mansabdar was expected to maintain a corps of elephants, camels, mules, and carts, which were necessary for the transport of the army.
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mansabdars were paid
very handsomely; in fact, their salaries were probably the highest in the world at the time.
A mansabdar, holding the rank of: o 100 zat, received a monthly salary of Rs. 500/month; o 1,000 zat received Rs. 4,400/month; o 5,000 zat received Rs. 30,000/month.
as such no income tax.
musketeers (bandukchi), sappers, and miners were also recruited in the contingents. Administrative Units
Akbar followed the system of the Subhah, the pargana, and the sarkar as his major administrative units.
Subhah was the top most administrative unit, which was further sub-divided into Sarkar. Sarkar (equivalent to district) was constituted of certain number of parganas and pargana was the collective administrative unit of a few villages.
subhah was subedar.
sarkar were the faujdar and the amalguzar.
faujdar was in-charge of law and order, and the amalguzar was
responsible for the assessment and collection of the land revenue.
mpire were classified into jagir, khalsa and inam. Income from khalsa villages went directly to the royal exchequer.
Inam lands were those property, which were given to learned and religious men.
Jagir lands were allotted to the nobles and members of the Royal family including the queens.
Amalguzar was assigned to exercise a general supervision over all types of lands for the purpose of imperial rules and regulations and the assessment and collection of land revenue uniformly.
bar reorganized the central machinery of administration on the basis of the division of power among various departments.
During the Sultanate period, the role of wazir, the chief adviser of the ruler, was very important, but Akbar reduced the responsibilities of wazir by creating separate departments.
wazir as head of the revenue department. Thus, he was no longer the principal adviser to the ruler, but an expert in revenue affairs (only). However, to emphasize on wazir’s importance, Akbar generally used the title of diwan or diwan-i-ala (in preference to the title wazir).
diwan was held responsible for all income and expenditure, and held
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control over khalisa, jagir and inam lands.
was known as the mir bakhshi. It was the mir bakhshi (and not the diwan) who was considered as the head of the nobility.
appointments to mansabs or for the promotions, etc., were made to the emperor through the mir bakhshi.
mir bakhshi was also the head of the intelligence and information agencies of the empire. Intelligence officers and news reporters (waqia-navis) were posted in all regions of the empire and their reports were presented to the emperor’s court through the mir bakhshi.
mir saman was the third important officer of Mughal Empire. He was in-charge of the imperial household, including the supply of all the provisions and articles for the use of the inmates of the harem or the female apartments.
by the chief qazi. This post was sometimes clubbed with that of the chief sadr who was responsible for all charitable and religious endowments.
people as well as to the ministers, Akbar judiciously divided his time. The day started with the emperor's appearance at the jharoka of the palace where large numbers of people used to assemble daily to have a glimpse of the ruler, and to present petitions to him if required so. Akbar’s Provinces
In 1580, Akbar classified his empire
into twelve subas (provinces) namely: o Bengal o Bihar o Allahabad o Awadh o Agra o Delhi o Lahore o Multan o Kabul o Ajmer o Malwa and o Gujarat
Each of these subah consisted of a governor (subadar), a diwan, a bakhshi, a sadr, a qazi, and a waqia-navis. Integration of States
By adopting a liberal policy of religious toleration and, in some cases, by giving important jobs, including service at the court and in the army, to the Hindus, Akbar successfully attempted to integrate all religious people.
saints, such as Chaitanya, Kabir, and Nanak, (resided in different parts of the country)
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emphasized on the essential unity of Islam and Hinduism.
took, after coming into power, was to abolish the jizyah (tax), which the non-Muslims were required to pay in a Muslim state.
Akbar also abolished the pilgrim-tax on bathing at holy places such as Prayag, Banaras, etc. Further, Akbar abolished the practice of forcibly converting prisoners of war to Islam.
successfully attempted to gather a band of intellectual people with liberal ideas at his court. Abul Fazl and his brother Faizi were the most recognized scholars of that time. However, both of them were persecuted by the mullahs for having sympathy with Mahdawi ideas.
more popular as Raja Birbal was one of the most trustworthy nobles of Akbar’s court.
Ibadat Khana (or the Hall of Prayer) at his new capital, Fatehpur Sikri (nearby Agra), which Akbar kept open for all religious people including Christians, Hindus, Zoroastrians, Jains, and even atheists.
’s Ibadta Khana horrified many theologians, and various rumors spread i.e. Akbar about to forsake Islam. However, Akbar was less successful in his effort to find a meeting place between the votaries of different religions in his territory.
Ibadat Khana had not led to a better understanding among the different religions, but rather lead to bitterness, as the representatives of each religion criticized the other and tried to prove that their religion was superior to others. In 1582, by understanding the conflicting situation, Akbar withdrawn the debates in the Ibadat Khana.
(Hindu philosophers) to explain the doctrines of Hinduism. He also invited Maharji Rana to explain the doctrines of Zoroastrianism.
Christian religion, Akbar also met with some Portuguese priests, he sent an embassy to Goa, requesting them to send learned missionaries to his court. Two Portuguese saints namely Aquaviva and Monserrate came and remained at Akbar’s court for almost three years.
h Hira Vijaya Suri, the leading Jain saint of Kathiawar, he also spent a couple of years at Akbar’s court.
-ul-Qadir Bada'uni (an Indo-Persian historian and translator) asserted that as a result of knowing different religious views, Akbar gradually turned away from the Islam and set up a new religion, which was compounded many existing religions. However, there is very little evidence to prove that Akbar intended or actually promulgated a new religion of such kind.
Bada'uni for the so called new path was “tauhid-i-ilahi.” The literal meaning of tauhid-i-ilahi is “Divine Monotheism.”
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‘Pabos’ (or kissing the
floor before the sovereign), a ceremony which was previously reserved for God.
ed to emphasize the concept of ‘sulh-kul’ (or peace and harmony) among different religions in other ways as well. He set up a big translation department for translating works in Sanskrit, Arabic, Greek, etc., into Persian. Most likely, it was the time when the Quran was also translated for the first time. Social Reforms
Akbar introduced a number of social and educational reforms. He stopped sati (the burning of a widow), unless she herself, of her own free will, determinedly desired it. Further, Akbar made a strict rule that widows of tender age who had not shared the bed with their husbands were not to be burnt at all. Akbar also legalized Widow Remarriage.
marriage (having two wives at the same time) unless the first wife was barren.
girls and 16 for boys.
spirits.
syllabus, emphasizing more on moral education and mathematics, and on secular subjects including agriculture, geometry, astronomy, rules of government, logic, history, etc.
poets, painters, and musicians, as his court was infused with famous and scholar people, more popularly known as the ‘navaratna.’
’s empire (as many historians claim) was essentially secular, liberal, and a promoter of cultural integration. It was enlightened with social and cultural matters. Foreign Power
Akbar was apprehensive because of the growing power of the Portuguese, as they had been interfering the pilgrim traffic (to Mecca), not sparing even the royal ladies.
were practicing the proselytizing activities, which Akbar disliked. Akbar apparently felt that the coordination and pooling of the resources of the Deccani states under Mughal supervision would check, if not eliminate, the Portuguese danger.
The Mughals 4
Jahangir
Emperor Jahangir strengthened the Mughal Empire in India after his father Akbar. Jahangir was born on 31st August, 1569 and was named Nuruddin Salim Jahangir. Nuruddin has been derived from Arabic which means "light of faith". Jahangir is a Persian word
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which means "world conqueror". Jahangir was an able administrator who had a penchant for the finer things in life. He was not a brutal warrior but a learned politician. Read this short biography to know the life history of Mughal Emperor Jehangir. Jahangir received the best education that was available at that time. His father Akbar was very particular that his son received the best education that was available in the kingdom. At the age of four he was taught Turkish, Urdu, Persian, Arabic, Arithmetic, Geography, History, Sciences, etc. At a very young age, he was given the rank of a Mansabdar of ten thousand, which is the highest rank in military after the Emperor. At the mere age of twelve, he commanded a regiment independently in the Kabul campaign. Emperor Jahangir married many times and the girls were from very high-class noble families of the Mughals and Rajputs. A Rajput princess known as Jagat Gosain was his favorite and she gave birth to Shah Jahan, Jahangir's successor. He also married the famous Noor Jahan, who was the widow of Sher Afghan. Noor Jahan was supposed to be unparalleled in beauty and intelligence. This was the reason why Jahangir was attracted towards her. She proved to be the driving force behind Jahangir and made him strengthen the empire. Jahangir loved fine arts and encouraged the growth the poetry, paintings, dance, music, etc. He was also a good writer and loved nature. He penned down his life and his experiences in the form of an autobiography named Tuzk-e-Jahangiri. He was a collector of paintings and
many of them are still preserved in a museum. He was famous for his "Chain of Justice", which was a golden chain attached to some bells outside his palace. Anyone in despair could pull the chain and go in for a personal hearing from the emperor himself. Jahangir died in the year 1627 and was buried in a magnificent tomb at a place called Shahdra, located in present day Pakistan. Shah Jahan Shah Jahan was a man of greater mark, though less attractive than Jahangir, in spite of his obvious faults. Shah Jahan was a man of great executive ability, to which he added a love for the magnificent and a refined artistic sense, specially for architecture. Shah Jahan (1592-1666) was the fifth ruler of the Mughal Empire in India. He became ruler in 1628. At his succession he executed all the male Mughal collterals , the descendants of his brothers and uncles, although at that time they had little political significance. During his reign, the Mughals reached their golden age, with vaults crammed with treasures and with architecture in magnificent style. He was in a special sense the architectural director of the day and there seems to be little doubt that the great buildings of his reign, the Taj Mahal, the Delhi Fort, and Jama Masjid, and the reconstruction of the Agra Fort, would not have been what they are without his personal inspiration and direction. Shah Jahan is best remembered for the perfectly proportioned Taj Mahal, an immense tomb of white marble built for his wife in Agra, India. These and other
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buildings still stand as examples of Mughal glory. His romantic love for Mumtaz Mahal (his wife) did not hesitate to expose Mumtaz to the rigours of travel in all states of health so that she died at the age of 39 after giving birth to her fourteenth child. The dynasty began its decline because too much money was spent on luxuries and too much effort was wasted in war. Shah Jahan's reign was a troubled one, and one of his sons took his throne by force. Taj Mahal Taj Mahal is one of the most beautiful and costly tombs in the world. The Indian ruler Shah Jahan ordered it built in memory of his favourite wife, Mumtaz Mahal, who died in 1629. The tomb stands near the city of Agra, in northern India, on the south bank of the Jumna River. About 20,000 workers were employed in its construction, completed after some 20 years by about 1650. According to tradition, the Taj Mahal was designed by a Turkish architect. It is made of white marble and rests on a platform of red sandstone. At each corner of the platform stands a slender minaret (prayer tower). Each tower is 40.5 metres high. The building itself is almost 57 metres square. A dome covers the centre of the building. It is over 21 metres in diameter and 36.5 metres high. Passages from the Muslim holy book, the Quran, decorate the outside along with inlaid floral patterns. A central room contains two cenotaphs (monuments). Visitors can see the monuments through a carved alabaster screen. The bodies of Shah Jahan and his wife lie in a vault below. The tomb stands in a garden.
Aurangzeb Aurangzeb (1618-1707), was an emperor who ruled what is now India and Pakistan from 1658 until his death. During his reign as monarch of the Mughal Empire, he conquered several states in southern India. Aurangzeb, a devout Muslim, tried to make all his people follow the doctrines of Islam, the Muslim religion. He differed from Akbar in consciously tolerating Hindus rather than treating them as equals. He placed special taxes on Hindus and destroyed Hindu temples and images, such as the destruction of Kashi Vishwanath temple and erection of a mosque in its place. Aurangzeb also destroyed many works of art because he feared that they might be worshipped as idols. Aurangzeb was born in Dohad, near Ahmadabad. In a struggle for the throne, Aurangzeb murdered his three other brothers, including the crown prince Dara Shukoh, and deposed Shah Jahan, the reigning emperor, to seize the throne for himself. Shah Jahan died a prisoner in the fortress of Agra. Aurangzeb's reign was one of the longest in the history of the Mughal dynasty. His rebellion and acts of cruelty toward his family at first aroused public horror and dislike. Yet there was no law recognized in Islamic states to nominate a legal successor to the king. The succession was often settled by wars and by murders. The new emperor, Aurangzeb, was a strict Muslim. To begin with, he followed the policy of making peace with the non-
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Muslim peoples he conquered and bringing them into the imperial service. But the policy broke down, and in the latter part of his reign, Aurangzeb imposed a much stricter form of Islamic rule. In 1679, he reintroduced the jiziya, a poll tax on non-Muslims. Militarily, Aurangzeb set out to protect his northern borders and subdue the independent Muslim kingdoms in the Deccan and south India. By 1690, the whole of the Indian subcontinent lay within the Mughal Empire. Aurangzeb won swift political and military success, through his abilities as a soldier and politician. But his conquests brought him great trouble toward the end of his reign. The wars were expensive and the military officers were rewarded for their service by the grant of new jagirs. The jagir-holders taxed the peasants mercilessly, causing many to flee from the villages. Much land was left uncultivated as a result. Aurangzeb's reign was troubled by developments in west and south India. As early as the 1660's, Shivaji, a Hindu chief of western India, had built up a strong private army and begun to raid Mughal towns and cities. He captured and sacked the great port of Surat. Shivaji's followers, known as the Marathas, were very good cavalry fighters. They took all the strong fortresses from the Mughal governors. Aurangzeb had to fight the Marathas, and many other local chiefs in the south, who were constantly rebelling against Mughal rule and trying to reestablish their independence.
The Last Mughals
The visible decline of the empire can be
dated from 1712, the year of the death
of Bahadur Shah 1. But it remained an
apparently imposing institution until the
I750s, and few thought its doom
inevitable before then. The first stage in
the process was succession wars which
left a puppet in the hands of
kingmakers. The kingmakers
overreached themselves when the third
choice proved a clever youth who
disposed of them in the course of two
Years.
This youth was Muhammad Shah, who
reigned for twenty-nine years until 1748.
The twenties saw the next stage when
the empire was virtually divided into two.
Asaf Jah, Nizam-ul-mulk, baulked in his
reforming intentions as chief minister in
Delhi, went back to his Deccan
provinces and became the virtually
independent ruler of the southern half of
the Mughal empire with Hyderabad as
its capital.
The empire bad crushed the Sikhs in
1716, but it found itself helpless against
the Marathas. In 1738 the Marathas
plundered the suburbs of Delhi and
dictated a peace which divided the two
halves of the empire by the cession of
the province of Malwa. In 1739 came
the humiliation of the Persian King Nadir
Shah's invasion. Neglect, ineptitude,
divided counsels, and treachery led to
military debacle at Karnal, the
occupation of Delhi, massacre, and
wholesale plunder. Nevertheless, when
Nadir Shah's back was turned, with the
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Peacock Throne in his train, the empire
seemed to recover and even repelled
the first of the Afghan incursions in
1748. With Muhammad Shah's death
the collapse began. A civil war between
rival ministers left a headlong and
ruthless youth in power, who murdered
two emperors and called in the
Marathas before vanishing into
obscurity. The south was already the
Nizam's domain. Kabul was lost to Nadir
Shah in 1739. Sindh and fertile Gujarat
with Surat went in 1750, prosperous
Oudh in 1754, and the martial Punjab to
the Afghans in the same year. Bengal
still sent tribute but was virtually
independent.
The cause of this collapse is usually put
down to the effeteness of the emperors.
This was certainly one cause since
personality was one of the main imperial
pillars. But it was not the only cause or
necessarily the vital one. Another
important reason was Aurangzeb's
policy of treating the empire as a Muslim
state instead of an Indian state with
Islam as the state religion. Which
alienated Hindus to such an extent that
they had no desire of allowing Mughal
empire to continue. Martial groups like
the Sikhs and the Jats were encouraged
to open revolt. And the Marathas with
their invincibility and Guerrilla warfare
had all the capabilities to ruin the
Mughals and form another empire.
Nadir Shah
Aurangzeb's death had created a void in
the Mughal empire which none of his
successors were able to fill. Frequent
struggles for throne and betrayal of
ministers had resulted in the weakening
of the empire. Nadir Shah, who from
being a chief of dacoits had become the
king of Persia, saw the weak empire as
an opportunity.
In 1738, Nadir Shah proceeded to
invade India. The excuse for the
invasion being that the Mughal emperor
Muhammad Shah had insulted the
Persian envoy at the royal court of
Delhi. He overran the western frontiers
of Mughal empire capturing Ghazni,
Kabul and Lahore in 1739. When Nadir
Shah crossed Khyber pass the
Governor of Punjab requested the
Mughal empire to reinforce the defences
in Punjab, but the then Mughal emperor
Muhammad Shah turned a deaf ear
towards his genuine request.
Soon Nadir Shah stormed Punjab,
Muhammad Shah realizing the danger
asked Khan Dauran and Nizam-ul-Mulk
to lead the Mughal forces against Nadir
Shah. But the two declined, so
ultimately Muhammad Shah decided to
lead the forces himself. The two forces
met at Karnal, but soon the Mughal
forces were encircled and defeated. The
Nawab of Awadh Saadat Khan was
taken prisoner and Khan Dauran was
seriously wounded.
The defeat of the Mughal army created
confusion in their ranks. The Nizam
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played the role of mediator and
persuaded Nadir Shah to return to
Persia on receiving 20 million rupees.
Mughal emperor pleased with Nizam
conferred him the title of 'Amir-Ul-Umra'
and also appointed him the Prime
Minister. Jealous Saadat Khan
approached Nadir Khan and told him
that he should not get satisfied with
such a paltry sum which even a
provincial governor can give him. This
had an electrifying effect on the Persian
ruler and the grandeur of Delhi flashed
before his eyes.
Triumphant Nadir Shah entered Delhi
along with the humbled Mughal
Emperor. The keys of the Delhi fort and
treasure had already been surrendered.
An amount was also settled with Nadir
Shah as a condition for his return. But a
rumour spread that Nadir Shah has
been killed. Riots were sparked off in
Delhi in which few Persian soldiers were
killed. As Nadir Shah heard of this he
straightaway rode into the city, in the
city he saw the corpses of Persian
soldiers lying on the streets. Near the
Sunhari masjid of Roshnuddola, some
people hurled stones at him also a stray
bullet killed a Persian soldier. He was
enraged, he ordered a general
massacre at all those localities where
the bodies of Persian soldiers were
found. Consequently on 11th of march
1739 citizens of Delhi were plundered
and slaughtered, some historians say
that nearly 0.2 million people were
killed.
Nadir Shah on his return after
plundering and slaughtering Delhites for
57 days, took with him the famous
'Peacock throne' built by Shahjahan and
the legendary 'Koh-i-noor' along with
600 million rupees worth of jewellery,
gold worth 10 million rupees and coins
worth 6 million rupees. His total
collection of booty was worth 700 million
rupees and also took care to include in
his train 100 elephants, 7000 craftsmen,
100 stone-cutters and 200 carpenters.
Nadir Shah's invasion did a irreparable
damage to the Mughal empire. Mughal
provinces across the Indus were
seceded to the Persians. Later on
inspired by the antics of Nadir Shah his
successor Ahmad Shah Abdali too
invaded India several times between
1748 and 1767 and plundered Delhi.
The nawabs of Awadh
Nawab Saadat Khan (1722-1739)
The power of the shaikhzadas remained
paramount and unchallenged until
Saadat Khan stepped into Lucknow.
Being appointed Subedar in 1722
Saadat Khan laid the foundation of
Awadh dynasty of the Shia Nawabs of
Iranian lineage based first at Faizabad
and later at Lucknow. He died in 1739
A.D. in Delhi. Although he died a natural
death due to the chronic pain in his leg
caused by a tumor, which was probably
cancerous, yet his sudden death gave
rise to the calumny that he committed
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suicide by consuming poison because of
loss of credibility both with the victor and
the vanquished during the invasion of
India by Nadir Shah.
Nawab Safdar Jang (1739 – 1754)
Saadat Khan was succeeded by his
son-in-law, Safdar Jung who set up his
military head-quarters at Faizabad. His
rule of fifteen years (1739 – 1754)saw
no peace as he was constantly engaged
in struggle against the Bangash Nawabs
of Farrukhabad. Safdar Jung had to
leave the Delhi court due to
conspiracies. He returned to Awadh in
1753, but died within a year at Rupar
ghat, near Sultanpur in 1754. His
mausoleum, which is one of the finest
pieces of the architecture of the period,
is in New Delhi.
Nawab Shuja ud-Daula (1754-1775)
Safdar Jung was succeeded by his son,
Shuja – Ud – Daula, who stayed mostly
at Faizabad but was always eager to
extend his dominion up to Bihar. He
made several efforts to this end, by
supporting Shah Alam II, and
subsequently Mir Kasim but was
defeated in the battle by the English at
Buxar in 1764. The defeat compelled
him to enter into a treaty with the East
India Company. The agreement not only
paved the way for British advent on the
soils of Awadh but also their gradual
ascendancy to real power. The Nawab
first gave up the fort of Chunar, and then
ceded the Banaras region and the
revenues of Ghazipur in 1775.
Safdarjang was a restless, ambitious
and impulsive ruler who was engaged in
violent disturbances which brought
momentous vicissitudes for his reign (
1754 – 1775 ). Shuja-Ud-Daula died
early in January 1775 and was laid at
his mausoleum at Gulab-Bari, Faizabad.
Nawab Asaf ud-Daula (1775-1798)
The accession of Asaf-Ud-Daula, the
fourth Nawab, brought a great change in
Awadh politics. He moved the court of
Awadh from Faizabad to Lucknow in
1775. When the court moved to
Lucknow, the kernel of the court, as if,
shed its old husk and acquired a new
one and the city largely grew in and
around the existing town to
accommodate the influx of the people.
There emerged a powerful Shia culture,
in constant interaction with Shia heart
lands of Iran and Iraq. The increasing
number of Shia emigrants from Iranian
cities veritably transformed Lucknow
into a great intellectual center.
The Nawab constructed Daulat Khana,
the large palace – garden complex as
residence for himself, the major
mosques like Asfi Masjid, enlarged the
Chowk and set up dozen major markets
to form the core of royal quarter of the
city. He built the gateway, Rumi
Darwaza and Bara Imambara to provide
succor to the victims of famine of 1784.
The arched roof of Imambara, built
without a single beam or pillar for
support, is one of the largest of its kind
in the World. The Bhul Bhulaiya at
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Imambara is a unique labyrinth of
intricate balconies and passages, with
489 identical doorways, which make one
feel being lost. Asaf- Ud-Daula also built
Bibiyapur Kothi and Chinhut Kothi.
Overwhelmed by the design of
Constantia built by Claude Martin he
purchased it, offering to give ten lakhs of
gold coins. However, before the
transaction could be completed, the
Nawab died in 1798 and was laid to rest
in the magnificent Imambara built by
him. The British absorbed Allahabad
and the adjoining region in the same
year.
Nawab Wazir Ali (1798)
Wazir Ali became the Nawab of Awadh
after the death of Asaf – Ud – Daula. His
succession was disputed on his being
an illegitimate son of Asaf-ud-Daula,
whose brother Sadat Ali Khan made
overtures to the British who finally
deposed and imprisoned Wazir Ali at
Vellore as the latter did not toe their
lines and revolted against the British.
Nawab Saadat Ali Khan (1798-1814)
Sadat Ali Khan was made Nawab on
21st January 1798 at a grand darbar
held at Bibiyapur kothi. As a mark of
gratitude, the Nawab formally ceded
lower Doab, Gorakhpur and Rohilkhand.
While Awadh shrank half in size, the
powers of British Resident grew in
inverse proportion. The resident
gradually arrogated to himself the right
to hold a darbar or court and assumed
the de-facto guardianship of wasiqadars
or pensioners against the Nawab
himself.
Sadat Ali Khan, though a miser, was
nevertheless an enthusiastic builder and
he commissioned many palaces,
including Dilkusha, Hayat Baksh Kothi,
Farhat Baksh Kothi as well as Lal
Baradari. He also constructed, Chhatar
Manzil, Kothi Dil Aram, Munawar Baksh,
Khursid Manzil and the Chaupar Stables
abandoning the Mughal style by
adopting European Innovations in
architecture.
In 1814, Sadat Ali Khan died and was
buried with his wife Khursheed Zadi in
the twin tombs of Qaiserbagh adjoining
the Begum Hazrat Mahal Park.
Nawab Ghazi-ud-Din Haider (1814-1827)
Ghazi-ud-din Haider became Nawab in
1814. He broke the frayed ties between
the defunct Mughal empire and Awadh
and declared it an independent state in
1819. He was now called King, but for
all formal and ceremonial purposes, the
Resident was deemed his equal. The
Resident even had an edge over the
king; he could threaten and bully while
the King could only sulk and
occasionally protest.
He built two houses in Moti Mahal
complex, Mubarak Manzil and Shah
Manzil. He got built for his European
wife a house named Vilayati Bagh in
European style. Near it was constructed
Qadam Rasul which supposedly bears
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the foot prints of Muhammed on black
stone. Owing to his religious fervency,
he also constructed a holy mausoleum,
Najaf, the replica of Ali’s burial place at
Najaf in Iraq. He was buried there on his
death in 1827. Later, his three begums
were also buried at Shah Najaf
Imambara.
Nawab Nasir-ud-Din Haider (1827-1837)
Ghazi-ud-din Haider’s son, Nasir-ud-din
Haider ascended the throne in 1827.
The administration of the kingdom was
left to hands of wazir Hakim Mahdi and
later to Raushan-ud-Daula. The king
kept himself busy in debaucheries and
inventing religious rites. He lived mostly
in womens quarters and even dressed
like a woman. He had a colourful court
and led a very lavish life.
His strong belief in astrology and
astronomy led him to set up an
observatory at Lucknow — Tarawali
Kothi. He added Darshan Vilas, a
European style Kothi to the Farhat
Baksh complex in 1832 and reproduced
a Karbala at Iradatnagar for his place of
burial.
In 1837, he was poisoned to death by
his own friends and favourites.
Nasiruddin Haider had died without any
offspring and his queen Badshah
Begum put forward Munna Jan as a
claimant to the throne though both
Ghaziuddin Haider and Nasir uddin
Haider had refused to acknowledge him
as belonging to royal lineage. Badshah
Begum forcibly enthroned Munna Jan at
the Lal Baradari. The British intervened
and exploited the situation to their
advantage. They arrested Munna Jan
and Badshah Begum and arranged for
the accession of Nasir-ud Din Haider,
the son of late Nawab Sadat Ali Khan,
who promised to pay a large sum of
money to the British for this.
Nawab Mohammad Ali Shah (1837-1842)
Muhammad Ali Shah was 63 years of
age when he ascended the throne. He
was an experienced man and had seen
the glorious days of his father. He
started to economise and set right the
administrative machinery. He built the
Husainabad (Chhota) Imambara in 1838
and created Hooseinabad Endowment
Fund to support it.
Muhammad Ali Shah had resolved to
make Lucknow into veritable Babylon.
He started building in the
neighbourhood of the present Clock
Tower, an edifice similar to Babylon’s
minaret or floating garden and named it
Satkhanda, but it reached only its fifth
storey in 1842 when Muhammad Ali
Shah died.
Nawab Amjad Ali Shah (1842-1847)
After Muhammad Ali Shah, his son
Amjad Ali Shah ascended the throne.
He had received an excellent education
which made him a devout Muslim but
fell short of making him a capable ruler.
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He became a deeply religious,
circumspect and abstinent ruler of
Awadh. As a result, the system of
administration toned up by Muhammad
Ali Shah became completely
disorganised while the vicious officers
had their day. His ability to rule was
considerably undermined by the
competing power structure created by
the East India Company and its large
scale interference in the affairs of the
kingdom. The situation progressively
sapped the authority of the king.
Amjad Ali Shah died in 1848 due to
cancer and was buried at the Imambara
Sibtainabad in western part of
Hazratganj, a quarter which he had
himself established.
Nawab Wajid Ali Shah (1847-1856)
Wajid Ali Shah, the eldest son of Amjad
Ali Shah, became the king of Awadh in
1847. Wajid Ali Shah was himself a
great theatre genius and had set up a
Pari Khana for training artists. He was
also a great patron of artists, singers
and musicians. He lived in an
atmosphere of gaiety and merriment.
Wajid Ali Shah was completely given to
pleasure in the closing years of his
reign. He was devoted to his large
harem, his boon companions, his
columbary, and his large and impressive
menagerie.
Wajid Ali Shah was greatly interested in
architecture. He started building the
Qaiser Bagh palace complex as soon as
he came to power. The inner court yard
of Qaiser Bagh, with its lawns was
called Jilo Khana. In the center was a
Baradari flanked by two mermaid gates
(Lakhigate) on eastern and western
ends. On the right end was Chandwali
Baradari, which was paved with silver
and the Khas Muqam and Badshah
Manzil, which used to be special
residence of the king. The buildings at
Qaiser Bagh quadrangle were occupied
mainly by the ladies of his seraglio. To
the left of western Lakhi Gate was
Roshan-ud Daula Kothi built by the
Wazir of Nasiruddin Haider. Wajid Ali
Shah confiscated it and named it Qaiser
Pasand, where one of his wife Mushuq
Mahal used to live. He purchased
Chaulakhi Kothi from Azimulla Khan.
During the first war of independence,
Begum Hazrat Mahal held her court
from this Kothi.
The British were looking for an
opportunity to annex Awadh. About
Wajid Ali Shah, Lord Dalhousie once
wrote: “The king of Oudh seems
disposed to bumptious. I wish he would
be. To swallow him before I go, would
give me satisfaction”. He referred to
Awadh as the “luscious cherry” that will
drop into their mouth one day especially
if the British continued shaking the tree
to help it down.
They found an opportunity. Hindu –
Muslim rupture over Hanuman Garhi at
Ayodhya created so much tumult for the
secular-minded king that the British got
an excuse to annex Awadh on the self –
righteous ground that “British
Government would be guilty in the sight
of God and man, if it were any longer to
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aid in sustaining by its countenance an
administration with evil to millions.” The
British annexed Awadh on 11th
February 1856 deposing Wajid Ali Shah.
The Palas
Introduction
After the death of Harsha and up
to the rise of the Palas, the
history of Bengal is not clear.
During this time, West Bengal
was known as Gauda and East
Bengal as Vanga.
Bengal was subject to internal
disorder, which has been termed
as Matsyanyaya.
Rulers of Pala Dynasty
Gopala was the elected king by
the people in a revolution to end
the Matsyanyaya.
The history of Gopala’s early life
is not known.
Gopala introduced peace in the
kingdom and laid the foundation
for the Pala dynasty.
Dharmapala became ruler after
Gopala in about A.D. 780. He
undertakes the expansion of his
empire.
Dharmapala defeated
Indrayudha, the king of Kanauj
and installed his nominee
Chakrayudha to the throne of
Kanauj.
Dharmapala held a grand darbar
at Kanauj, which was attended
by several kings. However, he
could not consolidate his
position.
Rashtrakuta king, Dhruva
defeated Dharmapala near
Monghyr (Bihar) in a battle.
Meanwhile Nagabhatta II,
Pratihara king became more
powerful.
After Dharmapala, his son
Devapala became the ruler. He
was the mightiest Pala king. He
conquered –Pragjotishpur
(Assam) and Utkala (Orissa).
The kings Palas dynasty ruled
over Bihar, Bengal, and parts of
Orissa and Assam with many
ups and downs for over four
centuries.
Arab merchant Sulaiman testifies
their power. He calls the Pala
kingdom Ruhma (or Dharma),
short for Dharmapala,
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Sulaiman mentioned that the
Pala rulers were at war with their
neighbors – the Pratiharas and
the Rashtrakutas, but his troops
were more in number than his
adversaries.
Sulaiman also mentioned that ‘it was usual for the Pala king to be
accompanied by a force of
50,000 elephants.’
The Tibetan chronicles also
provide detailed information
about the Palas dynasties.
According to Tibetan historians,
Pala rulers were great patrons of
Buddhist learning and religion.
Dharmapala founded the famous
Buddhist monastery at
Vikramashila. It became eminent
as Nalanda (in fame).
During Pala reign, Nalanda
University became famous all
over the world.
During this period, Nalanda had
more than 10,000 students and
teachers coming not only from
different parts of India, but also
from central Asia, China, South
East Asia, and Sri Lanka.
Nalanda University was
considered as one of the biggest
educational institutions of its
time.
It imparted education in various
branches of knowledge.
Dharmapala donated the royal
income from two hundred
surrounding villages to meet the
expenses of Nalanda University.
Devapala also donated income
from five villages.
The king of Suvarnadvipa
(modern Malaya Peninsula, Java
and Sumatra), Maharaja
Balaputradeva erected a
monastery in Nalanda and
requested Devapala to donate
five villages for the maintenance
of that monastery.
The Pala kings patronized
Hinduism as well.
Vinayakapala built one thousand
temples in honor of the Lord
Saiva. They also gave donations
to Brahmans to settle in their
country and run gurukuls.
The powerful Sailendra dynasty
of South East Asia sent many
embassies to the Pala kings.
They ruled over Malaya, Java,
Sumatra, and neighboring
islands.
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The Palas had close trade
contacts and cultural links with
South East Asia and China.
The trade with South East Asia
and China was very profitable
and added greatly to the
prosperity of the Pala Empire.
Great Revolt of 1857
The Great Revolt of 1857 (also Indian rebellion of 1857, the Great uprising of 1857, the Great rebellion, Indian Sepoy mutiny) is regarded as India’s First War of Independence against the British rule. It was the most remarkable single event in the history of India after the establishment of British rule. It was the result of the century-old British rule in India. In comparison to the previous uprisings of the Indians, the Great Revolt of 1857 was of a greater dimension and it assumed almost an all-India character with participation of people from different sections of the society. This Revolt was initiated by the sepoys of the company. So it has been commonly termed as `Sepoy Mutiny‘. But it was not simply a revolt of the sepoys.
Causes
The causes of the Great Revolt of 1857 and Sepoy Mutiny may be studied in the following heads:
Political cause: Major political cause for the outbreak of the Revolt was the policy of annexation followed by Dalhousie. On application of the ‘Doctrine of Lapse’ or on the ground of mis-governance he annexed states after states deploring their rulers. Satara, Jhansi, Sambalpur, Nagpur, etc. fill victim in his aggressive policy. All these states came under British rule. In 1856, he captured Oudh on the plea of misrule. He looked the palaces of Nagpur and Oudh. Not only the ruling house, but also the employees and other dependent families were deprived of their livings for the policy of Dalhousie. His maltreatment towards the Mughal emperor Bahadur Shah-II hurt the sentiment of the Muslim community. Discontinuation of the pension of the Peshwa Nana Sahib shocked the Marathas. This discontent of royal families, army men and common people jointly exposed in the Great Revolt of 1857.
Economic cause: The Great Revolt of 1857 was also an outburst of grievances due to the economic exploitation of the company. India’s traditional economy collapsed as a result of the British ‘investment’ policies and revenue administration. The company’s trade policy destroyed Indian handicrafts. Huge numbers of Indians were thrown out of employment. The British, opened a new avenue of exploitation on the peasants By introducing permanent settlement. Exploitation of the Zamindars gave rise 10 landless laborers who became restless by and by. Thus out of discontent the artisans and peasantry joined hands with the sepoys in the mutiny.
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Military cause: The sepoys of the company regiment had been feeling dissatisfied with the English for various reasons.
1. Thus was a great disparity in salaries between the Indian and European soldiers.
2. The Indian sepoys were treated with contempt by their European officers.
3. The sepoys were sent to distant parts of the empire, but were not paid any extra allowance.
4. Indian sepoys were refused promotion in service as like their European counterparts. Out of such discontent the Indian sepoys led to a mutiny.
Social cause: The English could not establish any social relationship with the Indians. The racial arrogance of the British created a difference between the rulers and the ruled.
Enactment of some Acts greatly offended the sentiment of the people. Some of these acts were taken as deliberate blow at the Hindu religion, custom and right of inheritance.
Direct cause: At that time, Enfield rifles were introduced in the army. The bullets of these rifles were covered by paper with grease like thing. The Sepoys were to cut the cover by teeth before using it. The Hindu and Muslim soldiers refused to cut the covers. They protested against this and were arrested. That ignited the fire.
Under the leadership of Mangal Pandey the agony of the Sepoys exposed at Barrackpore in Calcutta (March, 1857
A.D.). But the planned revolt started at Meerut (May, 1857 A.D.). Gradually it spread from Punjab in the north to Narmada in south, from Rajputana in the west to Bihar in the east. As the revolt was started by the Indian sepoys in the British army, the revolt became known as Sepoy mutiny. When the sepoys of Meerut reached Delhi there was huge upsurge. They declared old Mughal Emperor Bahadur Shah as the Badshah of India. He was accepted as the symbol of Hindu-Muslim unity. With the outbreak of mutiny among Sepoys common men joined the revolt. Farmers and artisans put further force behind the mutiny. The second reason for this mass revolt was the unity among the Hindus and Muslims. On observing this historians thought that, up to this period there was no communal feelings among the masses.
End of the Revolt
The British government came out with all the powers to suppress the revolt. The sepoys fought the battle with their limited strength for four months. Then, the sepoys had to retreat. On 25th September British troops regained Delhi. Bahadur Shah was arrested. Nana Saheb lost the battle of Kanpur. His commander Tantia Topi continued the fight up to April, 1859 A.D. and surrendered to the British force. Lakshmi Bai of Jhansi lost her life in the battleground. Kunwar Singh, Bakht Khan of Bihar, Bahadur Khan, Moulavi Ahmed of Faizabad lost their lives one after the other. By the end of 1859 A.D. the British power was reestablished in troubled areas.
Reason of failure of the revolt
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There were several reasons behind the failure of this revolt.
1. There was no central organization of the sepoys. There was no unified action also. Bahadur Shah, Nana Saheb, Lakshmi Bai, no one had acceptance as a real leader. They had different goals and times again they had contradictions.
2. The British had a huge number of forces. New groups of soldiers were sent to India after the end of Crimean war. Fresh army men came from Singapore. As a result of these, in the middle of the revolt the strength of the British force was doubled. The chance of a win became remote.
3. The sepoys had no improved arms with them. On the other hand, the British force had huge and improved armory. They could not match improved guns and ri-fles with their old model musket, spears and sword. So the defeat was almost certain.
4. Further the leaders of this revolt could not get the support of several native states like Holker, Scindia and Rajput sardars and kings. They supported the British. Educated middle-class people also were behind the British power.
Nature of the Great Revolt of 1857
There are differences of opinions amongst historians about the character of this great revolt. Some historians are of opinion that the revolt in the North-Western province was a lawless revolt by a group of sepoys.
On the other hand, some historians believe that it was more than just a
sepoy mutiny as it had a large mass base. Though in the beginning it was like sepoy mutiny, but later on it turned out to be a real mass upsurge.
Karl Marx in his several essays described this revolt as nationalist fight for independence. Marxist writers looked at this event as uprising of peasants against feudal system of exploitation. V.D. Savarkar, the great revolutionary, described this revolt as the first struggle for independence. M.N. Roy said that it was the reaction of the feudal against capitalism.
On the centenary of the great revolt Dr. Ramesh Chandra Majumder wrote and published a book entitled ‘Sepoy Mutiny’ and ‘Revolt of Eighteen Fifty Seven’. Dr. Majumder thought that this was nothing but a revolt of the sepoy. He also said that in some places few non-military persons came out in support of the sepoys but they were local landlords, talukdars and feudal leaders. In his opinion it was nothing better than feudalistic reaction of the revolt.
But many historians are of opinion that the Great movement of 1857 A.D. cannot be termed as narrow, isolated and reactionary. The sepoys established a symbol of Hindu-Muslim unity by electing Bahadur Shah as the Emperor of India. In the Ajamgarh declaration a call was given to people of all classes of mass to unite against the British rule. It may be righty that they had no idea about national government, but nationalism was there. So it can be called a national movement.
Importance and Outcome of the Great Revolt of 1857
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It can be said that the great revolt of 1857 A.D. was a failure, but was not fruitless.
1. United Effort: From this revolt, we can have a picture of India’s struggle for keeping the rights. There were several revolts before this, but there was no feeling of Indian-ness in those revolts. The revolt of 1857 A.D. was a collected effort of different sections of people.
2. Awakening of Peasants class: The peasants joined this revolt which was out and out against the British. This was unique.
3. Development of National Feeling: Dr. K. M Panikkar wrote that though the sepoys had limitations and weaknesses, but their efforts to make India free from British rule was patriotic work and a progressive step. If we do not consider any historical event on the basis of its success then the revolt of 1857 A.D. was never a tragedy. Even inspite of failure that served a great purpose, it was a source of inspiration in India’s freedom struggle.
4. End of Company Rule: The political result of this great revolt was the end of company’s rule in India. By a new act introduced in the British Parliament British government took the charge to rule India. From then onward a Viceroy as a representative of British King ruled India.
5. Queen’s proclamation: The Queen’s Proclamation showered many promises in 1858 A.D. Government service was promised irrespective of cast, religion and on the basis of merit only. Ill framed
“doctrine of lapse” of Lord Dalhousie was cancelled. New recruitment policy of the army men was announced to see that they could not organize any revolt. In the important positions of the government no native people (Indian) was given any chance.
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