Rise of the Nation-State From 1859-1871, there is the consolidation of
a number of nation-states in Europe Includes two new countries: Italy and Germany Creation of the dual monarchy of Austria-Hungary Radical changes in Russia
What is a nation-state? Where the boundaries of the nation correspond to
the geographical boundaries People share the same language and culture May share common heritage or history Created new ties between the government and
the people
Rise of the Nation-State State of the state prior to 1860
Nations were fragmented into smaller countries or large empires encompassed numerous nations
Two main nation-states in Europe were Great Britain and France
Smaller ones existed (e.g., Portugal and Switzerland) but were not influential
Causes of the development of nation-states Rise in nationalism New technology especially in communication Wars were necessary as they broke the choke-
holds of major powers such as Austria and Russia
Crimean War (1854-1856) Crimean War would break the power of both
Austria and Russia They were the last countries holding onto the old
style governments and the Congress System Eastern Question
Ottoman Empire was losing its grip on provinces in southeastern Europe
With the slow decline of the Ottomans, who would benefit from their fall?
Strategic location militarily and economically Russia wanted to step into the power vacuum Britain and Austria were hoping to keep the Empire
intact
Crimean War (1854-1856) Cause of the war
Mainly religious Both France and Russia wanted to be the
protectors of religious minorities in Jerusalem and the Holy Land
France had considered itself “sovereign authority” in the region for many years Goes back to Treaty of Küçük Kaynarca (1774)
Abdülmecid I (1839-1861) Ottoman Sultan decided to end the agreement
with France Instead wanted Russian influence
Crimean War (1854-1856) France responded with a show of force
Sent in a number of ships along with a large payment Abdülmecid negotiated a new treaty with France
Granted France the “sovereign authority” Catholic Church was the governing Christian religion Russian Orthodox Church lost control of the Church of
the Nativity Russian response
Nicolas I sent in Russian troops into Ottoman territories of the Danubian Principalities (Moldavia and Walachia)
Crimean War (1854-1856) Britain, France, Austria, and Prussia wanted to
prevent war Did not want Russia to gain a foothold in the east Britain moved part of its fleet into the Black Sea just in
case Abdülmecid was willing to compromise but Nicolas
was not Turks declared war on Russia (October 23, 1853) Battle of Sinop (November 30, 1853)
Turks lost a good chunk of its fleet British and French response
Afraid of the quick advances made by Russia Sent ultimatum to Nicolas requesting withdrawal of
troops from Danubian Principalities
Crimean War (1854-1856) Britain and France declared war on March 28,
1854 Both countries invaded Russia via Crimean peninsula
Battle of Balaclava (October 25, 1854) British led a charge using light cavalry into the “Valley
of Death” Were slaughtered by Russian forces Inspired the poem “Charge of the Light Brigade” by
Tennyson Austrian response
Russia hoped to get Austria as allies Austria was fearful of Russia Did not declare war but did not declare neutrality Also demanded Russia to withdraw its troops
Crimean War (1854-1856) Nicolas died on March 2, 1855
Successor was Alexander II who sued for peace Treaty of Paris (March 30, 1856)
Outcome of the Congress of Paris Designed to maintain the “integrity of the Ottoman
Empire” Danubian Principalities would stay under Ottoman
control Black Sea would remain neutral and demilitarized Russia lost all gains in the Danube region Romania becomes an independent nation France continued to hold the right of protection to
the Christians in the Ottoman Empire
Crimean War (1854-1856) First “modern” war
Extensive use of rifled muskets and underwater mines
Use of trench warfare Railroads and telegraphs allowed for easier
transport and communications Was a “public war”
Numerous correspondents and photojournalists covered it
Most famous was Roger Fenton (1819-1869) Made heroes out of soldiers and army nurses One of the most famous was Florence Nightingale
(1820–1910)
Italian Unification Two visions of Italian statehood Republican ideal
Started by Mazzini in 1848 Giuseppi Garibaldi took up the mantel Hoped to achieve national unification through a
popular movement Constitutional monarchy
This was favored by moderate nationalists Wanted economic and political reforms without
democracy Pinned their hopes on Charles Albert, king of
Piedmont-Sardinia When he died, they turned to his son, Victor
Emmanuel II (1849–1861)
Italian Unification By 1860, it was clear that the republican model was
not going to work Papacy refused to go along with the ideals of Mazzini and
Garibaldi Therefore, the pope would not outwardly support unification Also, it would be difficult to kick Austria out of Italy without
outside help The burden would fall on Camillo Benso, conte di
Cavour Was the Prime Minister under Victor Emmanuel Did not like the republicans but was willing to work with
them Brought Sardinia into the Crimean War to gain alliance with
France
Italian Unification Reforms made by Cavour
Pursued pragmatic reforms guided by the state Promoted economic expansion and a modern
transportation infrastructure Reformed the currency
Working to unify Italy Relied on diplomacy Cultivated an alliance with France in order to drive
the Austrians from Italy Went to war against Austria in1859 with the help
of the French Piedmont-Sardinia annexed Lombardy Tuscany, Parma, and Modena voted to join as well
Italian Unification There were three Italian states in 1860
Northern Italian kingdom under Victor Emmanuel Papal States Kingdom of Two Sicilies
Bringing in the Two Sicilies King Francis II faced a widespread peasant revolt
in 1860 Garibaldi used the opportunity to push his ideas He landed in Sicily in May 1860 with his volunteers
known as “The Thousand” Gained widespread support for unification Toppled Francis in November by taking Naples
Italian Unification Garibaldi planned to march to Rome
This would bring him in confrontation with not only the pope but French forces as well
Garibaldi took Sicily in the name of King Victor Emmanuel
In order to avoid an international crisis, Cavour and Garibaldi were willing to work together Cavour worried that Garibaldi would bring French or
Austrian intervention Cavour preferred that unification take place quickly,
without domestic turmoil The king ordered Garibaldi to cede military
authority
Italian Unification First Italian Parliament (1861)
Assembly ordered by Victor Emmanuel Victor Emmanuel was named King of Italy on
March 17 Third Italian War of Independence (1866)
Italy was able to take Venetia from Austria Taking Rome
Garibaldi attempted to take Rome in 1867 but was defeated by French and Papal forces
With the outbreak of the Franco-Prussian War in 1870, France removed its troops from Rome
This allowed Garibaldi another opportunity Italian soldiers occupied Rome in September 1870
Italian Unification Rome voted to become part of Italy on October 2,
1870 Did not become the official capital until July 1871
Status of the pope Law of Papal Guarantees (May 13, 1871) made the pope
subject to the king of Italy and not an independent sovereign
Pope Pius IX rejected it and declared himself prisoner in the Vatican
All the popes until 1929 rejected being part of Italy Problems with unification
Parliamentary government with limited suffrage Widening gap between industrial north and rural south
German Unification In 1850, German states were reeling from
failure Due to the failure of the 1848 revolutions and the
Frankfurt Assembly The main powers had been restored The nationalism movement was stunned
Realpolitik Focus on more realistic types of governments than
one based on ideals. Strong ties to the realism movement of the middle
19th century Became the watchword in the German states in the
1850s and 60s
German Unification Frederick William of Prussia (1840–1861)
Still was staunchly anti-revolution Granted a Prussian constitution with bicameral
parliament However, the power remained in the hands of the
wealthy Voters were divided into three classes based on the
amount of taxes they paid The wealthy classes had a much larger degree of
voting power than a common working man During this period there was an economic boom
Due to six fold output of both coal and iron Led to the growth of the Prussian middle class
German Unification Growing liberalism
Active liberal intelligentsia Liberal civil service
Effects on the military King wanted to expand the standing army and
take military matters out of parliamentary control Industrialists did not like the large standing army
nor the Junkers who were officers Opponents saw the king perhaps creating a
personal army King Wilhelm I (1861-1888)
Was caught in the struggle with the Diet Hired Otto von Bismarck as his Prime minister
German Unification Otto von Bismarck (1815–1898)
Prime Minister from 1862-1873 Prussian Junker and defender of the monarchy Opposed liberalism and nationalism
Ideas on unification Believed that some sort of union was inevitable and
that Prussia ought to take the initiative Was going to use both diplomacy and war to
achieve this “The great questions of the time will not be
resolved by speeches and majority decisions—that was the great mistake of 1848 and 1849—but by iron and blood.”
German Unification Parliamentary crisis in 1862
Diet refused to pass appropriations for the military and the country’s budge
Technically, the government would not be able to collect taxes without approval from the Diet
Bismarck decided to have the government collect the taxes based on the budget of 1861
House of Deputies stated it could not work with Bismarck He dissolved the Diet in 1863
Bismarck’s foreign policy Played the “nationalist card” to pre-empt his liberal
opponents Believed that the German Confederation was no longer
useful Called for the expansion of Prussian territory
German Unification Dispute over Schleswig and Holstein
Both territories contained large German populations First War of Schleswig (1848-1851)
Denmark attempted to annex the Duchy of Schleswig Led to war between Prussia and Denmark Prussia lost and was forced to withdraw
London Protocol (1852) The two duchies of Schleswig and Holstein would be
joined by a person with the King of Denmark In November 1863, Frederick VII of Denmark died
He had no children Led to the dispute over the succession Schleswig and
Holstein
German Unification Christian IX of Denmark (1863-1906)
German Confederation was against the continuing union
Signed the November Constitution making Schleswig part of Denmark
Violated the London Protocol and went against the idea of a “greater Germany”
Second Schleswig War (February–October 1864) German Diet declared an all-German war against
Denmark Prussia joined the war with Austria Prussia wanted control of both Schleswig and Holstein Denmark lost and gave up those two territories
German Unification Gastein Convention (August 14, 1865)
Prussia gained control of Schleswig Austria gained control of Holstein
Problems with Austria Bismarck now wanted to get rid of Austrian influence Already problems with Austrian administration of
Holstein In 1866, Austria backed out of the Gastein
Convention Claimed that only the German Diet could determine
who would control Schleswig and Holstein Prussia responded by invading Holstein
German Unification The Seven Weeks’ War (1866)
Prussians used new technological innovations such as the needle-gun to its advantage
Bismarck kept the war short to keep it limited to Austria Peace of Prague (1866)
Austria gave up Schleswig-Holstein and Venetia Austria agreed to dissolve the German Confederation
Bismarck created the Northern German Confederation Wrote a new constitution King of Prussia was the head of this new Confederation Included a bicameral legislature Weakened the liberal opposition
German Unification In 1870, Leopold of Hohenzollern was offered the
job of Spanish monarch Was a cousin of Wilhelm I Napoleon III convinced Leopold to withdraw his
acceptance Then went on to tell Wilhelm that no other
Hohenzollern should become candidate for the Spanish throne
Ems Dispatch Based on a telegram from Wilhelm to Bismarck Bismarck reprinted a condensed version Main point: France demanded certain actions of
Prussia under the threat of war Both French and Prussians were angered over this
France declared war on Prussia (July 19, 1870)
German Unification The Franco-Prussian War (1870–1871)
Quickly showed Prussian military superiority Prussia used railways and new steel artillery (Krupp
cannon) to its advantage Did not become a European-wide war German states rallied to Prussia’s side No European powers came to the aid of France Napoleon captured at the Battle of Sedan
(September 2, 1870) France responded with the creation of the Third
Republic two days later New French government refused to capitulate Prussian troops laid siege to Paris for four months
German Unification Declaration of the German Empire (January 18,
1871) Made by Bismarck in the Hall of Mirrors at Versailles Prussian king would receive the hereditary title of
emperor Paris finally fell on January 28, 1871 Treaty of Frankfurt (May 1871)
Returned Alsace-Lorraine to Germany Required France to pay an indemnity of 5 billion francs (~
$375 million) Recognized Wilhelm I as the German Emperor Military occupation of parts of France by Prussian troops
Bismarck also called for the creation of a new French government elected by universal male suffrage
German Unification New German government
Constitution similar to Northern German Confederation
Allowed for universal male suffrage of the Reichstag Minister were answerable only to the emperor Prussia gained the most out of the creation of the
empire Why was Bismarck successful?
A “revolution from above” Master of diplomacy Was willing to go to war to get what he wanted Gave enough reforms to placate the liberals Used nationalistic movement to his own advantage
Dual Monarchy of Austria-Hungary After 1848, the Austrian empire is still a diverse
group Habsburg rulers had to find a way of holding their empire
together amidst the different nationalistic uprising Franz Joseph attempted to hold the empire together
Passed a series of decrees Adopted of German as the national language Brought an end serfdom (1848) and attempted to
modernize the empire New and more-uniform legal system Rationalized taxation All these decrees did was alienate the non-German
peoples
Dual Monarchy of Austria-Hungary Ethnic relations grew more tense in the 1850s and
1860s The “nationalities” protested the powerlessness of their
Diets, military repression, and cultural disenfranchisement
The ones most unhappy were the Magyars Compromise of 1867
Negotiated between the Germans and the Magyars Created a Dual Monarchy with two countries: Austria
and Hungary What they shared
Common system of taxation, common army, made foreign and military policy together
Both were joined by one Habsburg ruler Both would send delegates to a common ministry
Dual Monarchy of Austria-Hungary How they were different
Internal and constitutional affairs were separated Each had its own constitution and government German would be the official language in Austria,
Magyar in Hungary Capital of Austria would be Vienna, capital of
Hungary would be Budapest New system was not democratic
Austria did not get universal male suffrage until 1907
Hungary did not get it until after World War I Power was in the hands of the wealthy landowners
No national unification in Habsburg lands
Liberalization in Tsarist Russia Alexander II (1855-1881)
Not a liberal but realized changes needed to be made “Slavophiles”
Believed that Russia had its own unique destiny and following western Europe would do more harm than good
Wanted to preserve Russia’s distinctive features Idealized traditional Russian culture Rejected Western secularism, commercialism, and
bourgeois culture “Westernizers”
Called for adoption of European science, technology, and education
Called for liberalism and individual right
Liberalization in Tsarist Russia Russian autocracy
Power in Russia was solely in the hands of the tsar Did not rule by law Instead ruled through decree (ukase) and military
might Tsar pick and chose what western ideas and industry
would be adopted by Russia Serfdom in Russia
Similar to western serfdom Peasants were tied either to the land as farmers or
worked in factories Had to pay their lords certain dues and perform
certain duties Russian government did not interfere in the
relationship between a serf and his lord
Liberalization in Tsarist Russia Calls for an end to serfdom
Was no longer seen as profitable Also created poor, uneducated workers that were of
no benefit to the Russian empire Intelligentsia wanted to bring western ideas into
fruition Alexander was willing to implement reforms
Eased up on censorship Allowed for academic free speech Allowed travel outside of Russia Enforced universal male conscription in the military How to bring an end to serfdom without throwing
the entire country out of whack?
Liberalization in Tsarist Russia The Emancipation Decree of 1861
Serfs were no longer subject to their owners but subjects of the government
Granted legal rights to 22 million serfs Gave former serfs title to a portion of the land (half
the arable land in Russia) Law granted land to the peasant commune (mir),
not individual serfs Required the state to compensate landowners Newly liberated serfs had to pay installments for
their land Land was not divided equally so peasants were not
equal
Liberalization in Tsarist Russia End of serfdom led to greater legal reforms
Trials were now public Legal representation for those in court Class distinctions were abolished in the court Brought in jury system similar to England
Greater representation Created the Zemstvos, which were local councils Designed to govern rural areas and large towns Elected by the people Dealt with various issues including education and
public works Refused to create a nation-wide representative body
Liberalization in Tsarist Russia Russia expanded to both the east and south
Invaded and conquered independent Islamic kingdoms along the Silk Road
Founded Siberian city of Vladivostok in 1860 In most cases, Russia did not assimilate the
populations of new territories After a rebellion in Poland in 1863, Alexander
pulled away from reforms Started paring down reforms
Revolutionaries were not pleased with the reforms Many hoped to bring some form of socialism to
Russia Led by Alexander Herzen
Liberalization in Tsarist Russia Growth in Nihilist (anarchist) movement
Led by Mikhail Bakunin and Sergey Nechayev Created secret terroristic societies, like Narodnaya
Volya (the People’s Will) Alexander responded by turning to the liberals
Hoped to staunch the growth of radicalism Allowed for free speech of political topics Disbanded the secret police set up by his father Planned to implement parliamentary reform Signed edict on March 13, 1881 to create a
nationally elected parliament (Duma)
Liberalization in Tsarist Russia Assassination attempts
1866 – Failed attempt 1873 – Five shots fired by revolutionary Alexander
Soloviev but missed 1879 – Failed attempt by the People’s Will to blow
up the Tsar’s train 1880 – Bomb exploded in the Winter Palace;
Alexander was late for dinner so was unharmed On March 13, 1881 the People’s Will succeeded
Managed to blow up his carriage in St. Petersburg There were three bombers along the route, two
succeeded
Liberalization in Tsarist Russia Assassination hurt the reform movement
Caused reactionary policies in Russia against revolutionaries
The Duma would not meet until 1905 Under Alexander III (1881-1894), there was the
suppression of civil liberties and the reinstatement of the secret police
This was carried on by Nicolas II (1894-1917) Even the Jews were affected
Rumors spread that the Jews were responsible for the assassination
Over 200 anti-Jewish pogroms took place between 1881-1884
May Laws (1882) prohibited Jews from living in rural areas with less than 10,000 people
More restrictions were implemented over next 30 years
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