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F A C U L T Y O F H U M A N I T I E S
U N I V E R S I T Y O F C O P E N H A G E N
Master’s thesis
Alejandro Sánchez Segura
The influence of national cultural traits on website design An analysis of usability and accessibility structures on Diaspora websites for high skilled migrants.
Academic advisor: Klaus Bruhn Jensen.
Submitted: 03/06/13
e-diaspora
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Institutnavn: Cognition and Communication Name of department: Department of Media, Cognition and Communication Author): Alejandro Sánchez Segura Titel og evt. undertitel: The influence of national cultural traits on website design Title / Subtitle: An analysis of usability and accessibility structures on Diaspora
websites for high skilled migrants Subject description: This study researches the influence of culture on Human-
Computer Interaction in the context of usability and accessibility in website design. Using Diasporas of high skilled migrants’ websites, the research analyzes the particular prevalence or absence of design elements websites.
Academic advisor: Klaus Bruhn Jensen Submitted: 03.June 2013 Grade:
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The influence of national cultural traits on website design: An analysis of usability and accessibility structures on Diaspora websites for high skilled migrants
SUMMARY
This study researches the influence of culture on HCI in the context of usability and
accessibility in website design in terms of different national culture backgrounds. These
areas (culture, HCI, and national culture background) form the basis of the research. The
research design discusses the approach used to analyze such areas in relation to the broad
research question:
To what extent do usability and accessibility in website design differ across national
culture backgrounds?
This study examines website design features across different countries within a particular
genre in order to measure the impact of national culture traits on usability and accessibility.
The research analyzes the content of websites according to Hofstede’s dimensions of
culture and to the nature of its constitutive elements.
The study was conducted over a period of four months, and the case study consisted of 14
websites representing diasporas of high-skilled migrants (DHSM) from different countries.
Based on Hofstede’s Power Distance and Individualism dimensions of culture, a
comparative analysis of three typologies of national culture trait combinations was
developed in order to explore the influence of national culture backgrounds in website
design. The national cultural trait typologies are: 1) HL: collective with a high power
distance, 2) LH: individualistic with a low power distance, 3) Mixed: a national culture that
fluctuates between HL and LH culture traits. These typologies were represented by the
prevalence or absence of specific web elements.
The results reveal that DHSM websites uses a localized style of web design, in terms of
images, color, user guidelines, HTLM and CSS design. Websites from collectivistic
countries with a high power distance (HL) prefer a high context communication style,
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whereas low context communication is preferred by individualistic countries with a low
power distance (LH). Websites from Mixed national cultural trait combination fluctuated
between HL and LH styles of context communication.
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Contents
INTRODUCTION ..................................................................................................... 7
COMPUTER-MEDIATED COMMUNICATION AND HUMAN-COMPUTER INTERACTION: CULTURE AND TECHNOLOGY .................................................. 9
INTERACTIVITY IN NEW MEDIA ..............................................................................................................11
CYBER-INTERACTIVITY AND WEB INTERFACES .........................................................................................15
USABILITY AND WEBSITE DESIGN ..........................................................................................................18
METAPHORS: CULTURE AND CREATIVIY IN WEBDESIGN ...............................................................21
LOCALIZATION, CULTURE, AND WEB DESIGN ............................................... 25
HOFSTEDE’S DIMENSIONS OF CULTURE .............................................................................................26
METHODOLOGY .................................................................................................. 32
QUALITATIVE OR QUANTITATIVE: METHODOLOGY AND RESEARCH FRAME ....................32
RESEARCH FRAME ..........................................................................................................................................34
HOFSTEDE’S CULTURE TRAITS ...............................................................................................................36
WEBSITE GENRE SELECTION ........................................................................................................................39
HOFSTEDE’S DIMENSIONS OF CULTURE: SCORE AND RANK SYSTEM ........................................41
POWER AND INDIVIDUALISM: HOFSTEDE’S DIMENSIONS OF CULTURE IN WEBSITE
ANALYSIS .......................................................................................................................................................43
ANALYSIS ............................................................................................................ 48
OVERVIEW .....................................................................................................................................................48
QUALITATIVE ANALYSIS ............................................................................................................................49 Photographs ..................................................................................................................................................49 Logos ............................................................................................................................................................60 Website Palette .............................................................................................................................................64 INTERACTIVE FEATURES .........................................................................................................................68
QUANTITATIVE ANALYSIS .........................................................................................................................75 OVERALL DESIGN ....................................................................................................................................75 WEBPAGE ANALYZER 0.98 .......................................................................................................................76 VISIBLENET.COM WEBSITE ANALYZER ............................................................................................80
DISCUSSION ........................................................................................................ 82
INTRODUCTION ...........................................................................................................................................82
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SUMMARY OF FINDINGS ..........................................................................................................................82
CONCLUSIONS .................................................................................................... 87
THEORETICAL IMPLICATIONS ..............................................................................................................87
CONCLUSIONS .............................................................................................................................................89
STUDY STRENGTHS AND LIMITATIONS ..............................................................................................90
DIRECTION FOR FUTURE RESEARCH ..................................................................................................91
APPENDIX A ......................................................................................................... 92
APPENDIX B ......................................................................................................... 94
REFERENCES ...................................................................................................... 95
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INTRODUCTION
In this thesis I explore web design with a particular focus on cultural differences and
similarities. The study aims to understand how cultural influences in existing websites lead
to variations in usability and accessibility in website visual design.
Initially, I set out to compare how websites across countries share and maintain information
intended for migrants: a task that is rather difficult to achieve, as web developers adapt a
website’s content – such as pictures, languages, and other features – to target audiences.
For example, in websites providing information for individuals mobilizing across countries
– depending on the cultural, geographic, and economic characteristics of both designers
and users – some websites primarily display information related to migrants with a business
profile, whereas others display more information for migrants with a desire for long stays
or refugee admissions. Based on this observation I narrowed my approach to analyzing
websites made for diasporas of high-skilled migrants.
Websites intended for diasporas of high-skilled migrants present major differences in their
content structure in contrast to other websites for migrants. As an illustration, migrant
websites are generally aimed at foreign individuals who intend to stay or move across
specific countries, and they usually focus on legal, administrative, and integration issues.
On the other hand, websites designed for diasporas of highly skilled migrants aim to create
a community of migrants with a profile in either scientific, business, or humanitarian
endeavors and seek to develop programs in these areas across two or more countries.
As countries move to a more specialized and global growth agenda, these types of diaspora
websites serve as a point of reference to open up, connect, and maintain a knowledge
network across countries. However, as there is no standard design to gather and present
information in websites for all audiences, web development is a controversial issue.
In order to anticipate how audiences will interact with a given website design, web
developers can rely on the users’ perceived cognitive abilities and past experience with the
technology, implicating that website users across the globe can create meaning from the
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website’s content, as they are being exposed to it as well as influenced by the local context
in which these website genres are received.
Two versions of meaning construction derive from this design approach:
1) By conceiving an “Internet culture”, web developers can create an online product
that every user understands and knows how to use. This homogeneous culture
provides a cultural background that everybody can relate to due to the great amount
of time people spend using computer devices and websites with the same
characteristics.
2) Web developers who view users as different according to their cultural backgrounds
thus consider some website features more important than others. As social beings,
parts of our cognitive structures are influenced by our cultural background; and
cultural expectancies and web design can in turn affect a user’s perceptions in terms
of usability and accessibility.
Culture and its influence on website content design has been addressed in various research
(Callahan, 2006; Cyr & Trevor-Smith, 2004; Cyr, Head, & Larious, 2010; Ess &
Sudweeks, 2006; Faiola & Matei, 2006; Li.X., Hess, McNab, & Yu, 2009; Tsikiktisis,
2002), and the analyses of these researchers are highly influenced by Hofstede’s framework
of culture differences and localization.
Geert Hofstede (2005) has conducted cross-cultural research and formulated a theory
conveying that national cultures fluctuate between consistent dimensions of thinking,
feeling and acting, expressed through symbols, rituals, and values. By using Hofstede’s
terms it would be possible to analyze website design as a cultural cognitive expression
located within individuals of the same nationality.
I have sought to investigate if there are significant web design differences and similarities
in websites aimed at audiences with different cultural backgrounds, but with similar target
goals, such as websites intended for diasporas of high-skilled migrants.
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COMPUTER-MEDIATED COMMUNICATION AND
HUMAN-COMPUTER INTERACTION: CULTURE
AND TECHNOLOGY
This chapter provides a literature review of relevant key aspects of the Computer-Mediated
Communication (CMC) and Human-Computer Interaction (HCI) fields. The focus of this
section is on how cognitive constructs, especially those affected by social and cultural user
contexts, influence new media features and the creation of meaningful structures for
website users.
In the study of website design it is important to understand how the communication
between users is facilitated in new media. CMC tradition draws on studies in human
cognition, computer science, and communication. Therefore, CMC has a close relationship
with other areas of computer science; as in the case of HCI.
There has been much controversy in both fields, as CMC and HCI view the communication
process and its elements differently.
Phillips, Santoro, and Kuehn (as cited in Kuehn, 1994) broadly describe CMC as a form of
interpersonal communication between users mediated by computers, whereas Walther
(1992) describes CMC as the disseminated transition of information from the sender’s
computers to the receiver’s. Thus, in the first perspective there is an important departure
within the tradition of CMC, as computers are seen not as isolated parts in the
communication process, but rather as key players in the exchange of information between
individuals.
In this regard, CMC is described as an area of research interested in human and computer
interaction, especially in the separate interplay of the medium and the situation in which the
users communicate (Herring, 2007). Herring, however, tries to provide a middle point
between these trends in CMC, describing medium and situation as unordered, open-ended
categories that “… may (or may not) interact, just as there may (or may not) be
patterned correspondences between medium and situation factors, in principle”
(Op. cit., p. 12). This view assumes that users performing different communicative
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tasks are not necessarily using all of the interactive features available in the
medium, nor all the cognitive structures involved in a traditional communicative
setting.
Herring’s approach is best understood on the basis of her description of the technological
and situation facets involved in each category. The medium or technological facet is
determined by the computer’s software and hardware features, and although the
technological features of computer media are not considered as determining factors, they
are believed to affect the computer-mediated discourse on some levels.
The situation or social facets are considered by Herring as important shaping features in
CMC, as they are thought to directly affect the quality of the interpersonal communication
between users. However, any given situation factor is not considered to be continually
significant, but those that are can include users’ information, relationships, purposes, and
the language used between users in the context of communication.
These last situational factors are the departing points for HCI, as this field relates to how
computer systems are being designed for users according to their needs (Carroll, 2012). In
an earlier work, Carroll defines HCI by the usability design of system interfaces:
“HCI is a science of design. It seeks to understand and support human beings interacting with and
through technology. Much of the structure to this interaction derives from technology, and many of
the interventions must be made through the design of technology …” (Carroll, 1997)
Carroll’s view is in line with Ebert, Gershon, and van der Verr’s (2012) view of HCI,
although their definition focuses on visual design. They regard HCI as a field that seeks to
provide operational and engaging visual interfaces that take advantage of the cognitive
capabilities and functionalities of human visual systems, although it is a difficult task to
carry out, as computers are inserted in different devices with different levels of
interactivity.
For the Special Interest Group on Computer-Human Interaction (SIGI) the problem with
having a concrete definition relies on HCI’s focus on different topics, and so SIGI has
provided the following delimitation:
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“From a computer science perspective, the focus is on interaction and specifically
on interaction between one or more humans and one or more computational
machines.” (Hewet et al., 2009)
Following the above definitions of CMC and HCI, differences do not appear to be central,
as both fields focus on the communication process and the influence of individuals’
cognitive constructs across new media technology. Their differences are instead located in
the effect of new media characteristics, especially in user-computer interactivity.
INTERACTIVITY IN NEW MEDIA
The earliest interactivity and interpersonal communication research in new media focused
on “… the message and the medium and its power to enable multidirectional
communication … user control and participation” (McMillan, 2002, pp. 275-276;
McMillan, 2006, p. 207).
In accordance with Nancy Baym (2010), different types of media and their products can be
compared to one another focusing on a set of characteristics: temporal structure,
interactivity, social cues, replicability, storage, mobility, and reach (p. 7).
A media’s ability to sustain its messages is captured in the replicability and storage
characteristics. The replicability of media is measured by its ability to manipulate the
information shared and the storage capacity by its capability to keep the exchanged
information between media and users.
The mobility characteristic in media communication refers to the “extent to which they are
portable or stationary” (p. 11), while reach is imbedded in its ability to spread content to
audiences.
The temporal structure of media covers the transition of information in the communication
process, and it is divided in two forms: asynchronous and synchronous. Ideal asynchronous
communication examples in new media are electronic mail, since users are communicating
in separate periods of time. Synchronous communication examples are real time
conferences, since they have a sense of localness and immediacy.
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Social cues are the gatherings of meaningful structures created around the information
context. Interactivity is understood as the medium’s flexibility to let users engage with and
control its interface. Both of these features are understood by Baym as ideally based in
face-to-face communication attributes; thus, users tend to recur to similar cognitive
structures in order to interact in new media and with other users.
In line with both Baym’s concepts of temporal structure, replicability, storage, mobility,
reach and Herring’s technological facets it is still difficult to consider the communication
field of HCI independent from CMC, as both fields agree to study users transmitting
information through a network of computers.
On the other hand, Baym’s interactivity and social cues and Herring’s situation facet view
CMC and HCI as separated fields studying user-computer interactivity. The authors’
divisions suggest that social signs and interactive structures in new media lead users to
react to it, as if they were interacting with the developers of such media, whereas,
according to Sundar and Nass (2000), the parasocial effect in HCI is based on users who
“actively imagine the source to be the psychological locus of their interactions” (Op.cit., p.
684).
In one tradition users react to information imbedded in a structure by a web developer,
whereas in the other tradition they are perceived as a unified active element separete from
its developer.
Heeter (1989, pp. 222-225) in her interactivity model for new media presents a more
detailed perspective on CMC’s views of medium and user. The author has divided the
model into six dimensions, across seven main points:
INTERACTIVITY DIMENSION IMPLICATIONS
Complexity of user choice.
Effort users must exert.
P1: Information is always sought or selected, not merely sent.
P2: Media systems require different levels of user activity.
P3. Activity is a user trait as well as a medium trait.
Responsiveness to the user. P4. Person-machine interactions are a special form of communication.
Monitoring information use.
P5. Continuous feedback is a special form of feedback in which user behavior is
measured on an ongoing basis by a source or gatekeeper of all users.
Ease of adding information. P6. The distinction between source and receiver is not present in all media systems.
Facilitation of interpersonal
communication.
P7. Media systems may facilitate mass communications, interpersonal
communication, or both.
In the complexity and amount of user choice (points 1, 2, and 3), Heeter views news media as a
medium based on a selective of attention, perception, and retention. The author described this
selective process as a bi-directional flow of information, where users’ selective exposure to content
and interactivity is the key to activating the connection between source and receiver in new media.
Monitoring system use is conceived as the retrieval of information pertaining to user behavior
within a media system. Ease of adding information by users – in this model the user is considered
as an information provider to other users within the system. Facilitation of interpersonal
communication refers to the power of new media to allow users to communicate in situations that
otherwise would be limited.
In responsiveness to the users Heeter is concerned with the process of person-machine interaction –
an early term for HCI – and whether it should be called communication. The author’s general idea
is that when people use certain types of mass media, they will be conceived as communicating with
the author of such information systems through the messages emitted/received.
In Heeter’s view of interactivity in new media, a shift can be recognized in the role of receivers and
their overall participation in mass communication models. This shift is from a past paradigm that
regards audiences as passive, almost uniform receivers toward one that perceives audiences as
active users with a set of preferences and some degree of control.
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Also in line with Baym and Herring, Heeter’s audience empowerment in new media comes from the
interface provided by new media systems. Audiences or users and interactive computer systems
require feedback not only to increase and control its information content, but also to establish
interpersonal communication with other users.
Heeter (1989) uses the definition of media frame from Fredin and Krendl to describe the relation
between meaningful content, usability expectations of a media system, and past experiences with
the technology:
“A media frame can be defined as a structure of expectations individuals apply to
organize and understand their experiences with a particular medium. It is evoked
whenever the medium is being thought about or is present.” (As cited in Heeter, 1989,
pp. 230-231)
The media frame conception presents a conceptual division from HCI and CMC. According to
Heeter’s model, new media users, while interacting with computers (medium), will create an
individual frame of meaning from past interactions with the same computer system.
In this sense, CMC is more interested in the communicative environment and user interactions,
whereas HCI leans toward the study of how computer systems and human cognition interact
through user interfaces.
It can be said that these fields differ when it comes to studying new media and the interpersonal
communication between users. CMC is interested in how users communicate through computers,
and HCI is concerned with how users communicate with them.
Nevertheless, both fields agree on the role that cognitive constructs have in the interactivity
between computers and users, especially for constructs and structures derived from the social
context of individuals.
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CYBER-INTERACTIVITY AND WEB INTERFACES
In the past section, I reviewed how different traditions in computer science view the relationship
and impact of cognitive structures. In order to study in detail how HCI and CMC view the
relationship between users and interactive structures imbedded in computers I will elaborate on
McMillan’s cyber-interactivity model of communication.
From a CMC perspective, McMillan (2002) created a four-part cyber-interactivity model that views
receivers and senders as key participants in cyber-activity – a model similar to the audience
empowerment in Heeter’s model. However, in McMillan’s cyber-interactivity description the role
of senders is usually given to web developers, and the role of receivers to users.
In the monologue quadrant, corporate websites are the chosen example. The main intentions of their
creators are to “create and disseminate content to attract an audience, promote a product or service,
build a brand, or perform some other persuasive communication function” (McMillan, 2002).
The feedback quadrant is typified by email links. Email links may provide the receiver with some
symmetrical degree of control by a limited channel to react and provide information, although there
is no warranty of responsiveness from the sender.
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Responsive dialogue and mutual discourse are considered as two-way communication; in these
quadrants both sender and receiver have a certain degree of control in the communication process.
In responsive dialogue senders create a system intended for them to retain “the primary control over
the communication … such as e-commerce” (McMillan, 2002).
To illustrate, in a website design intended to have a responsive dialogue the web developer makes a
service available in a webpage, and only after the user has solicited and approved this service, a
confirmation message will appear. However, in the mutual discourse both roles “become virtually
indistinguishable in environments such as chat rooms …” (McMillan, 2002), since both have the
opportunity to emit and receive the messages emitted.
In McMillan’s conception of cyber-interactivity, web developers create a website interface that
provides interactivity through the association of user participation and control and specific features.
McMillan’s cyber-interactivity can be understood as a process characterized by in-built computer
structures acting as a medium that allows interpersonal communication among users. However, in
the same work McMillan (2002) recognizes that other traditions, as in the case of HCI, view this
type of interaction as occurring between users and computers: a difference based on how the key
dimensions, such as the nature of the interface and the center of control, are defined.
By the same token, Jensen (2008) believes the levels of interactivity to raise different types of
interpretations. However, besides viewing interactivity as a structural feature only that gives access
to control and information, Jensen also argues that it should be perceived in virtue of the
meaningful content interrelations and its significance to the user.
Jensen not only views the media frames in computers as important to creating meaning – as in the
case of Heeter – consequently, web structures or hyperstructures would work as interactive
meaningful structures in the communication process.
For instance, web users while interacting with website structures do not seek to communicate with
the creators of a determined computer language; rather, they are using familiar imbedded structures
in a medium to reach a result.
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In this way, Jensen (2008) views website interfaces or hyperstructures as the element in which
digital media are constructed, and they should be understood as a third level of articulation:
“Both the meanings of ordinary delimited media messages (first articulation) and their constituents (second
articulation) have normally been ascertained ‘internally’ with reference to an immanent structure of discourse.
Compared to such structure a hyperlink may be said to articulate an “external” meaning, joining one text
(verbal, visual, other) with another suggesting a whole that is not inherent in parts. This discursive whole, to be
sure, may still be studied in its own right or with reference to decoding and uses.” (Op. cit., pp. 188)
Jensen’s articulations of hyperstructures can be understood on the basis of how we obtain meaning
in the communication process. Since information in websites can be presented in different forms –
auditory, visual, or a combination of both – it will influence the manner in which users perform
tasks and perceive the usability of hyperstructures. Additionally, these information slots in
hyperstructures and other forms of communication, according to Jensen, “… enters into a particular
configuration, and that this structure will follow certain social and cultural patterns” (Op. cit., pp.
186).
In other words, besides the use of specific technological features for information control – such as
managing the content of a page using scroll-down or mouse-over menus – hyperstructures provide
users with a different combination of meaningful information displays. Their design can integrate
graphics such as video, pictures, text, icons, and other forms of dynamic information across the
different levels of articulation.
These dynamic properties allow hyperstructures to function beyond mere information receptacles.
They are able to create a meaningful design by integrating the social and cultural relations users
have with their content.
In general, producers of websites, while integrating interactive content in order to reach the desired
audience, must have a notion of how the audience’s mental representations work (Faiola & Matei,
2006). Mental representations are structures of the mind that help individuals make sense of their
environment, and they are in turn influenced by external stimuli like cultural background
(Zerubavel, 1999).
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CMC and HCI are important traditions in computer science, and one of their aims is to understand
how new media technology influences human communication, and vice versa. As there are
conceptual distinctions for viewing the computer and imbedded hyperstructures as medium or
source, there is also an overlap of interests when analyzing the influence of technological features
and social context in the construction of meaning and interactivity.
CMC was defined as a field interested in viewing the computer as a medium for human
communication. On the other hand, the field of HCI is interested in computer-mediated
communication from the stand of the cognitive process and the influence of environmental features
in computers. However, both fields provide the basic models for discussing the influence of
cognitive constructs, especially those derived from social and cultural factors, in terms of usability
and accessibility while designing interactive computer interfaces.
Based on these models, there is less room to conceive new media users as interacting with only one
device and providing structures independent of the sociocultural context in which they are created.
As we are more connected, there is a need for practical approaches to meaningful structures,
usability, and culture.
USABILITY AND WEBSITE DESIGN
As a research approach, HCI is interested in the interaction between cognitive maps, visual design,
and computer interfaces. Consequently, the approaches and concepts of HCI are relevant, especially
for analyzing the usability of website interfaces (see Helander, Landauer, & Prabhu, 1997 for a
review). Usability in website design involves the efficient articulation of content across web pages
in order to successfully meet the goals of web develepers regarding website users.
In the last decades, usability in web design has been considered separate form system functionality,
with the attached slogan “easy to learn, easy to use” (Carrol, 2012, p. 5). However, usability was
perceived more as a quality attribute not closely related to the functionality of the application; thus,
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it could be impoved in later stages of the design development (Juristo, Moreno, & Sanchez-Segura,
2008).
Nevertheless, the usability literature has evolved in diverse directions and has distinct goals. For
example, Norman (2002) believes that optimal design should “make sure that (1) the user can figure
out what to do and (2) the user can tell what is going on” (p. 188). Applied to the conception of
usability in web design, the ideal interface would become part of the interactive environment when
users perform tasks. Thus, the cognitive effort needed to interpret the web tools available does not
require extra mental resources.
Norman’s conception of usability in design departs from early views; he defines a conceptual
process where tasks are more feasible in user-centered designs, and he recognizes three actors: the
designer, the user, and the system. In the same fashion, Norman (as cited in Norman, 2002)
developed a design model in order to explain the usability of a design, assessing one mental aspect
of an actor involved in design and usability:
In this model, the designer should preconceive a system targeted at the cognitive abilities and
limitations of the user, since the system is the only medium through which both parties can
communicate (Op. cit.).
However, today the conditions necessary for achieving high levels of usability still vary depending
on the author: from inhibiting user-induced mistakes, making specific control features, or creating
grand structures that are easy to navigate. Juristo et al. (2008) gathered usability established
conceptions and divided them into three groups:
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1. “Usability recommendations with a potential impact on the UI. Examples of such recommendations
refer to presentation issues like buttons, pull-down menus, colors, fonts, etc. Building these
recommendations into a system involves slight modifications to the detailed UI design.
2. Usability recommendations with a potential impact on the development process, which can only be
taken into account by modifying the development process itself, e.g. recommendations referring to
reducing the user cognitive load, involving the user in software construction, etc.
3. Usability recommendations with a potential impact on the design. They involve building certain
functionalities into the software to improve user-system interaction.” (P. 25)
These usability points seem to be dependent on conventional rules and would not present any
problems; if website developers decide to reach an ideal level of usability, they must convey the
purpose of a website clearly. A website developer must thus create an understandable interface that
makes it easy to recognize and perform the user’s tasks. For example, an image that says “click to
return to homepage here” would indicate that users aim to move from the current position in a
website to another. This clear or easy to understand concept in interactive displays is a conception
closely related to the use of metaphors in individuals.
In summary, by applying Norman’s usability elements (designer-system-user) and Juristo et al.’s
points in designing interfaces, efficacy in terms of accessibility and usability in website design can
be said to be achieved when the use of images, words, and sounds is clearly delivered and
understood. This is so, on the one hand, because the cognitive limitations, physical capabilities, and
experiences of users performing tasks were taken into account, and, on the other, because this
knowledge was applied within the technical and programming limitations in which the interfaces
are loaded.
According to Marcus (1998), website design aims to achieve this feature by the use of metaphors, as
they are “essential similarity conveyed visually through words and images or through acoustic or
tactile means” (p. 43).
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METAPHORS: CULTURE AND CREATIVIY IN WEBDESIGN
Metaphors applied in communication between users and designers are important as they, in the
words of Lakoff and Johnson (1980), help us “understanding and experincing one kind of thing in
terms of another” (p. 5).
Lakoff and Johnson explore the notion of metaphor in the form of narratives. They suggest that
metaphors come into play, when narratives are based on the actual corporal knowledge descriptions
and begin to describe abstract concepts, such as emotions. They adopt the ideas of Michael Reddy
of “conduit metaphor” to explain their approach:
“The speaker put ideas (objects) into words (containers) and sends them (along a
conduit) to a hearer who takes the idea/objects out of the word/containers” (As cited
in Lakoff & Johnson, 1980)
Lakoff (1993) refers to this type of methapor as a conceptual metaphor, as it involves thought and
reason. Lakoff claims that basic concepts like time, quantity, state, change, action, cause, purpose,
means, modality, and category are understood via metaphors. Thus, conceptual metaphors are a
conceptual mapping system of knowledge frames tied to each other through conceptual domains.
This mapping view is also addressed by Köveces (2010), who regards Lakoff’s definition of
conceptual metaphor as a “survey of a more sophisticated later version of cogtnitive linguistic
view” (p. 14). Köveces defines conceptual metaphors as “two conceptual domains, in which one
domain is understood in terms of another” (p. 4). For Köveces, a conceptual domain is the
comprehensible structuration of processed information acquired through the senses.
An adequate example regarding Köveces’ view can be found in the work of Gruber and Davis
(1988). In their work on creativity, the authors are interested in the value of metaphors as an
expresive function and as constitutive of theory. They have studied the systematicity of knowledge
and the ability of an individual to relate to and reconstruct each domain.
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For instance, they consider Darwin’s long life interest in different areas of knowledge and his
ability to integrate different pieces of information into understandable units of analysis as the core
elements that led him to develop the Theory of Evolution:
“… rather than switching allegiances from one belief system to another, he was moving around within a
hierarchically organized system of beliefs and intellectual systems …” (Op. cit., p. 253)
They trace a series of commonalities imbedded in cognitive processes within the contexts in which
they occur. Gruber and Davis analyzed these creative products as final results of a synthesis of a
system of knowledge, purpose, and effect. In other words, they view creative individuals and their
creative processes as the result of a combination of special processes of thought across their
personal history and experiences.
Köveces’ (2010) conceptual metaphor agrees with the view of Gruber and Davis that if an
individual wants to absorb the full meaning of abstract concepts, there is a need to create a series of
mappings or correspondences that move toward a physical concept. However, Köveces emphasizes
the principle of unidirectionality, meaning that in most of the cases an abstract source could not
exemplify a concrete target source. For example, we can refer to “life as a journey that has its up
and downs” or “ ideas are food sometimes hard to digest”, but not the other way around.
These systematic correspondences between sources and targets would form target domains and are
classified as:
“… psychological and mental states and events (emotion, desire, morality, thought), social groups and
processes (society, politics, economy, human relationships, communication) and personal experiences and
events (time, life, death, religion) …” (Op. cit., p. 27)
For instance, a person is describing some else as a warm person or an emotional experience as
going through a series of ups and downs; these are examples of metaphors drawn from an
embodied experience.
23
Two arguments can be drawn from the view of conceptual metaphors as vehicles for concept
learning in group domains. As metaphors can be regarded as the result of the interplay of brain,
body, and world, and as they can be represented through words, objects, or images, their use can
affect the usability levels of the design of user interfaces.
Gruber (as cited in Gruber & Davis, 1988) provides a similar approach, when he used the term
“image of wide scope”. An image is wide when it can be used as a reference for a myriad of
perceptions, actions, and ideas, but it is dependent on its value to the person.
Designing by using meaningful vehicles and semantic tools, such as visual metaphors, would allow
users to spend less effort understanding the technology and shift their focus of attention to other
tasks. Thus, by using consistent or universal visual metaphors –such as those derived from
embodied experiences – a web designer can be confident in raising a website’s usability and
interactivity performance levels.
The individuality of metaphors brings us to the second part of the argument: metaphors’ unique
pathways to knowledge and experiences.
Software and hardware features together with social influences can present a different experience to
user interfaces, for example interpreting Reddy’s ideas and Lakkof’s understanding of metaphors in
the process of web development:
Web developers take their design (object) into platforms imbedded in a system (containers)
and make it available in the form of websites (a long conduit) for a user who can interact
with it.
In turn, the direction across objects, containers, and conduits together with the conceptual mapping
system can be interpreted according to how designers interact with the system or, in other words,
how web developers “code” a website and how they work with its visual aspect.
Coding is generally understood in computer programming as the process of creating instructions for
computers to be able to perfom specific behaviors. In web development these sets of instructions are
24
based on different coding languages such as HTML (hypertext markup languages) or CSS
(cascading style sheets) that are used for particular types of applications.
Experienced web developers not only need to foresee what a web browser will do with a code, but
they also need to have a good grasp of what can or cannot be done in them: indicate to a platform
the basic structure of a webiste, create directions to perform specific actions, and manipulate the
access to the website’s data.
Web developers aim to create a clear back-end design structure (the part of the website that deals
with database, applications, and servers) in order for their websites to perform better, achieving
high levels of usability and accessibility. Therefore, they need to be proficient in a combination of
target domains: information architecture and graphic design.
For the information architecture there are international coding conventions for programming
languages, which aim to reduce the cost of software maintenance as well as improve the quality of
webistes1. The later domain – graphic design is also commonly referred to as visual website design
– is where web developers structure the content of a website to make it more appealing to users.
Website users can be used to different navigation experiences and visual metaphors in accordance
to the type of websites they had accessed in the past.According to Müller and Griffin (2012), the
appealing content of these visuals is the result of the materialization of culture; and design would
benefit from analyzing not only the needs and preferences of users based on operational parts, but
also from decoding how symbols and structures are intertwined with underlying belief models to
create an appealing configuration of its elements:
“In this approach ‘culture’ is pervasive and materializes in the content of images and in the
meanins attributed to the visuals produced in a particular cultural setting. The material
images are sources of the mental images shared by produces and audiences … If visuals are
conceived as cultural materializations, then deciphering the motifs and style of the
1 http://www.oracle.com/technetwork/java/javase/documentation/codeconvtoc-136057.html Consulted in May
2013.
25
respective visual material can lead to both the intended and the attributed meanings of the
visuals.” (p. 103)
The relationship between culture and the preference to use certain types of images and other visual
features in website design has been studied in different areas: from adapting to the demands of local
industry styles (Li.X., Hess, McNab, & Yu, 2009; Snelders, 2011) and specific website genres
(Callahan, 2006) to national cultural backgrounds (Tsikiktisis, 2002).
LOCALIZATION, CULTURE, AND WEB DESIGN
Localization in website design is the adaptation of the content to fulfill particular user needs: from
basic features – such as region language and currency standards – to more complex features – e.g.
cultural meanings of color and gender roles (Cyr & Trevor-Smith, 2004).
Designing visual content using familiar information presentation generally makes use of visual
metaphors such as symbols, icons, and color. For Barber and Badre (1998), these familiar
presentations are made through the use of cultural markers, defining them as cultural usability or
culturability:
“Cultural markers are interface design elements and features that are prevalent, and possibly
preferred, within a particualr cutlural group. A cultural marker, such as national symbol,
color, or spatial organization, for example denotes a conventionalized use of the feature in
the website, not anomalous berfeature that occurs infrequently.” (p. 2)
Different studies (Callahan, 2006; Geest, 2003; Faiola & Matei, 2006) have addressed the
importance of localizing websites to fit the cultural style of the users. By using culture-based
contextual cues in website design, users can spend less cognitive effort to perform tasks, thus
improving their accessibility and performance rates. Also, the impact of culture-based design is
reflected in improved shopping and user satisfaction rates (González, 2010; Warden & Lai, 2002;
Winn & Beck, 2002).
26
On the other hand, users’ major complaints regarding poor design are related to the data
optimization of a website (i.e. error messages, long download times) and hard-to-find features
(Ceaparu et al., 2004). In computer systems poor design leads to frustrating user experiences in the
form of both emotionally and physically aggressive responses to the computer system (anger) and
somatic discomfort (suffering) (Schleifer & Amick, 1989; Wilfong, 2004).
HOFSTEDE’S DIMENSIONS OF CULTURE
Cross-cultural and cross-national differences have been studied from different angles in visual
communication research, such as the association of visuals to nationwide expectations and
imbedded conventions in media productions (Müller & Griffin, 2012). A work widely used by
researchers in cross-cultural comunication is Hofstede’s theoretical concepts (Hofstede & Hofstede,
2005).
Hofstede’s work is based on a series of tests performed by IBM employees in more than 70
countries, collected between 1967 and 1973. Hofstede realized that workers mentioned the same
culture values, but that these values were considered as essential or dispensable in their work
environment depending on the national culture of the workers. According to the Social Science
Citation, the work of Hofstede has been quoted more than 3,000 times in different fields such as
psychology, management, and communication (as cited in Callahan, 2006) and consists of the
following dimensions:
Power distance (PDI). This dimension relates to the level at which members of a society
expect and accept that power is shared unequally. Power in this dimension is symbolized in
different forms, such as respect, hierarchy, and participation. For example, in countries with
a larger degree of PDI, subordinates expect to be told what to do, whereas in low PDI
countries subordinates expect to be consulted.
Individualism versus collectivism (IDV). The low side of this dimension, defined as
collectivism, is represented by a preference for an interdependent self in the form of thight
27
group knots that offer protection in exchange for unquestioning loyalty. In individualistic
countries, the high side of this dimension, society’s thinking patterns, in terms of I and
individual interests, prevail over the group.
Masculinity versus femininity (MAS). This dimension represents the preference for
assertiveness, rewarding success in the form of material rewards. The opposite side,
femininity, cares for equality and cooperation, as most of the society is consensus-oriented.
Uncertainty avoidance (UAI) expresses the degree to which members of a society feel
comfortable with uncertainty and ambiguity. Countries with weak UAI present a relaxed
attitude toward ambiguity and chaos. Strong UAI countries have a need for precision and
formalization, and there is a great need for rules, even if these are not used.
Long-term versus short-term orientation (LTO). Societies with a short-term orientation are
highly concerned with establishing the absolute truth, whereas long-term orientation
societies are in search of virtue. People in short-term orientation societies are prone to aim
for fast results and have a minor predisposition to save for the future. In long-term
orientation societies people perceive truth as dependent on the situation. They present a
tendency to adapt and persevere in order to achieve a goal in which they have invested time
and resources.
Indulgence versus restraint (IVR). Restraint in this dimension refers to a society that
regulates itself by strict social norms, whereas indulgence stands for free gratification and
natural human drives.
Hofstede’s dimensions are measured through a set of key differences or culture traits, which are
conceptual opposites within a dimension of culture. In the first four dimensions (PDI, IDV, MAS,
and UAI), Hofstede was able to create a national ranking schema based on the test results or scores
from the workers in a country. However, the last dimensions (LTO and IVR) were developed in
later stages of Hofstede’s research by using different sets of data (Hofstede & Hofstede, 2005; The
Hofstede Centre, 2012-2013).
28
In his book “Culture and Organizations: Software of the mind” (2005), Hofstede views each
individual’s personality as partially influenced by a personal set of mental programs:
“… it is based on traits that are partly inherited within the individual’s unique set of genes
and partly learned … learned means modified by the influence of collective programming as
well as by unique experiences.” (p. 5)
Hofstede’s view is in line with cognitive sociology perspectives, where mental representations are
perceived as greatly shaped by society; hence, much of our cultural background involves shared
patterns of thinking (Zerubavel, 1999). However, Hofstede emphasizes the interplay of inherited
and learned mental programs across his work. He points out that the situation of individuals,
influences cognitive shifts throughout their life time:
“when people grow older, they tend to become more social and less ego oriented (lower
MAS -masculinity index-) At the same time, the gap between women’s and men’s MAS
values becomes smaller and around age fifty it has closed completely. This is the age at
which a woman’s role as a potential child-bearer has ended; there is no more biological
reason for her values to differ from a man’s. This development fits the observation that
young men and women foster more technical interests (which could be considered
masculine) and older men and women more social interests. In terms of values (but not of
necessarily in terms of energy and vitality), older persons are more suitable as people
managers and younger persons as technical managers.” (Hofstede & Hofstede, 2005, p. 127)
Passages like the previous one have earned Hofstede strong critique from e.g. Bhimani (1999),
Harrison and McKinnon (1999), and Redding (1994) (as cited by Cronje, 2011, p. 597). These
articles point out major limitations in Hofstede’s research; some dispute that the validity is affected
by the time span in which the data was collected, others that surveys cannot be used as grounding
structure for this kind of comparative research.
One of the most heated discussions was initiated by Brendan McSweeney (2002a, 2002b). By
pinpointing Hofstede’s dimensions of culture, McSweeney challenged Hofstede’s work and argued
29
that it was based on fallacious assumptions. He criticized the form in which Hofstede conducted and
interpreted the data, ranging from a) the quality of the data and his approach to statistical analysis to
b) the characterization of culture as homogeneous and representative within territory states, and c)
the conception of employees’ organizational culture as permeable to other areas of their lives.
McSweeney’s criticism has been addressed by Hofstede (2002), who pointed out that the work has
been reviewed in more than 1,500 sources, with more than 400 independent correlations. After
2001, four large-scale replications “usually confirm most, but not all the dimensions, but different
replications confirm different dimensions” (p. 1358).
Hofstede remarks that culture and dimensions do not exist; he defines them as constructs whose
sole purpose is to explain and predict behavior. He argues that once they stop providing this service,
researchers should move on to a better framework.
Referring to the score validations on his dimensions, Hofstede describes them as not impliying
assumptions about causality, but rather as pointing out the relationship between national culture and
national institutions. He objects to McSweeney’s critique of his approach to organizational culture
and national culture:
“The organizational culture study tried to identify the values component that differentiated
organizations within the same country rather than similar organizations across nations.
Contrary to our original hypothesis we found out only a weak values component, but strong
differences in what we labeled as ‘practices’ … Values (as we measured them) are hadrly
changeable (they change but not acccordingly to anybody’s intentions) whereas practices
can be modivied- given sufficient management attention.” (Hofstede, 2002, p. 1359)
McSweeney’s concern with Hofstede’s use of the concept of culture and its dimensions was
addressed by Smith (2002). In his work, Smith agrees that Hofstede’s cultural values to some
degree reflect the correlation of cognitions and behaviors and their demographic correlates. On the
other hand, he argues that in some cases the situation in a culture, expresed in values, is not by itself
part of an individual’s definition of culture, but rather the result of circumstances exisiting “at some
prior time” (p. 122).
30
Smith disagreed with the way Hofstede indicates correlations in his dimensions of culture, and the
type of variables that contribute to them. Particularly, Smith criticized the judgment in which
Hofstede associates Power Distance (PDI) and Individualism versus Collectivism (IDV) dimensions
with factors such as lattitude and Gross National Product (GNP). First, he argues that the division
of PDI and IDV is not defendable, as the country scores in these dimensions are correlated at -0.67,
and second, when the GNP was removed during the statistical analysis, the correlation between IDV
and PDI was reduced to -0.32.
For Williamson (2001) the polarized positions regarding Hofstede’s work can be explained on the
basis of the logic of the paradigms used in cultural research. As an illustration, McSweeney’s
(2002a) rejection of Hofstede’s work is primarily based on an objection to using surveys to present
a complete picture of culture. Williamson views the clash of two paradigms: the interpretative and
the functionalist. McSweeney’s assumptions, which fail to shift from assumptions based on an
interpretative framework, clash with Hofstede’s functionalist circular causation approach.
On the one side, Williamson regards Hofstede’s scores as estimated preferences in the cultural
spectrum. Nevertheless, he observes that although there are attributes which are unique to a culture,
Hosfstede’s construction of cultural values challenges the idea of culture as a standard attibute
determinant for the members of a nation.
Several studies in comptuer-mediated communication (Callahan, 2006; Cronje, 2011; Gorman,
2006; Marcus & Gould, 2000; Tsikiktisis, 2002) have used Hofstede’s model to compare and
evaluate how specific key cultural values are reflected in usability and accessibility preferences in
website structures.
By using different versions of a website aimed for Asian and non-Asian users, Li.X., Hess, McNab,
and Yu (2009) have studied the impact of culture on the assimilation of technology. They suggest
that Hofstede’s cultural dimensions, in particular time orientation and invidiualism, can be related
to how users perceive the levels of accessibility and usability in website structures. Individuals from
long-term societies were more persevering, when they faced difficulties understanding the structure
31
of a website. And individualistic approaches, such as personalization of websites, made users to
find web portals more useful.
Another study that used Hofstede’s model to analyze user expectations was conducted by
Tsikiktisis (2002). He found out that users from masculine and long-term orientation cultures have
higher expectations to website quality. The study conducted a series of surveys to measure
expectations across the specific features of websites. The results pointed out that user demands with
regard to quality vary across different cultures. User expectations to quality were expressed in
demands for more interactive features, innovative design, integrated communication, or positive
rewards.
Another study exploring design and user perceptions in websites was conducted by Cyr & Trevor-
Smith (2004). Using culture categories derived from Hofstede’s work, they analyzed local
municipal websites from Germany, Japan and the United states. Their research was aimed to
measure desing preferences for key components related to general design and localization issues.
The study suggests that language, symbols, navigation tools, and content differs across cultures.
In this study, websites from Germany and Japan had more availability to translation than those
from the United States, yet they provided less email based support. There were also individivudal
country differences; for example Japanese websites presented the highest percentage of information
content and a heavy use of external link. However, as they analyzed a website genre, strong
similatiries were also present. For example most websites used white as a backgournd color, and
had a simliar amount of advertisement present in ther websites.
The available research suggest that Hofstede’s model, in particular how he addresses the national
cultural differences through dimesions of culture, is usefull to measure usability and accesibility
preferences in website design. The present thesis investigates how structures in websites correlates
with Hofstede’s cultural values for the selected countries. As the study presents the features of
fourteen diasporas of High skilled migrant websites from different countries, thus the results are
presented to contribute to the development of small models of cross-cultural communication.
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METHODOLOGY
QUALITATIVE OR QUANTITATIVE: METHODOLOGY AND RESEARCH FRAME
In order to investigate the effects of national culture traits on website design, I analyzed the content
from different websites targeted at diasporas of high-skilled migrants. Below I provide a specific
background for qualitative and quantitative methodology research and describe how the analysis
was structured in this study.
In research paradigms there are different ways for scholars to gather data and determine what
defines an “analysis” (Jensen, 2008), creating a center of controversy. In the qualitative paradigm or
the methodology, the objects studied are conceived as created and continuously shaped by human
interactions. Thus, the qualitative methodology is argued to be a paradigm with a naturalistic view
of reality that relies on a critical realism of process and meaning (Deacon, Pickering, & Murdock,
G., 2007; Guba & Lincoln, 1982; Jensen, 2008; Smith & Heshusius, 1986).
From a different perspective, the qualitative methodology views the phenomena as existing apart
from the researcher’s perception. Reality in this paradigm can not only be analyzed objectively, but
also be condensed to an empirical label (Gunter, 2002; Guba & Lincoln, 1982; Smith & Heshusius,
1986). Therefore, it has been argued that the quantitative research paradigm is based on a positivist
view in the rationalistic tradition.
These differences are more evident when a researcher elucidates the benefits and limitations of a
research method. For example, Guba and Lincoln (1982) define quantitative methods as
mathematically precise and controllable, whereas qualitative methods deal with objects of study that
are difficult to convert to numerical forms. It would appear then that mixed methods within a
specific methodology or paradigm are unviable, as each type of method deals with information
differently.
However, both methodologies agree that using different approaches to the same methods is
complementary and increases the intersubjectivity and objectivity of research in a general sense
(Guba & Lincoln, 1982; Sale, Lohfel, & Brazil, 2002). This means that understanding and
33
investigating a specific case using different qualitative and quantitative methods within a research
paradigm is a desirable process. It provides the study with a complementary connection to a method
drawn from a perspective that claims that reality is a phenomenon experienced by the individual,
and with a view that perceives reality as shared variances of significance.
Nevertheless, it is of great importance that researchers bear in mind that paradigms differ in how a
method attains a higher level of reliability and validity.
For example, content analysis is a method used in qualitative and quantitative paradigms, and in
media studies it is generally applied to estimate the noticeable properties of large amounts of media
production (Van Zoonen, 1994) with attention to their contextual meaning. That is, as a research
technique content analysis relies on an a priori design and has no restrictions as to the
characteristics to be measured within the framework in which messages are generated (Neuendorf,
2002).
Content analysis is viewed by Deacon et al. (2007) as a preferred tool to analyze communication in
media and cultural studies. In web design and culture, for example, it has been used to study the
cognitive influence of color in websites (Cyr, Head, & Larious, 2010), the importance of its features
to develop personal and social interaction (Papacharissi, 2007), and the localization and global
acceptance of website designs (Cyr & Trevor-Smith, 2004; Li.X., Hess, McNab, & Yu, 2009).
In order to attain a higher level of reliability and validity, the coding process in the quantitative
research tradition requires different steps: a) the coding structure should be based preferably from
previous coding structures, b) coders and judges outside the research group, and c) finally an
intercoding reliable test needs to be conducted2.
Within quantitative research, these methodology limitations mean that the present study is unable to
employ such a technique with a higher level of reliability and validity parameters, as different
stages were used to analyze in-depth the information available on the websites.
2 http://ils.indiana.edu/faculty/hrosenba/www/Research/methods/lombard_reliability.pdf Lombard, Snyder-
Duch, and Bracken (2005) provide an interesting article on why it is important that interceding analysis, software and procedures are available.
34
The coding approach of this study has leaned toward the naturalistic perspective of the qualitative
research paradigm. The qualitative methodology was conceived as a more organized and efficient
approach; in the words of Charmaz, it “can add transparency after the data and in depth analysis has
been conducted” (2006, p. 63). Coding in qualitative analysis is made by compiling elements in
thematic and structure divisions in order to anticipate later interpretations of the object of analysis
(Jensen, 2008; Shannon & Hsieh, 2005)
In a broad sense, the truth value in the qualitative methodology is attainable, as long as the concepts
used in the coding process are in line with how the object of study constructs its reality (Smith &
Heshusius, 1986), and its essential components are “defined and redefined as part of the research
process itself” (Jensen, 2008, p. 245).
This coding strategy involves two steps: heuristic and factual coding followed by categorization of
the information to extract more important elements. Heuristic coding is made by initially assigning
codes to different parts of the information to be analyzed, based on metaphors reflecting certain
qualities of the unit of analysis (Jensen, 2008).
According to Jensen (2008), these two steps in the coding process help to avoid the
“contextualization and decontextualization” of meaningful structures, as the researcher elaborates a
multilayer analytical work that supports a “later detailed analysis of the discursive elements in
context” (p. 248).
As this type of analysis is influenced by the categories and context in which the analytical process is
based, the research frame began by having a practical base on Hofstede’s dimensions of culture,
and how his framework is applied to differentiate countries and national cultures from one another.
RESEARCH FRAME
National and cultural backgrounds are areas of context creation, and they open the door to perform
comparative and cultural communication research in media content studies (Rössler, 2012). These
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research areas in communication studies understand culture as pervasive and reflected in how
people construct communication systems (Esser & Hanitzsch, 2012).
William B. Gudykunst (2003) divided communication studies into two categories with culture as a
central axis: intercultural and cross-cultural studies. The cross-cultural division generally refers to
the individual’s communication in two cultures independent of each other, while intercultural
studies are concerned with the interaction between individuals with different cultural backgrounds.
Cultural communication studies can approch objects of analysis either from the view of an insider
or from the perspective of an objective outsider (Kim, 2012). In sum, researchers in culture
communication aim to gain an understanding of how symbolic information varies within one
context or in reference to another.
Comparative research is usually performed as cross-cultural content analysis, as it uses one
culture’s communication system as a frame of reference to study others (Esser & Hanitzsch, 2012).
One area of comparition is the content of images and their meaning in mass mediated context.
For Müller and Griffing (2012), visual comparison in cultural communication studies relates to how
images are “produced in a particular setting … and shared by producers and audiences” (p. 103).
According to Turner (1999), the assigment of meaning is a dynamic social process, as it depends on
the context of judgment and the perspective of the perceiver.
Visual comparison in comunication studies differs from cross-cultural and cross-national research,
as these areas study visual products in heuristic contexts that are coherent and validated in cultural
backgrounds.
Cross-cultural comparison draws its frameworks for classifying culture from comparative studies
(Gudykunst, 2005; Hall, 1990; Hofstede & Hofstede, 2005), generally using a high and low division
to assert the degree to which a culture belongs to different dimensions (i.e. context, group adherence
– invidualistic versus collectivistic – uncertainty avoidance, and power distance).
Hofstede (2005) created a cultural four-dimensional scale from an initial cross-cultural, cross-
national study performed in a worldwide corporation: high-low power distance, individualism-
36
collectivism, masculinity-femininity, and high-low uncertainy avoidance. This dualism in
Hofstede’s dimensions is a very important aspect, as cultures often lean toward one or the other,
although both sides do exist within all cultures.
HOFSTEDE’S CULTURE TRAITS
This ranking by score schema is a key quantitative part in Hofstede’s work, as it provides a
numerical way to differentiate a country’s national culture trait combination. As an illustration,
privileges and status symbols are dealt with differently according to a society’s domain culture.
According to Hofstede (2005), when a country scores higher at the Power Distance dimension
(PDI), its society will present a hierarchical order where status symbols are used to communicate
the social position and the respect expected, as “skill, wealth, power and status should go together…
the powerful should have privileges” (p.67). However, when a country scores lower in this
dimension, it will present a horizontal stratification where the show of privileges and status symbols
are frowned upon, as “all should have equal rights…power is based on formal position, expertise
and ability to give rewards” (p.67)
In order to represent this qualitative side of Hofstede’s work, culture traits and their respective
dimensions of culture3 are summarized in Table A.1. Each culture trait is either assigned the
number 1, which leads to a high score or a typical representation of a dimension, or -1, if the culture
trait leads to a low score or a representation that departs from it. This numerical assignment was
made to emphasize Hofstede’s idea that “culture only exist on comparison” (The Hofstede Centre,
2012-2013) or the importance that opposite constructs can be clearly discerned from one another.
For instance, within the power distance dimension the culture trait or the notion that “status
symbols are normal” represents a higher power division, and it is therefore associated with the
number 1, whereas the notion that “status symbols are frowned upon” is given -1, since countries
with this culture trait are classified as low in the Power Distance dimension.
3 The long term versus short term (LTO) and Indulgence versus Restrain (IVR) are still being developed;
therefore, their culture traits could not be represented in Table A.1.
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Each set of opposite culture traits within a dimension was considered in the same manner.
Whenever a construct was in line with Hofstede’s high characteristic ideas within a dimension of
culture – such as “more individualistic” for IDV, “less feminine” for MAS, or “need precision” for
UAI – it was given a 1, and the opposite, a construct that distanced itself from a culture regarded as
masculine, individualistic etc., was given a -1.
Some of these culture traits can be easily represented either through images, text, or interactive
features. For instance, “privileges and status symbols” can be represented by an interactive feature
that only grants access to different parts of a website to exclusive paying members. Thus, in order to
measure culture traits on websites, it was necessary to select a type of website.
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Table
A.1 POWER DISTANCE
INDIVIDUALISM VS
COLLECTIVISM
MASCULINITY VS
FEMININITY
UNCERTAINTY
AVOIDANCE
1
Autocratic or oligarchic
governments based on
cooptation
Everyone has a right to
privacy
Strong gender work
division
Need for precision and
formalization
1
Privileges and status
symbols are normal and
popular
Thinking patterns in
terms of "I"/ individual
interests prevail over
collective interests Corrective society
High stress and high
anxiety
1
Dependancy of less powerful
people
Harmony is maintained
and direct
confrontations avoided Competition
Show of emotions and
aggressions
1
Subordinates expect to be
told what to do
Management is
management of
individuals
Immigrants should
assimilate
Low participation in
voluntary association
and movements
1
Mostly power countries with
a small middle class
Resources should be
shared with others
Humanization of work
by job content
enrichment
Different modes of
address for different
others
1
Power is based on tradition
or family, charisma, and the
ability to use the force
Low context of
communication prevails Ego-boosting
What is different is
dangerous
1
White-collar jobs are valued
more than blue-collar jobs
Trespasing lead to guilt
and loss of self-respect
Job choice based on
career opportunities
Citizen protest should be
repressed
1
The way to change a political
system is by changing the
people at the top (revolution)
Showing happiness is
encouraged, and
sadness discouraged
Men and women
different subjects
Negative attitudes
toward young people
1
Educational policy focuses
on universities Independent self Report talk
Need for rules even if
these will not work
1
The ideal boss is a
benevolent autocrat, or
"good father"
Media is the primary
source of information
Decisive and
aggressive Time is money
1 Centralization is popular
Diplomas increase of
economic worth and/or
self-respect
Economy should be
preserved: big is
beautiful
Focus on decision
content
1 More supervisory personnel
Occupational mobility is
higher
Money over leisure
time Aggressive Nationalism
1
Managers rely on superiors
and on formal rules
Everyone is expected to
have a private opinion
Lower share of working
women
Worse at invention,
better at implementation
-1
Pluralist governments based
on outcome of majority
votes
Private life is invaded
by group(s)
Work related positions
are equally filled by
both sexes
Tolerance for ambiguity
and chaos
-1
Privileges and status
symbols are frowned upon
Thinking patterns in
terms of "we"/
Collective intersts
prevail over indiviual
intersests Corrective society
Low stress and low
anxiety
-1
Interdependance between
less and more powerfull
people.
Speaking one's mind is
a charateristic of an
honest person Average as a norm
No show of emotions
and agressions
-1
Subordinates expect to be
consulted
Management is
management of
individuals
Inmigrants should
integrate
High participation in
voluntary associations
and movements
-1
Mostly wealthier countries
with a large middle class
Individual ownership of
resources
Humanization of work
by contact and
cooperation
What is different is
curious
-1
Power is based on formal
position, expertise, and
ability to give rewards
High context of
communciation prevails Ego-effacement
Citizen protest is
acceptable
-1
Manual work has the same
status as office work
Trespassin leads to
shame and loss of face
for self and group
Job choice based on
intrinsic interests
Similar modes of
address for different
others
-1
The way to change a political
system is by changing the
rules (evolution)
Showing of sadness is
encouraged, and
happiness discouraged
Men and women same
subjects
Positive attitudes
toward young people
-1
Educational policy focuses
on secondary schools Interdependent self Rapport talk
No more rules than
necessary
-1
The ideal boss is a
resourceful democrat
Social network is the
primary source of
information
Intuition and
consensus
Framework of
orientation
-1 Decentralization is popular
Diplomas provide entry
to higher status groups
Environment should be
preserved: small is
beautiful
Focus on decision
process
-1 Fewer supervisory personnel
Occupational mobility is
lower
Leisure time over
money Defensive nationalism
-1
Managers rely on their own
experiences and on
subordinates
Opinions are
predetermined by group
membership
Higher share of
working women
Better at invention,
worse at implementation
HIGH
INDEX DIVISON
LOW INDEX DIVISION
HOFSTEDE'S DIMENSIONS OF CULTURE
CULTURE TRAITS
KEY DIFFERENCES IN CULTURE TRAITS - HIGH AND LOW SCORE INDEX DIVISION
39
WEBSITE GENRE SELECTION
According to Baym (2010), different web-based endeavors differ in the arrangement of elements;
therefore, research performing a content analysis of multiple types of websites will require a myriad
of variables, thus reducing the strength of the results. From a website design approach, choosing
one genre provides the researcher with a stable context to work with in terms of the designer’s and
users’ final goals.
The website genre selected was the diasporas of high-skilled migrants (DHSM). DHSM websites
consist of self-organized groups of migrants with a specific educational, professional, and national
background (Kuznetsov, 2006) that aim to create bridges by collaborating with their home and host
country institutions.
This international relationship not only requires management of human resources across nations,
but also construction, communication, and maintenance of information within DHSM websites. As
international networks eager to increase their market exposure, they receive technological and
economic support from different international organizations such as the World Bank (Kuznetsov,
2006). One effective way to do this is through the Internet; designing a website that communicates
their mission and goals is thought to be one of their top priorities. From a national and cultural
standpoint, selecting DHSM as a website genre provided the possibility to pair each diaspora’s
website country with the national culture traits in Hofstede’s framework.
The World Bank4 provides few links to different DHSM websites, and on some of them it was
possible to find links to other DHSM websites; for example, the Mexican diaspora website5 had
links to the New Zealand, Argentinian, Colombian, and Honduran diaspora websites. Another
method used to find diaspora websites was an Internet search using different web search engines.
4http://web.worldbank.org/WBSITE/EXTERNAL/WBI/WBIPROGRAMS/KFDLP/0,,contentMDK:20692386~pagePK:64156158~piPK:641
52884~theSitePK:461198,00.html Consulted from September 2012-January 2013 5 http://www.redtalentos.gob.mx/index.php Consulted from September 2012- January 2013
40
21 DHSM websites were found, but only 14 could be used. A consideration in this step was to take
into account only websites available in English or Spanish, based on the argument that a global
language approach will require extensive language proficiency and resources beyond the scope of
this study. Another consideration was whether a DHSM website represented a country within
Hofstede’s framework. At this point it is worth mentioning that although Hofstede’s analysis is
extensive, it provides national culture traits information for only 93 countries.
The selected websites were inserted in Table A.2, along with their corresponding rank and score. As
previously mentioned, Hofstede has created a series of tests to measure culture traits that are
considered important or dependent across different countries. The countries were given a score in
accordance with their results, , and based on this score the countries were given a rank number.
It is evident from Table A.2 that all the countries, with the exception of Switzerland, were given
only one score number by Hofstede, but their ranking fluctuates from 1 to 25 places within a
dimension of culture.
Table A.2
COUNTRY WEBSITES
Power
Distance
Score
Power
Distance
Rank
Collectivism vs
Individualism
Score
Collectivism vs
Individualism
Rank
Masculine vs
Feminine
score
Masculine vs
Feminine
Rank
Uncertainty
Avoidance
Score
Uncertainty
Avoidance
Rank
Argentina www.raices.mincyt.gov.ar 49 52- 53 46 33- 35 56 28-29 86 17-22
Australia www.advance.org 36 62 90 2 61 20 51 55-56
Austria-US www.ostina.org 11 74 55 27 79 4 70 35- 38
Chile www.chileglobal.net 63 37- 38 23 55 28 67 86 17- 22
Colombia www.redescolombia.org 67 30-31 13 70 64 14-16 80 29-30
Ireland www.theirelandfunds.org 28 69 70 15 68 9-10 35 66 -67
East Africa (Uganda,
Rwanda Zimbabwe )
www.ugandandiaspora.com,
www.dfzim.com ,
www.rwandandiaspora.gov.rw 64 34-36 27 49- 51 41 54 52 54
Malasya www.scientificmalaysian.com 104 1 -2 26 52 50 34-36 36 65
Mexico www.redtalentos.gob.mx 81 10- 11 30 46-48 69 8 82 26-27
Scotland www.sdi.co.uk/globalscot.aspx 35 63-65 89 3 66 13-Nov 35 66-67
Switzerland www.swisstalents.org 26 (G) 70 (F) 22-25-34 69(F) 64(G) 16-17-19 72(G)58(F) 58 -22-24 70(F)56(G) 50-35-38
New Zealand www.keanewzealand.com 22 71 79 7 58 22-24 49 58-59
Highest value 104 1 91 1 110 1 112 1
Lowest Value 11 74 6 74 5 74 8 54
MEDIAN 51.923077 0 49.61538462 0 58.07692308 0 60.15384615 0
GENERAL SCORE AND RANK ACCORDING TO HOFSTEDE'S DIMENSIONS OF CULTURE
41
Across Hofstede’s work (Hofstede & Hofstede, 2005), references can be found to a country’s high
or low position in a dimension of culture. However, there is no strict criterion for how this high or
low categorization is established, as Hofstede generally refers to it as either closer to or distinct
from the middle ranking or the test score’s center (ibid.). Therefore, as Hofstede generally provides
one score number value per country, the score’s median was calculated, adding the highest and
lowest score number value in the respective dimension of culture in order to help categorize a
country’s position.
HOFSTEDE’S DIMENSIONS OF CULTURE: SCORE AND RANK SYSTEM
Based on the score division elaborated in this study and the literature considerations (Hofstede &
Hofstede, 2005), specific national culture trait combinations can be discerned across the websites
selected. I summarized these culture trait combinations in Table A.3.
Table A.3
COUNTRY
POWER
DISTANCE
INDIVIDUALISM
VS
COLLECTIVISM
MASCULINITY
VS
FEMENINITY
UNCERTAINTY
AVOIDANCE
HIGH OR LOW
NATIONAL CULTURE
TRAITS PIMU
COMBINATION
TOTAL NATONAL
CULTURE TRAITS
BY PIMU
COMBINATION
Argentina LOW LOW LOW HIGH LLLH LLLH:1
Australia LOW HIGH HIGH LOW LHHL LHHL:3
Austria LOW HIGH HIGH HIGH LHHH LHHH:1
Chile HIGH LOW LOW HIGH HLLH HLLH:1
Colombia HIGH LOW HIGH HIGH HLHH HLHH:2
Ireland LOW HIGH HIGH LOW LHHL LHLL:1
East Africa HIGH LOW LOW LOW HLLL HLLL:2
New Zealand LOW HIGH LOW LOW LHLL MIXED:1
Malaysia HIGH LOW LOW LOW HLLL
Mexico HIGH LOW HIGH HIGH HLHH
Scotland LOW HIGH HIGH LOW LHHL
Switzerland MIXED MIXED MIXED MIXED MIXED
*PIMU: An acronym used in this study to summarize Hofstede's dimensions of culture: Power distance,
Individualism versus collectivism, Masculinty vs femininity, Uncertainty avoidance
COUNTRY'S DOMAIN CULTURE TRAITS ACCORDING TO SCORE POSITION WITHIN HOFSTEDE'S DIMENSIONS OF CULTURE
42
Across the websites selected, 8 different PIMU6 combinations were found using the high and low
classification in Table A.2. These sets of countries presented a culturally diverse sample, and in
these culture trait combinations only two opposite dimensions of culture were consistent across the
sample: Power Distance and Individualism versus Collectivism.
When a country was given a high power distance score, it would be given a low score in the
individualism dimension, and when a country scored low in the power distance dimension, it scored
high in the individualism dimension (see Table A.3 for the Power Distance and Individualism
versus Collectivism columns). The consistency between the culture trait opposites provides an
argument for dividing the content analysis of websites into two main sections: a High Power
Distance and Low Individualism division (HL) and a Low Power Distance and High Individualism
division (LH). As expected, websites have a marked preference for addressing and providing
solutions to the designers and users.
However, two countries – Argentina and Switzerland – did not follow this low-high score division,
and considerations were made regarding these cases. According to Hofstede7, due to the massive
influx of European migrants, the culture trait combination of Argentinian society fluctuates between
what he calls “modern and individualistic traits” and a status that “should be underlined”. Based on
Hofstede’s consideration, and for the purpose of this study, Argentina will be considered as a
country with a culture trait combination of a low power division and a high individualism.
However, it is expected – in a lower number – to share website design characteristics with countries
in the other culture trait spectrum.
On the other hand, the divergence of Switzerland’s score is based on markedly different language
and thus culture zones within this country. Hofstede (2005) provides different scores for
Switzerland based on French and German speaking zones, and these zones are thought to be
somehow related to the scores and culture traits of France and Germany, respectively.
6 *PIMU: An acronym used in this study to summarize Hofstede's dimensions of culture: Power Distance,
Individualism versus Collectivism, Masculinity versus Femininity, Uncertainty Avoidance. 7 http://geert-hofstede.com/argentina.html Consulted in April 2013.
43
Hofstede’s considerations regarding Switzerland differ from his view of the Argentinian culture
trait combination. The effects of European migration to Argentina – adapting and influencing a
local culture – began in the early 1900s, whereas the influence of the two language zones in
Switzerland, although limited to two languages – as Italian and Romansh are also recognized as
official languages – is related to a long history of clear language-culture zone divisions.
Consequently, Switzerland is the only country in this study that is believed to truly possess mixed
culture trait combinations.
POWER AND INDIVIDUALISM: HOFSTEDE’S DIMENSIONS OF CULTURE IN WEBSITE ANALYSIS
In order to apply Hofstede’s Power and Individualism culture trait concepts, they need to be
interpreted within the elements that constitute the digital media content of the DHSM websites.
While studying the influences of cultural features in website design, Callahan (2006) presented an
interesting summary of some of the available research using Hofstede’s cultural model to interpret
differences in website design. As in the case of this study, the authors mentioned by Callahan view
high and low cultural traits through Hofstede’s dimensions of culture.
Callahan, 2006, pp.
248
44
Similarly, Jensen (2008) views digital media content as meaningful structures. This content is
present in different levels of articulation, exemplified by connective nodes between texts, images, or
other user-interactive features imbedded in hyperstructures. Although scattered across cultural
dimensions, the authors mentioned by Callahan divide the content of websites in a similar way the
one suggested by Jensen.
In analyzing digital media content, especially in terms of a website’s meaningful structures and
culture comparisons, there are key limitations in the approach suggested in Callahan’s summary.
First the authors mentioned by Callahan only consider the relation between image content and
access to information as the unique meaningful structure in a website; in Jensen’s work this is
represented only as an articulation level – see figure below. Second, the elements studied in
Callahan’s work fluctuate from images to interactivity features only at the front end of the website
design across all of Hofstede’s dimensions of culture.
The approach adopted by Callahan towards Hofstede’s dimension and website’s elements, might be
the reason that only two of the 14 hypotheses could be supported.
Three levels of articulation.
Jensen, 2008, p. 189
45
In this sense, the approach of Jensen provides a far more concise distinction of website elements as
meaningful structures and thus a more suitable model for the content analysis strategy in the present
research. For example, static text and static images communicate meaning differently, like when
they are given an interactive feature, such as the property of redirecting the user to another website.
In the “Localization, culture and web design” section, the idea of website elements as cultural
markers was introduced. While studying usbaility and culture in web design, Barber and Badre
(1998) presented the idea of cutlural markes as design elements found in web pages. Such
elements become cultural markers by their particualr prevalence or abscene in specific cultural
groups. In the same study Barber and Badre indentified a wide range of cultural markers from
HTLM -i.e. number of images and links-, to Achitecture specific –i.e. office and lanscape. (see
Table B.1 in Apendix B)
Barber and Badre points that “the list must be flexible in order to account for changes in the web
sites and technology” (1998, p.7) Drawing from their work the present study uses the following
elements:
HTLM and CSS Specific: HTLM images, CSS images, # of lines, # of keyworkds, #of
images, #bold tags, # anchor tags, #headings # of links, # of external links, #external outbound
links, # external inbound links,
Specific colors: flag, pictures, background, tabs, text
Links: internal, external.
Photograph composition: #individuals, background images
Architecture: office, urban, outdoors, background color.
Acces to information: Membership types, contact information style, guideline sections
Consequently, for the comparative analysis of these elements Jensen’s levels of articulation were
grouped into the following constructs: Images, Website palette, Interactive Features and Web
interface and design elements.(Table A.4)
46
The resulting hypotheses were made by interpreting the elements described in Table A.4, with the
respective cultural traits in the High- Low division in Power Distance and Individualism::
H1: The rate at which a DHSM website uses logos and pictures within a theme fluctuate
according to national culture traits combination.
According to Hofstede (2005), collectivistic countries with high power distance prefer to
show their status differences, and as this is based on family, charisma, and social networks,
private life is invaded by them. In individualistic and low power distance countries,
privileges and status are frowned upon, power is based on expertise, and everyone has a
right to privacy.
Thus, diasporas of high skilled migrants (DHSM) websites from individualistic countries
with low power distance (LH) will present a lower number of logos and group pictures with
an outdoor photography composition, in contrast to countries with collective and high power
distance (HL).
Images
Website
palette
Interactive Features
Web interface and design
elements
Text
Specific
colors
Acces to information
Images
Photograph composition
Architecture
Hyperlinks
Links
HTLM and CSS specific
Tale A.4
47
H2: The rate at which a DHSM website design uses different color hues that varies
according to national cultural traits combinations.
For Hofstede (ibid.), collectivistic countries with a high power distance (HL) prefer a high
context communication style, whereas low context communication is preferred by
individualistic countries with a low power distance (LH). Color appeal, as a type of
information that can be manipulated by designers and perceived by users, is assumed to vary
in accordance with the style they find more appropriate or pleasing. Is expected that in LH
websites there will be a less use of color; thus presenting a monochromatic palette.
H3: The frequency with which different DHSM websites provides a type of access to
information or services that vary according to national culture traits combination.
Hofstede (2005) describes individualistic countries with a low power distance (LH) as
decentralized with a tendency to share resources at all levels of society; centralization, on
the other hand, is the case with collectivistic countries with a high power distance (HL). This
process is thought to be reflected in how countries with different culture traits administer
access to information on their websites. The websites located in the LH national culture trait
combination will to a greater extent provide more personal and egalitarian access to
information.
H4: Guidelines for member behavior and data protection in DHSM websites differ
according to national culture traits combinations.
As in the case of H1, this hypothesis is derived from countries’ approach to privacy rights.
In addition, lower power distance countries attach great importance to transparency and
rules, as their preferred way to change a political system is by changing the rules and voting
for their implementation. Thus, an elaborate description of these aspects will be present on
websites from countries with culture traits labeled as individualistic and with a horizontal
power distance distribution (LH).
48
H5: Page components on different DHSM websites disagree in size and number according to
national culture traits combinations.
As in the case of H2, this hypothesis is drawn from the preference for high or low context
communication in the culture trait combinations. However, this hypothesis deals with the
amount of files on a website relative to its size. The files or elements in a determined web
page can include features such as HTML files, flash, video, audio, etc. and are usually
measured in bytes. As collectivistic countries with a high power distance society (HL) prefer
high context communication styles, is expected that the number and size of its elements will
be greater than those from websites representing countries with opposite national cultural
traits.
ANALYSIS
OVERVIEW
In the first stage of the analysis parts of the DHSM websites were analyzed to establish a coding
scheme, which was later applied to the rest of the DHSM websites and their sections. This strategy
helped to add more category elements related to the testing of the hypotesis, as some of them were
not considered the first coding listing.
In order to test hypotheses 1 and 2 (image and color), a content analysis was conducted of the start
page and the about us or mission pages of DHSM websites,
Hypotheses 3 and 4 (access to information) involved analysis of the entire website, as it required
searching for specific interactive features. The qualitative data provided in this search was later
entered into different tables in order to quantiatively measure the differentes across DHSM
websites.
Finally, hypothesis 5 (weight of a website and size of its elements) was tested using website
performance and speed analysis tools. These tools provided different page statistics, and based on
this quantitative analysis the internal elements of a website could be measured and compared to the
culture trait constructs provided by Hofstede.
49
In hypotheses 1 through 4 the coding for the analysis of the information provided on a website was
first performed in a subjective analysis and then translated into a numerical form; for that reason,
these analyses were arranged in a section named “Qualitative Analysis”. In hypothesis 5 the first
analysis of the information on a website was performed with an external tool and then translated in
order to measure the qualitative traits; this analysis was arranged in the section named “Quantitative
Analysis”. This approach to labeling the analyses made it easier to elucidate the steps in which the
content analysis was performed to test each hypothesis, rather than the methodology behind the
method, as it has already been mentioned that this research abides by the qualitative paradigm.
QUALITATIVE ANALYSIS
H1: The rate at which a DHSM website uses logos and pictures within a theme fluctuate
according to national culture traits combination.
Photographs
Visual resources in websites, such as photographs, provide the user with meaningful content.
Photographs in order to communicate ideas, emotions, values or metaphors, can omit or emphasize
objects and space within their boundaries, in an efficient or interesting way (Krages, 2005).
Web developers choose certain types of compositions photographs according to the arrangement of
the visual elements perceived in them, in order to make visual communication easier to
comprehend. Visual cognition has been studied by Gestalt Theory, which conceives human
perception as governed by the following principles:
“
People tend to perceive by distinguishing between a figure and a background (the figure-round
relationship).
Objects that are close together are likely to be seen as a group (the principle of proximity).
Objects that are similar are more likely to be seen as a group (the principle of similarity).
People tend to see complete figures even when part of the information is missing (the principle
of closure).
People tend to perceive subjects as continuous figures (the principle of continuity)
” (Krages, 2005, p. 7)
50
Even though these principles can be used directly as a guide to compose photographs, they aid to
explain how users and designers view the elements in a picture. Factors such as the presence of
individuals or the type of background in photographs give important visual clues.
The idea behind the following analysis is to be as truthful as possible to Hofstede’s notion that
“culture exists in comparison”. As the culture trait differences to be analyzed relate to the
approaches to work, private life, and group cohesion in different countries; opposites were based on
the reality of the individuals composing the object of study and may not apply to a different section
of the general population.
The actors from the websites to be analyzed are members of diasporas of high-skilled migrants:
highly talented professionals from different areas of work, especially individuals involved in the
knowledge-intensive sectors of the world economy. Typically, most of their work is carried out in
offices, laboratories, workshop or conference rooms, and studios. In this sense, when the following
section relates to “office work” environments, it refers to these indoors situations, whereas the
opposite construct “private life” was thought to occur in outdoor, urban settings, as it refers to
situations outside these premises.
In the same manner, individual versus couple or group pictures refer to the situations in which
individuals prefer to work and to the way their success is measured according to culture traits. The
only column that did not follow this conflict is related to a blurred white-gray-black background, as
it was based on its recurrent appearance across all the websites analyzed; thus, the pictures with
these background characteristics were canalized based on the number of individuals on the picture.
Method Design
In the column titled “CULTURE TYPE” in Table P.1 DHSM websites from countries with HL
culture traits (collective with a high degree of power distance) were colored blue, whereas those
with LH culture traits (individualistic and low degree of power distance) were given the color
orange. The only country expected to have mixed culture traits (ranging from LH to HL),
Switzerland, was colored green.
51
In the top row of Table P.1 two main count groupings were made according to the number of
persons in a picture: red = individual photographs, purple = group pictures. If a picture displayed a
single person, it was filtered to the individual section, but if a photograph displayed more than one
individual, it was filtered to the group section. The total number of pictures in the individual and
group sections in Table P.1 were organized in two columns labeled “TOTAL RESULTS INDIV.” –
for photographs showing a single individual – and “TOTAL RESULTS GROUP” – for photographs
showing couple or group pictures.
The individual and group pictures were also divided according to the architecture content: office
and work, outdoor and urban, and blurred white-gray-black background. Each category described in
Table P.2 relates to a column with the same name presented in Table P.1.
For example, in the start page of the Australian DHSM website four pictures of individuals can be
observed. The picture located at the top left of the web page shows an individual in what appears to
be a conference; this type of picture was added to the “SINGLE & OFFICE-WORK” column in the
individual section.
The rest of the pictures available in this part of the Australian website show single individuals on a
white, gray, or blurred background. These three pictures were added to the number count at the
column labeled “SINGLE & WHITE-GRAY-BLACK-BLURRED”.
52
Start page -
Australian
DHSM website
- ADVANCE
Start Page of
the Rwandan
DHSM website
53
Table
P.1
WEB
SITE
S
COUN
TRY
REPR
ESEN
TED
CULT
URE
TYPE
SING
LE
&
OFFI
CE-
WOR
K
SING
LE
&
OUTD
OORS
-
URBA
N
SING
LE
&
WHI
TE-G
RAY-
BLAC
K-BL
URRE
D
TOTA
L
RESU
LTS
INDI
V.
COUP
LE
&
OFFI
CE-
WOR
K
COUP
LE
&
OUTD
OORS
-
URBA
N
COUP
LE
&
WHI
TE-
GRAY
-BLA
CK-
BLUR
RED
GROU
P
&
OFFI
CE-
WOR
K
GROU
P
&
OUTD
OORS
-
URBA
N
GROU
P
&
WHI
TE-G
RAY-
BLAC
K-BL
URRE
D
TOTA
L
RESU
LTS
GROU
P
TOTA
L
NUM
BER
OF
PICT
URES
CLAS
SIFI
CATI
ON B
Y
HIGH
ER T
YPE
OF
INDI
VIDU
ALS
AND
BACK
GROU
ND
ww
w.c
hile
glob
al.n
et
Chi
leHL
40
04
10
04
20
711
1.a
ww
w.re
desc
olom
bia.
org
Col
ombi
aHL
11
02
00
01
10
24
1,2.
c
ww
w.s
cien
tific
mal
aysi
an.c
omM
alay
sia
HL4
54
130
00
10
01
141.
b
ww
w.rw
anda
ndia
spor
a.go
v.rw
Rw
anda
HL1
00
10
00
24
06
72.
a
ww
w.u
gand
andi
aspo
ra.c
omU
gand
aHL
69
1732
00
06
02
739
3.b
ww
w.d
fzim
.com
Zim
babw
eHL
00
00
00
00
00
00
c
ww
w.re
dtal
ento
s.go
b.m
xM
exic
oHL
00
00
00
01
00
11
1.a
ww
w.ra
ices
.min
cyt.g
ov.a
rAr
gent
ina
LH1
00
10
00
00
00
11.
b
ww
w.a
dvan
ce.o
rgA
ustr
alia
LH2
04
61
00
20
03
91.
b
ww
w.k
eane
wze
alan
d.co
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ew Z
eala
ndLH
10
23
00
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03
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ww
w.o
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iaLH
00
00
00
00
10
11
1.a
ww
w.th
eire
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fund
s.or
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LH2
11
41
31
45
014
182.
a
ww
w.s
di.c
o.uk
/glo
bals
cot.a
spx
Sco
tland
LH4
10
52
00
00
02
71.
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QUAL
ITAT
IVE
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YSIS
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"STA
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SION
" W
EBSI
TE SE
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NS
NUM
BER
OF IN
DIVI
DUAL
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NG IN
A P
ICTU
RE A
ND T
YPE
OF P
HOTO
GRAP
HY B
ACKG
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D
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WO
RK
SIN
GLE
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OU
TDO
OR
S -
UR
BA
N
SIN
GLE
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WH
ITE-
GR
AY-
BLA
CK
-
BLU
RR
ED
CO
UP
LE
&
OFF
ICE-
WO
RK
CO
UP
LE
&
OU
TDO
OR
S-U
RB
AN
CO
UP
LE
&
WH
ITE-
GR
AY-
BLA
CK
-
BLU
RR
ED
GR
OU
P
&
OFF
ICE-
WO
RK
GR
OU
P
&
OU
TDO
OR
S-U
RB
AN
GR
OU
P
&
WH
ITE-
GR
AY-
BLA
CK
-
BLU
RR
ED
Pic
ture
wh
ere
an
ind
ivid
ual
is
po
rtra
yed
wit
h a
n
'off
ice
or
'wo
rk'
the
me
d p
ho
to
bac
kgro
un
d.
Pic
ture
wh
ere
an
ind
ivid
ual
is
po
rtra
yed
wit
h
an 'o
utd
oo
r' o
r
'urb
an' t
he
me
d
ph
oto
bac
kgro
un
d.
Pic
ture
wh
ere
an
ind
ivid
ual
is p
ort
raye
d
wit
h a
wh
ite
, gra
y, b
lack
or
blu
rre
d p
ho
to
bac
kgro
un
d.
Pic
ture
wh
ere
two
ind
ivid
ual
s
are
po
rtra
yed
wit
h a
n 'o
ffic
e o
r
'wo
rk' t
he
me
d
ph
oto
bac
kgro
un
d.
Pic
ture
wh
ere
tw
o
ind
ivid
ual
s ar
e
po
rtra
yed
wit
h a
n
'ou
tdo
or'
or
'urb
an'
the
me
d p
ho
to
bac
kgro
un
d.
Pic
ture
wh
ere
tw
o
ind
ivid
ual
s a
re p
ort
raye
d
wit
h a
wh
ite
, gra
y, b
lack
or
blu
rre
d p
ho
to
bac
kgro
un
d.
Pic
ture
wh
ere
a g
rou
p
of
ind
ivid
ual
s ar
e
po
rtra
yed
wit
h a
n a
n
'off
ice
or
'wo
rk'
the
me
d p
ho
to
bac
kgro
un
d.
Pic
ture
wh
ere
a g
rou
p
of
ind
ivid
ual
s ar
e
po
rtra
yed
wit
h a
n
'ou
tdo
or'
or
'urb
an'
the
me
d p
ho
to
bac
kgro
un
d.
Pic
ture
wh
ere
a g
rou
p
of
ind
ivid
ual
s ar
e
po
rtra
yed
wit
h a
wh
ite
, gra
y, b
lack
or
blu
rre
d p
ho
to
bac
kgro
un
d.
DES
CR
IPTI
ON
OF
PIC
TUR
E A
ND
BA
CK
GR
OU
ND
CA
TEG
OR
IES
Table P.2
54
On the other hand, the Rwandan DHSM website displays a different picture arrangement. Although
it also shows four pictures, as was the case with the Australian DHSM website, the start page uses
many group pictures. At the top and in the lower right section, the Rwandan DHSM website
displays two group pictures, and their background with the light combination gives the impression
that they were taken in a forest. These pictures were added to the column count labeled “GROUP &
URBAN-OUTDOORS”.
The picture at the central upper part of the website displays an individual on what appears to be a
podium in a conference hall; therefore, it was added to the column count labeled “SINGLE &
OFFICE-WORK”. The last picture, located at the central lower part of the website, displays five
individuals in what appears to be an award ceremony held indoors. This picture was also added to
the column count labeled “GROUP & OFFICE-WORK”.
Finally, the “CLASSIFICATION BY HIGHER TYPE OF INDIVIDUALS AND
BACKGROUND” column in Table P.1 follows the color, letter, and number depicted in Table P.3,
and it was used to point out the final higher ratio of nominative characteristics of pictures on a
specific website: number of individuals appearing in a photograph and the theme used.
The higher ratio number of individuals in a picture was classified as follows. A higher ratio of
group pictures on a website was represented by the letter “a” and the color purple. A higher ratio of
pictures of individuals was represented by the color green and the letter “b”. If a website did not
present enough pictures to make this distinction, it was represented by the letter “c” and the color
yellow.
The type of theme of a picture was classified as follows. When a website displayed a higher number
of work-related pictures, it was represented by the number 1; a higher number of urban, outdoor-
Table P.3
a A higher display of group pictures 1 Higher display of office-work background
b A higher display of individual pictures 2 Higher display of outdoors-urban background
c No significant differences were observed 3 Higher display of white-gray-black-blurred background
CLASSIFICATION
55
related pictures was represented by the number 2; and if the picture count portrayed a higher
number of white-gray-blurred backgrounds, it was represented by the number 3.
In Table P.4, all the countries from the sample as well as their culture trait type were aligned with
their final picture and theme combination. As an illustration, in the case of the Australian DHSM
website, there were a total of six pictures showing single individuals and three with groups. Also,
five of these nine pictures displayed a work or office related background. Consequently, the
Australian DHSM website was labeled individualistic with a work-related theme. The Rwandan
DHSM website was labeled collectivistic with an urban, outdoor-related theme, as there was a
majority of urban, outdoor-related group pictures.
CULTURE
TYPE
COUNTRY
REPRESENTED COMBINATION PICTURE - THEME
HL Zimbabwe no clear difference
HL Colombia mixed picture and theme combination
HL Uganda individualistic with a white-gray-blurred background-related theme
LH New Zealand individualistic with a white-gray-blurred background-related theme
HL Rwanda collectivistic with an urban, outdoor-related theme
LH Ireland collectivistic with an urban, outdoor-related theme
HL Malaysia individualistic with an office-, work-related theme
LH Argentina individualistic with an office-, work-related theme
LH Australia individualistic with an office-, work-related theme
LH Scotland individualistic with an office-, work-related theme
Mixed Switzerland individualistic with an office-, work-related theme
HL Chile collectivistic with an office-, work-related theme
HL Mexico collectivistic with an office-, work-related theme
LH Austria collectivistic with an office-, work-related theme
Table P.4
56
The results (Table P.1) from the qualitative analysis of photographs on the start page and pages
describing the DHSM website’s mission were organized in a truth table (Table P.5). This last table
was interpreted using cross tabulations from fQCA 2.0, which is fuzzy set/Qualitative Comparative
Analysis software8
The values in Table P.5 are based on a High-Low division. To create the column titled “HIGH OR
LOW CONTEXT WEBSITE”, first the arithmetic mean from the column “TOTAL NUMBER OF
PICTURES” in Table P.1 was calculated. Afterwards, if a website-country had above the average
number of pictures it was assigned the value “1”; otherwise it was assigned the value “0”.
According to Hofstede there is a correlation between collectivistic cultures and their inclination to
prefer high context communication (2005, p89). Thus, the value of “1” was assigned if the
predominant pictures in a website displayed couples or groups of individuals, “0” if displayed more
photos of a single individual; or “0.5” if these divisions could not be made.
Hofstede mentions that the right of privacy is a central theme in collectivistic countries, as is
“…normal and right that one’s in-group can at any time invade one’s private life” (2005, p.104).
Based on this assumption, the last column “TYPE OF BACKGROUND” was created to divide the
8 http://www.u.arizona.edu/~cragin/fsQCA/software.shtml Consulted in May 2013
Table P.5
WEBSITES
COUNTRY
REPRESENTED
CULTURE
TYPE
HIGH OR LOW
CONTEXT
WEBSITE
HIGHEST
TYPE OF
PICTURE
TYPE OF
BACKGROUND
www.chileglobal.net Chile HL 1 1 0
www.redescolombia.org Colombia HL 0 0.5 0.5
www.scientificmalaysian.com Malaysia HL 1 1 0
www.rwandandiaspora.gov.rw Rwanda HL 0 0 1
www.ugandandiaspora.com Uganda HL 1 0.5 0.5
www.dfzim.com Zimbabwe HL 0 0.5 0.5
www.redtalentos.gob.mx Mexico HL 0 1 0
www.raices.mincyt.gov.ar Argentina LH 0 1 0
www.advance.org Australia LH 1 1 0
www.keanewzealand.com New Zealand LH 0 0.5 0.5
www.ostina.org Austria LH 0 1 0
www.theirelandfunds.org Ireland LH 1 0 0.5
www.sdi.co.uk/globalscot.aspx Scotland LH 0 1 0
www.swisstalents.org Switzerland Mixed 0 1 0
57
countries by the higher type of photograph background scenery in their pictures. A higher ratio of
individuals photographed in a office-work or indoor related staging was assigned the value “1”. If
websites presented a higher number of pictures of individuals with an urban or outdoors setting,
they were assigned the value “0”. Some websites displayed more photographs of landscapes, or
with a color or blurred décor; as those can not be classified within a specific category, they were
assigned the value “0.5”. (Table P.7)
Results
The study of pictures from the DHSM websites provided stimulating results (Table P.6). As
mentioned in the methodology, by choosing a website genre, the sample websites were expected to
Table
P.6 Column code value
1 Higher display of group photos. 0 Higher display of single individual photos
0.5 No clear division could be made
Colum code value
1 Higher display of office-wok background 0 Higher display of outdoors-urban background 0.5 Higher display of color, blurred or landscape
background
Table
P.7
58
have common traits. In the case of the DHSM websites analyzed, the common trait was the display
of photographs of individuals than group pictures (50 % vs. 36 %). Also, there was a stronger
preference for the work-, office-related theme (58 %) than the urban, outdoor-related theme (14 %).
However, when the sample was divided and grouped according to culture traits, it showed a clear
preference for different features. Websites from countries whose national culture traits were
considered as individualistic with a low power dimension (LH) displayed a higher number of
individual (57.1 %) than group pictures (40 %), whereas countries with culture traits perceived as
collective with a high power dimension (HL) displayed a higher number of group (60 %) than
individual pictures (28.6 %). Websites with a Mixed national culture traits, were inclined for
presenting pictures of individuals (representing the 14.3% from the total sample)
In an individual account of the websites, the Irish DHSM website was the only website from the LH
division that presented a consistent high ratio of group against individual pictures, the most
recurrent setting being outdoor settings.
Surprisingly, of the total number of websites analyzed the Ugandan DHSM website followed by the
Malaysian DHSM website had the highest total number of pictures portraying individuals in
different settings, predominantly individuals photographed on a blurred background. The Mexican
DHSM website, on the other hand, displayed only one group picture. Contrary to the initial national
culture trait expectations – of fluctuating numbers of collectivistic and individualistic traits – the
Swiss DHSM website displayed only two pictures of individuals in a work-related theme, whereas
the Colombian DHSM website displayed an equal number of group and individual pictures in both
work- and outdoor-related themes; and the Zimbabwean DHSM website mostly displayed
photographs of landscapes and jewelry.
59
In the case of the background composition of pictures, websites from LH countries displayed more
work-, office-related pictures (50%); whereas HL country’s websites represented only 37.5%.
Websites from HL countries displayed the same preference for the photography composition across
two divisions: three websites presented preferred individuals in either a color, blur or landscape
based background; and three websites preferred photos of individuals in a work-, office-related
background.
Furthermore, HL websites displayed a higher number of photographs in total (an average of 10
pictures in total compared to LH websites with an average of five pictures), and to a certain degree
this result lends support to the high context versus low context communication preferences based on
culture traits discussed in hypotheses 2 and 5.
Start page - Zimbabwean diaspora - DFZ
60
Logos
Method Design
In Table L.1 DHSM websites were divided according to their national culture traits. DHSM
websites with national culture traits defined as HL (high power division and collective) were
marked with the color blue. Websites with LH national culture traits (individualistic with a low
power division) were marked with an orange color; and websites with a Mixed combination of HL
and LH national culture traits were marked with a green color. The total number of logos presented
on the start page and pages describing a diaspora’s mission were counted and listed in the columns
titled “NUMBER OF LOGOS START PAGE” and “NUMBER OF LOGOS ABOUT US PAGE”,
respectively.
Table L.1.
WEBSITES
COUNTRY
REPRESENTED
CULTURE
TYPE
NUMBER OF LOGOS
START PAGE
NUMBER OF LOGOS
ABOUT US PAGE
USE OF SOCIAL
MEDIA LOGOS
TOTAL OF
LOGOS
TOTAL OF LOGOS
MINUS SOCIAL
MEDIA
TOTAL OF LOGOS
CLASSIFICATION
TOTAL OF LOGOS MINUS
SOCIAL MEDIA
CLASSIFICATION
www.chileglobal.net Chile HL 11 5 8 16 8 a b
www.redescolombia.org Colombia HL 3 6 4 9 5 b b
www.scientificmalaysian.com Malaysia HL 10 5 6 15 9 a b
www.rwandandiaspora.gov.rw Rwanda HL 7 7 2 14 12 c a
www.ugandandiaspora.com Uganda HL 29 11 5 40 35 a a
www.dfzim.com Zimbabwe HL 5 5 6 10 4 b b
www.redtalentos.gob.mx Mexico HL 11 5 0 16 16 a a
www.raices.mincyt.gov.ar Argentina LH 5 4 0 9 9 b b
www.advance.org Austarlia LH 8 8 10 16 6 a b
www.keanewzealand.com New Zealand LH 11 5 8 16 8 a b
www.ostina.org Austria LH 4 1 0 5 5 b b
www.theirelandfunds.org Ireland LH 8 8 5 16 11 a a
www.sdi.co.uk/globalscot.aspx Scotland LH 3 3 4 6 2 b b
www.swisstalents.org Switzerland Mixed 6 6 0 12 12 a a
LOGOS
AVERAGE
START PAGE
AVERAGE ABOUT
US PAGE
AVERAGE TOTAL
OF LOGOS
AVERAGE TOTAL OF LOGOS
MINUS SOCIAL MEDIA
a
TOTAL OF
WEBSITES 9 6 14 10
b
c HL 11 6 17 12
LH 6.5 5 11 7
MIXED 6 6 12 12
QUALITATIVE ANALYSIS OF LOGOS
CULTURE TYPE
Use of logos above average
Use of logos below average
No significant differences were observed
61
In the first step of the analysis, it was noticed that the amount of logos related to social media, such
as Twitter, Facebook, LinkedIn, among others, differed from the amount of institutional logos
across the sample – as in the case of New Zealand’s DHSM website. Therefore, it was thought
necessary to make a counting division concerning the total number of social media logos and
institutional logos.
These considerations were represented in Table L.1 in the column titled “USE OF SOCIAL
MEDIA LOGOS” by counting the number of social media logos on both the start page and the
mission pages. Similarly, the number of institutional logos were counted and listed in the column
“TOTAL OF LOGOS MINUS SOCIAL MEDIA”.
By calculating the average number of logos across these features, it was possible to visualize the
websites across the sample that presented a higher and lower number of logos, respectively. These
websites are represented in Table L.1 and highlighted with the color red and red numbers for both
the “TOTAL OF LOGOS” and “TOTAL OF LOGOS MINUS SOCIAL MEDIA” columns.
By coding the results with different letters I was able to follow the same high (a) and low (b)
classification mentioned before, but a “no significant differences were observed” (c) stage was
needed as well, as some websites presented different culture trait combinations within a country.
This strategy is applied in the columns titled “TOTAL OF LOGOS CLASIFICATION” and
“TOTAL OF LOGOS MINUS SOCIAL MEDIA CLASIFICATION”, and by doing so I was able to
follow the trends across the total sample as well as trace any differences according to their culture
trait characteristics.
The last two columns and their results where coded into truth tables separately, and interpreted
using fQCA 2.0, which is fuzzy set/Qualitative Comparative Analysis software9. The letter (a) was
assigned with the value “1”, the letter (b) with the value “0”, and the letter (c) with the value “0.5”.
The “TOTAL OF LOGOS CLASIFICATION” is represented in Table L.2, and the “TOTAL OF
LOGOS MINUS SOCIAL MEDIA CLASSIFICATION” in Table L.3.
9 http://www.u.arizona.edu/~cragin/fsQCA/software.shtml Consulted in May 2013
62
Results
As in the case of the picture analysis section, a general overview of the websites analyzed
highlighted some common characteristics. Aside from the social media logos, the l4ogos counted
across the sample represented different organizations: from transnational companies – such as
beverage and fashion companies – to national institutions, government and humanitarian
institutions. There was a high use of logos (57.1 %) across the sample; however, when only the
institution-related logos were counted, there was a clear shift in preferences, as only 5 websites
from the sample presented a high use of logos (36 %) .
Table L.2
TOTAL OF LOGOS CLASIFICATION
Table L.3 TOTAL OF LOGOS MINUS
SOCIAL MEDIA CLASSIFICATION”
63
The DHSM websites were grouped according to culture traits, following Hofstede’s dimensions of
culture. In the total use of logos, there was a slight difference (7 %) between the grouping
representing countries with a collectivistic culture and a high power distance division (HL) and
websites representing countries with individualistic cultures with a low power distance (LH).
Conversely, this trend shifted dramatically, when only instistutional logos were taken into account,
as 5 out of 6e websites in the LH division (83%) and 4 out of 7 websites in the HL division used
fewer logos on average (57 %).
Although the website representing a country with a Mixed culture type, the Swiss diaspora,
displayed a lower number of logos on the start page (6 logos) than the websites from HL and LH
cultures (11 and 6.5, respectively), it had an equal amount of logos on the start and about us pages,
as it displayed no social media-related logos. This differed from both HL and LH websites, since
the websites from both culture types displayed more logos on the start pages than on the mission
pages (6 for HL, 5 for LH, and 6 for Mixed). Following the hypothesis, Switzerland was the only
country to present this mix of characteristics regarding the use of logos.
The Argentinian, Austrian, Mexican, and Swiss DHSM websites did not display any logos related
to social media. The Australian DHSM website, however, used these types of logos extensively to
link the start page and about us or mission pages with other social media websites. As it can be seen
in Table L.1, there is a notable difference between the total amounts of logos used on the websites.
For example, in the case of the Australian DHSM website, the social media logos represented more
than half of the logos available, whereas no such logos were displayed on the Swiss DHSM
website.
As culture trait group cases, the analysis of images on the DHSM websites followed Hofstede’s
considerations of status and sense of belonging. In the majority of the instances analyzed, websites
with an HL culture trait combination presented almost twice as many logos as their counterparts
with an LH culture trait combination. The results corroborate earlier studies on graphical elements
on websites, as they correlate with Hofstede’s Power Distance and Individualism culture trait values
for the same countries. (Callahan, 2006; Cyr & Trevor-Smith, 2004)
64
Website Palette
H2: The rate at which a DHSM website design uses different color hues, varies according to
national cultural traits combinations.
The DHSM websites displayed different palette combinations; some applied color designs based on
a combination of one or two color hues; whereas others applied a multi-chromatic design by
combining more than three color hues.
Method Design
In table PT.1 the websites analyzed were organized by country and culture type. In the column titled
“CULTURE TYPE”, countries classified as collective with a high degree of power distance were
assigned the HL code, whereas countries classified in this thesis as individualistic with a low degree
of power distance were assigned the LH code. The only country expected to have both HL and LH
characteristics, Switzerland, was classified with the code Mixed.
Start page – The Swiss DHSM website – Swiss
talents
65
In the column titled “CLASSIFICATION”, three different color and number codes were
implemented in order to describe a palette style on a website. For polychromatic palettes the color
blue and the letter “a” were used; for monochromatic palettes the color red and the letter “b” were
used; and finally, for websites that did not fit one category, the color green and the letter “c” were
used.
The “CLASSIFICATION” column was then converted to a truth table where the letter “a” was
assigned the value “1”, the letter “b” with the value “0”, and the letter “c” with the value “0.5”. This
table was analyzed using the f QCA software and produced the following cross tabulation:
WEBSITES
COUNTRY
REPRESENTED CULTURE TYPE CLASSIFICATION
www.chileglobal.net Chile HL a
www.redescolombia.org Colombia HL a a
www.scientificmalaysian.com Malaysia HL b b
www.rwandandiaspora.gov.rw Rwanda HL a c
www.ugandandiaspora.com Uganda HL a
www.dfzim.com Zimbabwe HL b
www.redtalentos.gob.mx Mexico HL a
www.raices.mincyt.gov.ar Argentina LH a
www.advance.org Australia LH b
www.keanewzealnd.com New Zealand LH b
www.ostina.org Austria LH b
www.theirelandfunds.org Ireland LH b
www.sdi.co.uk/globalscot.aspx Scotland LH b
www.swisstalents.org Switzerland Mixed a
QUALITATIVE ANALYSIS OF A WEBSITE'S PALETTE
PALETTE CODE DESCRIPTION
Use of a polychromatic palette
Use of a monochromatic palette
Not clear
Table PT.2
CLASSIFICATION
TABLE PT.1
66
Results
In contrast to the other parts of the qualitative analysis section, the general overview did not present
a specific trend, as there was an equal amount of DHSM websites with a monochromatic and
polychromatic palette. On the other hand, when the sample was grouped according to the websites’
culture trait combination, there was a remarkable difference.
Websites with an HL culture trait combination (collectivistic with a high power distance) displayed
a 71 % preference for a polychromatic palette, whereas the number was 87 % for monochromatic
websites with an LH culture trait combination (individualistic with a low power distance). The
websites that followed this HL polychromatic pattern were: Chile, Colombia, Rwanda, Uganda, and
Mexico.
On the Chilean DHSM website, the palette varied from different shades of blue to gray, red, and
yellow. In the same line, the DHSM websites of Colombia, Rwanda, Mexico, and Uganda used
bright colors to emphasize interactive features, such as the names of tabs that led to other sections
of the website. Colors assigned to different interactive features in these countries were frequently in
line with a national emblem color combination. For example, DHSM website of Rwanda showed a
strong preference for green and blue, the country’s national colors.
With the exception of the Ugandan DHSM website, which had a dark background, the same DHSM
websites in the cultural color spectrum also displayed a dual background color combination based
on their national emblems.
Start page of the Chilean DHSM website About us page, Rwandan DHSM website
67
As mentioned above, websites representing countries with an LH culture trait (individualistic with a
low power distance) generally presented a monochromatic palette (only 17 % presented a
polychromatic palette). The DHSM websites that followed this LH monochromatic pattern were
from Australia, Austria, Ireland, New Zealand, and Scotland.
The colors frequently used for the monochromatic palette were blue, gray, and black. The start page
of the Austrian DHSM website, for example, presented a gray hue color combination in its palette
design. Furthermore, the majority of the DHSM websites used either black or white font colors for
tab names to navigate across the website.
However, there was no preferred background color combination across these websites.
Nevertheless, the color white was constantly used in different forms and elements across these
websites. The Australian site displayed an all-white background, but the DHSM websites of New
Zealand, Ireland, and Scotland preferred using it in combination with a different color.
Start page of the Austrian DHSM website Start page of the Ugandan
DHSM website
68
In the case of the Malaysian and Zimbabwean DHSM websites, although from countries classified
with HL culture traits, both websites displayed a monochromatic palette. Both sites preferred using
black, white, and different shades of gray. The color font used in the navigation feature varied from
different shades of gray to white.
These findings are in line with previous studies in usability and color preferences in website design,
as color scheme selections based on the culture of the users are found to increase trust and
satisfaction (Cyr & Trevor-Smith, 2004; Cyr, Head, & Larious, 2010).
INTERACTIVE FEATURES
H3: The frequency with which different DHSM websites provides types of access to
information or services, vary according to national culture traits combination.
H4: Guidelines for member behavior and data protection in DHSM websites, differ
according to national culture traits combinations
Start page of the Malaysian DHSM
website – Scientific Malaysian
69
Method Design
Different interactive features were analyzed using a qualitative approach and organized in Table I.1.
In the columns titled “WEBSITES” and “COUNTRY REPRESENTED” the DHSM websites and
their respective countries were inserted.
In the third column titled “CULTURE TYPE” DHSM websites from countries with an HL culture
trait combination (high in power distance, but low in individuality) were assigned a blue color, and
DHSM websites from countries with an LH culture trait combination (low in power distance, but
highly individualistic) were assigned an orange color. Finally, the only country website expected to
have a mixed combination of HL and LH cultural traits was assigned a green color.
In the columns titled “TYPE OF ACCESS TO INFORMATION”, “TYPE OF GUIDELINES”, and
“HANDLING OF INQUIRIES” specific national culture traits were measured according to
different interactive features and the access to information they provided. (Table I.2)
Table I.1
COUNTRY
REPRESENTED
CULTURE
TYPE
TYPES OF
ACCESS TO
INFORMATION
TYPE OF
GUIDELINES
HANDLING
OF
INQUIRIES
Chile HL 1.b 2.a 3.c
Colombia HL 1.b 2.a 3.a
Malaysia HL 1.a 2.a 3.a
Rwanda HL 1.c 2.a 3.a
Uganda HL 1.b 2.a 3.a
Zimbabwe HL 1.a 2.a 3.a
Mexico HL 1.b 2.a 3.c
Argentina LH 1.b 2.a 3.a
Australia LH 1.a 2.b 3.a
New Zealand LH 1.b 2.b 3.c
Austria LH 1.b 2.a 3.c
Ireland LH 1.a 2.b 3.c
Scotland LH 1.b 2.b 3.c
Switzerland Mixed 1.b 2.b 3.c
QUALITATIVE ANALYSIS - INTERACTIVE FEATURES
www.ostina.org
www.theirelandfunds.org
www.sdi.co.uk/globalscot.aspx
www.swisstalents.org
www.ugandandiaspora.com
www.dfzim.com
www.redtalentos.gob.mx
www.raices.mincyt.gov.ar
www.advance.org
www.keanewzealand.com
WEBSITES
www.chileglobal.net
www.redescolombia.org
www.scientificmalaysian.com
www.rwandandiaspora.gov.rw
70
If different types of memberships were available – i.e. based on the amount of money required to
join the diaspora, experience of the individual, or area of interest – the website was assigned the
number and letter combination 1.a and placed in the column titled “TYPES OF ACCESS TO
INFORMATION”. If a website provided only one type of membership with the same access to
information, it was assigned the combination 1.b. If a website did not provide clear structures –
such as a page or link – for becoming a member, it was categorized with the character and number
combination 1.c.
In the column titled “TYPE OF GUIDELINES” a website’s schemas for members’ behavior and
personal information trade were analyzed. If a website did not provide a clear set of rules, it was
labeled 2.a. On the other hand, if a website had a specific page or link explaining members’
information trade and behavioral code it was labeled 2.b. Finally, if this aspect could not be
measured due to limited access – i.e. the links provided information for members only – it was
labeled 2.c.
In the last column titled “HANDLING OF INQUIRIES” a website’s form of contact with its
members was measured by categorizing it on three forms:
DESCRIPTION
1.a Different types of memberships, having a hierarchical or pyramidal access to information
1.b One type of membership, giving members a horizontal access to the information
1.c
Column: Type of guidelines2.a
2.b
2.c No clear difference
3.a
3.b
3.c
Column: Types of access to information
No clear difference
Rules, guidelines or procedures to information trade behavior are not clearly specified. Relying more in tradition or past interactions to guide interactions
Encourage of members' inquiries through a special FAQ and contact section
Website’s structure provides FAQ, contact section and provides contact information on who is in charge of the area of interest.
Column: Handling of inquiries
No clear difference
Detailed set of guidelies for members' behaviour and the managing of personal information
Table
I.2
71
3.a For websites that provided only a frequently asked question (FAQ) section or a contact
area.
3.b For websites that provided the same contact options as in 3.a in addition to contact
information – i.e. full name, phone number, or email – of personnel working in other areas
of interest within the diaspora.
3.c For websites that did not provide a clear structure. At the central level the website
provided a 3.a style for handling inquiries. However, direct contact information (3.b
typology) was scattered either throughout the website or as the website branched out to
groups located in other countries: e.g. the Swiss diaspora – chapter San Francisco; the
Mexican diaspora – chapter France.
It is important to mention that in the column titled “HANDLING OF INQUIRIES” the entire
DHSM website was analyzed. Also due to the nature of the task of web design analysis, all links
provided on the same website, but located in different countries were also taken into account.
The results from the last three columns (“TYPES OF ACCESS TO INFORMATION”, “TYPE OF
GUIDELINES” and “HANDLING OF INQUIRIES”) were entered into truth tables and analyzed
using a cross tabulation from fQCA 2.0 software. The letter-number combinations 1.a, 2.a and 3.a
were assigned the value “1”. The letter-number combinations 1.b, 2.b and 3.b were assigned the
value “0”. The letter-number combinations 1.c, 2.c and 3.c were assigned the value “0.5”
72
Table I.3 TYPES OF ACCESS TO INFORMATION
Table I.4 TYPES OF GUIDELINES
Table I.5 HANDLING OF INQUIRIES
73
Results
As shown in TablesI.3, I.4, and I.5 three types of interactive features were analyzed: access to
information, type of guidelines, and handing of inquiries. As websites belonging to the same genre,
the sample presented similar characteristics: 71 % of the sample offered one type of membership,
and 64.3% of the total of websites did not present a detailed set of guidelines for members’ behavior
or data protection. An important result that sets this section apart from the rest of the qualitative
analysis is that an equal number of websites either provided only an FAQ section (42%) or an FAQ
section and different contact information for the person in charge of their area of interest (50%).
When the sample was grouped according to national culture traits (HL, LH, and Mixed), some cases
revealed slight differences and others a clear preference for the given culture background.
In terms of access to information (Table I.3), 10 websites were inclined to provide one type of
membership, where countries with a HL national culture trait combination represented a 40% and
countries with a LH national culture trait combination represented a 50%. Conversely, in terms of
preference regarding administering users’ personal information and guidelines (Table 1.4), there is a
clear difference between different national culture traits: None of the websites from countries with
culture traits categorized as HL (collectivistic with a high degree of power distance) provided a
detailed members’ behavioral code or explained the final use of the personal information provided
in the sign-in process. With the exception of the Argentinian and Austrian DHSM websites, the
majority of the websites (36 %) from both countries with culture traits categorized as LH
(individualistic with a low degree of power dimension) and Mixed (with both culture traits from LH
and HL) were keen to provide links to web page sections explaining in detail how members’
information was being handled and guidelines for proper use of the website. The Rwandan DHSM
website was the only website from the sample that did not provide a clear structure with regard to
becoming a member.
In the last table (Table 1.5 HANDLING OF INQUIRIES) only two forms were used across the
sample: 1 (FAQ and contact section) and 0.5 (contact section, FAQ, and direct contact to personnel
– but the latter information is scattered throughout the website or external links are provided). An
illustration of the 0.5 style for handling inquiries is present on the Scottish DHSM website. When
one uses the contact us link, all that appears is a form with an 0800 number and a request for
74
specific information which the user can fill in (Figure I.1). Nevertheless, when the website was
examined further in the diaspora chapters, it revealed different contact information (Figure I.2).
As previously mentioned, no website from the sample provided a contact section and direct
information about their members.
When the sample was divided according to different national culture traits, an interesting effect
appeared: 71.4 % of DHSM websites with HL culture traits (collectivistic and high in power
division) provided only an FAQ and a contact section, whereas only 28.6 % of the DHSM websites
from countries with culture traits marked as LH (low in power division and individualistic) had this
characteristic.
A problem with the analysis in this section was that the majority of the LH websites (67 %) were
divided according to chapters or subgroups. Generally, the main website provided only an FAQ and
a contact section- However, the structure of a webpage changed when a Diaspora was located to
represent their network in different countries. Their specific FAQ, contact section and personnel’s
contact information, was usually dispersed through different sections the website. Therefore, these
websites were categorized as 0.5 or “no clear difference”
Figure I.1 Figure I.2
75
QUANTITATIVE ANALYSIS
OVERALL DESIGN
The usability and accesibility of websites can be analyzed from different angles, such as manual
clasification or with automatic software tools. The past section performed a comparative analysis
on websites, by evaluating their visual composition. The evaluation consisted on measuring and
comparing visual website elements such as background color, number of pictures and accesibility
features.
According to McMillan (as refered in Bauer & Scharl, 2000) this approach can be complemented by
the use of tools that consider more information imbeded in the website system. This section used
two web performance optimization tools (web page analyzer 0.9810
from Website Optimization, and
visible.net website analyzer11
) to analyze websites from diasporas of high skilled migrants.
Web performance optimization (WPO) tools are intended to quantify web page elements, either by
the number of elements or byte size. Following the analysis, these tools suggest customizing actions
in order to increase the download and display speed in which a web page is loaded on to the user’s
web browser.
The downturn of using these performance checking tools is that the website analyzed needs to share
information – such as the source code – with the application. As some of the websites use a secure
hypertext transfer protocol (HTTPS) – a protocol used for secure network communication and
private web browsing private – and other data protection features, the WPO tools were unable to
provide results for these types of websites. Therefore, such websites were not included in this step
of the analysis.
Content analysis of websites using WPO tools is seen as a complementary approach to the analysis
performed in the Qualitative Analysis section. As the researcher is unable to influence how the tools
count the elements on a website, the results provide direct information about the inner structures in
10
http://www.websiteoptimization.com/services/analyze/ Consulted in October 2012. 11
http://www.visible.net/tools/analyzer/ Consulted in October 2012.
76
websites. Furthermore, these results can be interpreted following Hofstede’s culture traits in order
to compare to the results derived from the analysis in the Quantitative Analysis section.
This section aims to test the following hypothesis:
H5: Page components on different DHSM websites disagree in size and number according
to national culture traits combinations
Method Design
WEBPAGE ANALYZER 0.98
In Table QT-1, the results from the analysis performed by the webpage analyzer 0.98 are
summarized by country and culture trait combination. All websites from countries with
collectivistic and high power distance culture trait combinations were assigned an HL code,
whereas websites from countries with culture traits described as individualistic and low power
distance were assigned an LH code. Due to its markedly diverse cultural background, Switzerland
was the only country from the sample that was expected to have both HL and LH culture traits;
therefore, it was given the code Mixed.
The global statistics are summarized in the columns titled “TOTAL SIZE” and “TOTAL
OBJECTS”. The “TOTAL OBJECTS” column refers to the total number of HTTP requests or the
total number of objects on a page. The object overhead influences the description and wait time, and
the webpage analyzer 0.98 recommends a maximum of 20 objects per page, as they count for 80 %
of a website’s latency.
77
There are two main sections across the columns: “OBJECT SIZE TOTALS” and “TOTAL
NUMBER OF OBJECTS”. These sections, analyze the elements used to run applications like Java
applets, audio, video, and flash animations, as well as elements that are not hosted on the original
website server, but are imbedded in it; thus, users do not need to visit other websites to view them.
The difference between these sections is that the columns in the “OBJECT SIZE TOTALS” section
measures the size of these elements in bytes, whereas the columns in the “TOTAL NUMBER OF
OBJECTS” section aim to count the total number of specific objects on a web page.
For example, the column titles “HTML” in the section “OBJECTS” counts the byte size of the
HTML file, whereas the column titled “TOTAL HTML” in the “TOTAL NUMBER OF
OBJECTS” section counts the number of HTML files (all websites presented only one file).
Two acronyms are used recurrently in Table QT-1: 1) CSS (Cascading Style Sheet) which is a style
sheet language used to improve accessibility and to affect images, text, and scripts; and 2) HTML
(Hypertext Markup Language) which is a markup language for producing web pages used to
describe and translate the structure and information in text form as well as to complement text with
objects – such as images
Table QT-1
OBJECT SIZE TOTALS
WEBSITES COUNTRY
TYPE OF
CULTURE TOTAL SIZE
TOTAL
OBJECTS HTML
HTML
IMAGES
CSS
IMAGES
TOTAL
IMAGES
TOTAL
HTML
TOTAL
HTML
IMAGES
TOTAL
CSS
IMAGES
TOTAL
IMAGES
TOTAL
SCRIPTS
TOTAL
CSS
IMPORTS
www.chileglobal.net Chile HL 794385 33 18315 258812 369000 627872 1 14 4 18 7 7
www.redescolombia.org Colombia HL 901549 168 10244 357793 424403 782196 1 19 143 162 2 3
www.scientificmalaysian.com Malaysia HL 116293 26 9642 46287 0 46287 1 2 14 16 8 1
www.redtalentos.gob.mx Mexico HL 2393620 77 721237 1200920 919529 2120449 1 34 28 62 6 8
www.raices.mincyt.gov.ar Argentina LH 128804 26 6320 108578 9423 118001 1 22 2 24 0 1
www.advance.org Australia LH 351047 38 4802 238679 95501 334180 1 10 14 24 7 6
www.keanewzealand.com New Zealand LH 453889 89 9689 73195 282695 355890 1 17 65 85 5 0
www.ostina.org Austria LH 1823763 222 139288 796551 784154 1580705 1 13 179 192 8 21
www.swisstalents.org Switzerland MIXED 24923 11 5666 18479 0 18479 1 9 0 9 0 1
TOTAL NUMBER OF OBJECTS
WEB PAGE ANALYZER 0.98 - WEB REPORT
78
In Table QT-1 the columns titled “HTML IMAGES” and “CSS IMAGES” refer to the total size of
those types of images linked to the HTML file of a website; and both results are added to the
“TOTAL HTML” column in the “OBJECTS” section. The columns titled “TOTAL IMAGES” and
“TOTAL CSS IMAGES” count the total number of HTML and CSS images, respectively; and their
results are summarized in the “TOTAL HTML” column in the “TOTAL NUMBER OF OBJECTS”
section.
The column “CSS IMPORT” displays the number of external CSS files on a specific website,
which is also a loading functionality of CSS language. The column “TOTAL SCRIPTS” aims to
count the total number of external script files, and the “TOTAL CSS IMPORTS” column has a
similar characteristic, the only difference being that it aims to count the style rules in a document
derived from an external style sheet.
The results from Table QT-1 were interpreted in truth tables, and cross tabulated using fQCA 2.0
software.
The values in these following truth tables are based on a High-Low division. To create this division,
the arithmetic mean from each column in Table QT-1 was calculated. Afterwards, if a specific
country- website result was above a column’s average it was assigned the value “1”; but it was
below it was assigned the value “0”.
Results
The different calculations of size and number of elements across HTML and CSS files are
important, as they provide different results. As an illustration, the size of 44 % of the total sample
was above average (77,767,474.8 bytes), but all the websites had one HTML file. From this group
(Table QT-2 Total Size) 75% belonged to collectivist and high power distance countries (HL) and
25 % to individualistic and low power distance countries (LH).
Table QT-2
79
Across the sample, the websites representing the Austrian and Mexican diasporas consistently
presented more information across the columns in Table QT-1. The Swiss DHSM website had the
lowest figures in all columns.
The websites that could not be analyzed using the webpage analyzer 0.98 were grouped in two
similar continental backgrounds, but with opposite culture trait combinations: Rwanda, Uganda, and
Zimbabwe with the culture trait combination HL (collectivistic and high in power division), and
Scotland and Ireland with the culture trait combination LH (individualistic and low on power
division).
The average size of the websites was 776,474.78 bytes, and only 44 % of the sample was larger.
Websites from countries with culture traits categorized as HL on average revealed a bigger byte size
in their internal elements (Total Average Size: HL: 1,051,461.8, LH: 689,375.75). Thus, websites
representing countries with HL national culture traits, as theorized by Hofstede, consistently
presented opposite results in contrast to those from countries with LH national cultural traits.
However, this tendency partially shifted with regard to the number of external elements, as websites
from countries with culture traits categorized as LH used more external files.
The only tendency that showed the same values across the sample was in the “TOTAL HTML”
column in the “EXTERNAL OBJECTS” section. Also, in the “TOTAL SCRIPTS” column both HL
and LH diasporas presented close percentages. Only the Swiss diaspora did not report any CSS
images, external scripts, or CSS imports. (See Appendix A).
The trends evident from Table QT-1 can be better appreciated in Table QT-3, as the average results
from each culture type group and column are compared to the total average.
Table QT-3
TYPE OF
CULTURE
AVERAGE
OF TOTAL
SIZE HTML
HTML
IMAGES
CSS
IMAGES
TOTAL
IMAGES
TOTAL
HTML
TOTAL
HTML
IMAGES
TOTAL
CSS
IMAGES
TOTAL
IMAGES
TOTAL
SCRIPTS
TOTAL
CSS
IMPORTS
HL 1051461.75 189860 465953 428233 894201 1 17.25 47.25 64.5 5.75 4.75
LH 689375.75 40025 304251 292943 597194 1 15.5 65 81.25 5 7
MIXED 24923 5666 18479 0 18479 1 9 0 9 0 1
776474.778 102800 344366 320523 664895 1 15.5556 49.889 65.7778 4.77778 5.333333TOTAL AVERAGE
AVERAGE OF OBJECT SIZE TOTALS AVERAGE OF EXTERNAL OBJECTS
80
Table QT-4
VISIBLENET.COM WEBSITE ANALYZER
The results of the analysis performed by the visible.net webpage analyzer are summarized in Table
QT-4. As specific national culture traits were identified in the literature, DHSM websites were
aligned as follows:
HL: websites from cultures with a high power division, but low in individuality.
LH: websites from cultures with a low power division, but high in individuality.
Mixed: websites from countries with a marked multicultural background, with both LH
and HL culture traits.
The column titled “PAGE SIZE” is the only column in Table QT-4 that lists the results in bytes, as
this column aims to measure the total size of a web page. In the case of this table, the page analyzed
was the start page of each DHSM website. In the column titled “PAGE TEXT” the WPO tool
measures a page’s total body text according to the number of words appearing on it.
The rest of the columns in Table QT-3 also count the number of times an element appears on a
page. Each column title refers to and counts an element from the list below:
WEBSITES COUNTRY
TYPE OF
CULTURE
PAGE
SIZE*
PAGE
TEXT** KEYWORDS
ANCHOR
TAGS-HREF
ANCHORS
BOLD TAGS-
HTML
BOLD/STRONG
HEADINGS-
HTML
HEADINGS
ALT TAGS-
IMAGE
ALTS
TOTAL
INTERNAL
LINKS
EXTERNAL
OUTBOUND
LINKS
EXTERNAL
INCOMING
LINKS
www.chileglobal.net Chile HL 18363 184 18 24 0 17 14 21 12 0
www.redescolombia.org Colombia HL 44327 477 0 72 0 6 1 92 3 0
www.scientificmalaysian.com Malaysia HL 61155 869 172 77 7 18 9 81 10 0
www.rwandandiaspora.gov.rw Rwanda HL 37148 522 64 83 0 17 2 80 19 0
www.ugandandiaspora.com Uganda HL 82008 1576 14 104 0 49 61 148 25 0
www.dfzim.com Zimbabwe HL 19869 303 30 49 0 9 19 55 5 0
www.redtalentos.gob.mx Mexico HL 72137 1092 171 123 3 4 27 95 61 0
www.advance.org Australia LH 19284 287 55 66 0 13 9 58 8 0
www.keanewzealand.com New Zealand LH 40706 659 189 56 0 12 4 67 8 0
www.raices.mincyt.gov.ar Argentina LH 6322 188 48 2 2 0 20 19 5 0
www.theirelandfunds.org Ireland LH 27813 216 32 73 12 2 13 23 9 0
www.swisstalents.org Switzerland MIXED 5668 31 30 3 0 0 0 18 1 0
*page size expressed in bytes
**page text expressed in the number of words
VISIBLE.NET - WEB REPORT
81
KEYWORDS: Keywords in this context are index entries that are related to a specific
document or record.
ANCHOR TAGS – HREF ANCHORS: In programing language anchor tags, also known as
HREF anchors, are the HTML codes linking a page to a particular section within a page.
BOLD TAGS – HTML BOLD/STRONG: Both strong and bold are logical tags, and they
are used by the designer to emphasize particular text elements on a page.
HEADINGS – HTML HEADINGS: In order to arrange a web page’s configuration and
content, search engines use headings. These headings in turn show the entire document
structure.
ALT TAGS – IMAGE ALTS: In website design an alt attribute provides alternative
information about an image, if the image cannot be displayed.
TOTAL INTERNAL LINKS: Internal links are hyperlinks that refer to a web page element
on the same website.
EXTERNAL OUTBOUND LINKS: “A link from one domain to another is said to
be outbound from its source anchor and inbound to its target.”12
EXTERNAL INCOMING LINKS: “[A]ny links received by a web node (web page,
directory, website, or top level domain) from another web node.”13
To add more clarity, the results from Table QT-4 were also interpreted in truth tables, and
performed a cross tabulation using fQCA 2.0 software. The values in the resulting tables (see
Appendix A) were based on a High-Low division. To create these, the arithmetic mean from each
column in Table QT-4 was calculated. Afterwards, if a website contained above the average number
of elements registered in a column it was assigned the value “1”; if it was below the average it was
assigned the value “0”.
As in the case of the webpage analyzer 0.98, the column results from Table QT-4 and representing
the web report from Visible.net, show that countries with HL cultural traits have web pages with
more in-built elements (HL 83.3% vs LH 16.7%). The Ugandan DHSM website showed the
highest figure for page size (bytes), page text (1,576 words), HTML headings (49), image alts (61),
and total external links (148). The Mexican DHSM website was close to the Ugandan website’s
12
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hyperlink 13
Ibid.
82
column figures, only exceeding it in the number of HREF anchors (123) and external outbound
links (61).
In a particular account of websites, the New Zealand diaspora had the highest number of keywords
(189), and the Irish DHSM website the highest number of bold tags (12).
The only website with Mixed cultural traits, the Swiss website, revealed an overall low number of
elements compared to the rest of the sample. The only score that was higher than the rest of the
sample was the number of keywords (30), as the Colombian DHSM website had no keywords at all.
The absence of different elements on the Swiss DHSM website might be the very property that
makes the results from both WPO tools (weboptimization.com and visible.net) similar. WPO tools
use different metric factors; thus, the results may vary. Therefore, the fact that the Swiss DHSM
website showed almost similar results using different WPO tools is considered unusual.
DISCUSSION
INTRODUCTION
This chapter summarizes the findings in terms of the hypotheses. For each construct, the
corresponding findings are summarized in relation to the respective hypotheses: images (H1), color
(H2), access to information (H3), guidelines for the use of websites (H4), size and number of page
components (H5).
SUMMARY OF FINDINGS
In this section, the results of the study are discussed in terms of hypotheses associated with culture,
web design, accessibility and usability. Table S.1 lists the hypotheses, constructs and variables used
in the study.
83
Findings respect to each hypothesis, including the qualitative and quantitative results are
summarized in Table D.2.
Hypothesis
Number
Hypothesis Description
Constructs
Variables
H1
The rate at which a DHSM website
uses logos and pictures within a theme
fluctuate according to national culture
traits combination.
Images
Number and
background
composition of
photographs,
number of logos.
H2
The rate at which a DHSM website
design uses different color hues that
varies according to national cultural
traits combinations.
Website
palette
Specific colors of
background, tabs
and text.
H3
The frequency with which different
DHSM websites provides types of
access to information or services that
vary according to national culture traits
combinations.
Interactive
Features
Membership
types and
website’s styles
of contact
information.
H4
Guidelines for member behavior and
data protection in DHSM websites that
differ according to national culture
traits combinations
Guideline
sections: users’
behavior and
personal
information.
H5
Page components on different DHSM
websites that disagree in size and
number according to national culture
traits combinations.
Web
interface
and design
elements
HTLM and CSS
specific
Table S.1
84
Table D.2
Hypothesis Result Significance found and aspects that influence website design
H1
Partially
Supported
National cultural traits and a DHSM’s website design were
correlated in the amount of logos and pictures.
When divided by national culture traits, websites were inclined
to display a certain type of photograph composition.
H2
Supported
National culture trait combinations of diasporas were correlated
with the use of specific website color palletes.
H3
Not
Supported
No difference in the contact information access
Almost the same type of membership across websites
H4
Supported
A website’s preference for rules and guidelines were correlated
with the DHSM national culture traits.
H5
Supported
Size and amount of website elements were correlated with a
website’s national culture traits combinations.
85
Hypotheses H1, H2, H5
The comparative analysis of websites showed that there is a correlation across websites in
accordance to pictures, color and other image related elements.
In H1 and H5 DHSM websites from collectivistic cultures with a high power distance division (HL)
were inclined to use a higher number of pictures. Whereas websites representing countries from
individualistic cultures with a low power distance (LH) showed a lower number of pictures. In H1
this result was represented by the number of pictures appearing at the Home and About us pages. In
H5 this correlation, between website design and national cultural traits, was represented by the
Total Size of HTLM and CSS files, images and objects.
In H1 the counting of elements was done manually, whereas in the H5 was done through the use of
specialized software. It is interesting to see that even though different approaches were used to
analyze the data, the results were similar.
Furthermore, when the picture background composition (H1) and the color palette of the websites
(H2) were analyzed, consistent differences appeared. Images of single individuals had a higher ratio
in LH culture countries than in websites from HLnational culture traits. More than 71% of websites
from collectivistic countries with a high power distance (HL) displayed a polychromatic pallete,
whereas 87% of websites from individualistic countries with a low power distance (LH) preferred a
monochromatic palette.
However, when the study analyzed the use of logos (H1) there was no significant difference at first
sight, as the sample displayed almost the same amount of logos across websites with different
national culture traits. At second glance, when the logos were counted and divided according to
what they represented –social media or institutions-, there was a notable difference across websites.
When only institutional logos were taken into account, websites from HL cultures presented a
higher use of logos than websites from LH countries. Additionally, the only website from a country
with a Mixed culture type (a type of culture that oscillates between HL and LH cultural traits)
displayed interesting characteristics, such as a similar number of institutional logos –i.e. companies
or universities- but no social media related logos –i.e. twitter or Facebook.
The hypothesis H1 is partially supported, as there was a consistent difference in the use of images
across countries in line with their national cultural traits. Nevertheless, the use of logos provided
86
mixed results as the difference was only small (7%) across websites when the individual meaning of
logos was not taken in to account.
The hypotheses H2 and H5 are supported, as the study showed there are consistent differences in
the amount of colors, as well as in the number and size of HTLM and CSS specific files.
Therefore the number and size of images fluctuates according to specific national cultural traits in
diasporas of high skilled migrants
Hypotheses H3, H4
The hypothesis H4 was supported, as national cultural traits were good predictors for the use of
guidelines on the websites. Diaspora websites from countries with a HL national cultural traits
combination did not presented any guidelines, whereas the majority of the LH websites presented
detailed sections or pages with this feature. From those websites that did not follow the hypothesis,
the Argentinian diaspora – previously classified as with an LH combination- did not present any
guidelines or detailed contact information. Argentina was considered by Hofstede (2005) as a
special case within the Latin American countries. As a massive number of Europeans migrated to
Argentina in the 1900’s, the cultural trait combination of Argentinian society fluctuates between HL
and LH combinations. This difference in guidelines, may obey local tendencies, as in different Latin
American countries there is not a strong demand or enforcement for these features, thus either web
developers have not been required to include them or users have not requested them.
Therefore the presence or absence of guidelines regarding member behavior and data protection,
are correlated with the specific national cultural traits combination in a diaspora’s website.
Hypothesis H3 was not supported, as access to information and services did not vary in websites
according to different national cultural traits. An equal number of diasporas across the opposite
poles of the Power Distance and Individualism dimensions presented a type of membership, a FAQ
section (42%) or another type of contact information (50%). However one important aspect in this
section of the analysis is, that when links were followed for specific diaspora delegations (i.e. the
Scottish diaspora in the U.S. or London), webpage structures changed.
87
Therefore interactive features to access information or services do not fluctuate according to
specific national cultural traits in diaspora of high skilled migrants
CONCLUSIONS
This thesis began with the question: “To what extent do usability and accessibility in website design
differ across national culture backgrounds”
The analysis in this research involved the comparative analysis of fourteen websites for Diasporas
of high skilled migrants. It involved the qualitative and quantitative analysis of images, text and
interactive features imbedded in websites. Three of five hypotheses were supported:
H2: The rate at which a DHSM website design uses different color hues varies according to national
cultural traits combinations.
H4: Guidelines for member behavior and data protection in DHSM websites differ according to
national culture traits combinations.
H5: Page components on different DHSM websites disagree in size and number according to
national culture traits combinations.
THEORETICAL IMPLICATIONS
The objective of this research was to investigate if there are differences in accessibility and usability
in websites from different cultures. It also intended to provide a deeper understanding of design
variables and methods of analysis relevant to the localization of websites.
Different traditions in Computer Science have analyzed the role of culture in human-computer
communication (Carroll, 1997; Kuehn, 1994) They agree that to some degree, the interaction of
humans with computers and their communication structures, are influenced by culture. With diverse
cultural backgrounds, it was anticipated that countries with similar interests would display similar
preferences in website design. The main findings of this research supports this idea –in terms of
images, color and number of files- of localization and culturability in website design.
88
The problem of using cultural markers to improve the usability of webistes lays upon the
organization of interface elements within a particular culural group. To appeal to certain cultural
groups, the content of websites can be organized according to the nature of its elements and how
they might influence users’ overall interactive experience (Barber & Badre, 1998). In relation to
web design and performance, if an interface requires less effort to understand and perform tasks,
users will be more satisfied, as it reduces their anxiety and uncertainty levels (González, 2010;
Warden & Lai, 2002; Winn & Beck, 2002).
A series of web elements were used in this study to investigate the effects of culture on website
design, in terms of usability and accessibility. These elements were grouped into three levels (text,
images and hyperlinks), analyzed in different constructs (Images, Website palette, Interactive
Features, Web interface and design elements), across specific national cultural trait combinations
(HL, LH and Mixed)
In this study, Images have a preference in localized websites. Besides the amount and size, images
can display specific compositions that are in line with a website genre. This research has supported
the notion that website genres influence the selection of specific images that reflect the main
purpose of a website (Li.X., Hess, McNab, & Yu, 2009; Snelders, 2011). As the ideal users from
Diaporas’ websites carry out their work in offices, laboratories or conference rooms; this led to the
preferance for photograps that capture individuals in these architectural settings. The study results
demonstrated the complexities of cultural dimensions. In the case of Hofstede’s dimensions of
culture (2005), the Power distance division and Individualism dimensions are represented by
opposite preferences. The opposite poles are always present in a culture, usually one being more
dominant than others.
In the context of images in web design, these dominance was evident in the preference for a type,
size and amount of images, when the sample was divided into groups by their national cultural
traits.
Similarly, the Website Palette was influenced by the dominant culture of a website. The main study
result supports the idea that color, is used to reflect specific cultural meaning and preferences (Cyr
& Trevor-Smith, 2004).
89
This research indicated that national cultural trait combinations; in particular for the Diasporas of
high skilled migrants, plays an decisive role in the structure of information. Corresponding to the
result from the page components, the research supported the notion that web developers consistently
opt to structure data to fit the cultural style of ideal users (Callahan, 2006; Geest, 2003; Faiola &
Matei, 2006)
CONCLUSIONS
The websites studied in this research were found to vary across national cultures. Websites
representing different diasporas of high skilled migrants presented specific characteristics, some
more evident than on other websites: the Ugandan diaspora presented more pictures, the Mexican,
Austrian and Argentinian websites did not present logos of social media, the Chilean website
presented the more colorful-flag related website pallete, etc. The stable variations in the number and
size of HTLM and CSS objects and images, suggest different approaches to website design in terms
of shaping and presenting data.
The websites also presented similar tendencies across diasporas, as it was expected from studying a
single genre. The majority of the websites analyzed presented pictures of individuals located in
offices or indoor architectural environments; a low number of logos, and the same style to access
information and services.
Also, the great majority of diasporas were oriented for highly talented individuals, and within a
single look one can notice that values, promotional strategies and areas of interest varied across
groups of countries with a closer geographic or cultural background. Diasporas representing the
Australian, New Zealand and European countries, presented the major concerns to resguard and
clarify different types of guidelines. These countries have also stronger regulations for the
management of private data, thus the emphasis of these features was standard.
The results of the equivalences and dissimilarities in website design can be approached from
Hofstede’s Power distance and Individualism dimensions. The cultural makers drawn from the
literature relate to specific culture traits, though is not yet a complete list. The comparative analysis
provided strong correspondences as much of the correlations did occur in the hypothesized
direction.
90
However, some outcomes are weaker than anticipated. It appears that the results indicate that
interactive features in terms of access to information have more likely an “internet culture” design
than one based on localization and culturability.
It is possible that Hofstede’s model is not applicable to study specific features in websites. It might
be the case that the limitations in the present study- such as a small number of websites and genre
studied - are not able to show the entire potential of Hofstede’s model.
Hofstede’s dimensions and cultural markers in websites require a more intense approach, especially
while studying usability and accessibility features. Thus, Hofstede’s model and cultural trait
divisions are meant to be understood as recommendations for web developers that aim to achieve
culturability in web design. As culture is not the only variable to have in mind while designing
websites, it is important to ask whether it is possible that other aspects motivated web developers to
use a specific design. It is possible that they were influenced by economic factors, as less sponsored
websites might not have resources to use sophisticated software, have their own domain or have
staff dedicated to that solely purpose.
STUDY STRENGTHS AND LIMITATIONS
The outcomes provided by the study have strengths and limitations in different aspects. The
research investigated one website genre, Diasporas of high skilled migrants (DHSM). The design
aided to construct stable evaluations but likewise creates different effects in the results. For
example, as the users of DHSM’s websites are usually individuals talented in academic or business
areas, it is more likely that they will be a frequent point of reference in photographs.
Also, the number of websites and countries analyzed were fourteen, where two of Hofstede’s
dimensions of culture were used. This approach can present differences and similarities across the
websites selected..
The main limitation of this research relates to the nature of the sample. First, countries usually are
officially represented by one DHSM website. Being recognized and sponsored by governments,
business, academic or other credited national institutions was considered a necessary characteristic
in the sample. This in order to have higher certainty that the website design followed a specific
91
model based on national culture traits. Hence the results may not be generalizable to other types of
websites.
Second, although more countries are adopting the Diaspora website model to increase the contact
with their talented individuals abroad (Kuznetsov, 2006); the website genre is relative new and few
websites are available. In the same line, Hofstede’s dimensions of culture are valid for a limited
amount of countries; so even though a country could have a DHSM website, if it was not listed in
this framework it could not be tested for cultural differences and similarities. It would be
stimulating to see the outcomes of forthcoming studies based on the entire DHSM websites.
Qualitative and quantitative analyses were used at different stages of the research, in order to
complement each other’s weaknesses in terms of validity, and to provide profound understandings
of the elements studied. Furthermore the results were cross analyzed involving software tailored for
the number of cases used in this research (fsQCA-2.0 software). The findings played a critical role
in creating a deeper understanding of theoretical aspects of the research.
DIRECTION FOR FUTURE RESEARCH
Important questions remain about how culture influences accessibility and usability in website
design. Particularly from the perspective of users and the website genre studied: Is culturability in
website design becoming less apparent when users specialize in one genre? Are there specific
culture traits that suit better to one genre and users’ necessities? Are there website designs that are
more appealing for different users across genres? These inquiries lead to the necessity for additional
studies that evaluates users’ necessities, preferences in accordance to their national cultural traits
92
APPENDIX A
Website Optimizer 0.98 - Web report, truth table and cross tabulation analysis
WEBSITES COUNTRY
TYPE OF
CULTURE
TOTAL
SIZE
TOTAL
OBJECTS HTML
HTML
IMAGES
CSS
IMAGES
TOTAL
IMAGES
TOTAL
HTML
TOTAL
HTML
IMAGES
TOTAL
CSS
IMAGES
TOTAL
IMAGES
TOTAL
SCRIPTS
TOTAL
CSS
IMPORTS
www.chileglobal.net Chile HL 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 1
www.redescolombia.org Colombia HL 1 1 0 1 1 1 0 1 1 1 0 0
www.scientificmalaysian.com Malaysia HL 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0
www.redtalentos.gob.mx Mexico HL 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 1 0 0 1 1
www.raices.mincyt.gov.ar Argentina LH 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 0
www.advance.org Australia LH 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 1
www.keanewzealand.com New Zealand LH 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 1 1 1 1 0
www.ostina.org Austria LH 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 0 1 1 1 1
www.swisstalents.org Switzerland MIXED 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
93
Visible.net- Web report, truth table and cross tabulation analysis.
WEBSITES COUNTRY
TYPE OF
CULTURE
PAGE
SIZE*
PAGE
TEXT**
KEYW
ORDS
ANCHOR
TAGS-
HREF
ANCHOR
BOLD
TAGS-
HTML
BOLD/
HEADINGS-
HTML
HEADINGS
ALT TAGS-
IMAGE
ALTS
TOTAL
INTERNAL
LINKS
EXTERNAL
OUTBOUND
LINKS
EXTERNAL
INCOMING
LINKS
www.chileglobal.net Chile HL 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0
www.redescolombia.org Colombia HL 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 0
www.scientificmalaysian.com Malaysia HL 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 1 0 0
www.rwandandiaspora.gov.rw Rwanda HL 1 0 0 1 0 1 0 1 1 0
www.ugandandiaspora.com Uganda HL 1 1 0 1 0 1 1 1 1 0
www.dfzim.com Zimbabwe HL 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0
www.redtalentos.gob.mx Mexico HL 1 1 1 1 1 0 1 1 1 0
www.advance.org Australia LH 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0
www.keanewzealand.com New Zealand LH 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 0
www.raices.mincyt.gov.ar Argentina LH 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0
www.theirelandfunds.org Ireland LH 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 0
www.swisstalents.org Switzerland MIXED 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
94
APPENDIX B
Table B.1
Barber and Badre, 1998, p. 7
95
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