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Losing Institutional Memory:
The Inadvertent Impact of the Information age Upon Procedural Knowledge
David M. Opincarne
Victoria Scrivner
English 113; 2:00
Final
June 9, 2009
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NASA¶s planned route for a manned trip to Mars passes through a cluttered
junkyard in North Hollywood called Norton Sales. NASA intends to use the Ares I
Rocket, based on the proven Saturn V Rocket, to lift its Martian Crew Exploration
Vehicle into Earth¶s orbit. There¶s just one problem; nobody remembers how to make a
key component, the rocket engine¶s valves (Johnsen, 2006, para. 6). NASA engineers are
unable to locate drawings used in the Apollo era technology, and the engineers involved
in the project were encouraged to take early retirement (DeLong, 2004, Chapter1, para.
3). As a result, NASA needs to reverse engineer an existing valve to understand its
design, but the only valves available reside at Norton¶s, a source for surplus space
equipment used as movie props and collected by space enthusiasts. A boon for
moviemakers, but how much has starting over cost NASA? At a time when knowledge is
considered the most valuable capital in an organization¶s possession and a world
economy has developed around its optimization, incalculable costs arise from
inefficiencies resulting from lost capabilities, redundant efforts, and employee turnover.
The advent of digital technology is having an irrefutable impact upon human
history. The rise of the information age is leading to the decentralization and
globalization of business, manufacturing, and scientific endeavor, revolutionizing the
way information is archived and transferred. But all new technology has unintended
consequences and adaptation to this new period requires those consequences be
thoughtfully evaluated and their impact minimized. Since this new age is primarily
concerned with the acquisition and dissemination of information, a useful assessment
might begin with information¶s resistance to codification. As part of this assessment, a
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survey of 96 people was conducted in the spring of 2009 asking participants to self assess
the relative value of the methods by which they acquired their skill sets. 81% of survey
participants were between the ages of 35 and 64, and 78% of participants reported
holding a Bachelors or post graduate degree. In addition, 52 % reported they considered
themselves to hold professional or executive positions and 20% reported serving in a
supervisory or proprietary role. Additionally, an interview was conducted with Lindsey
Berdan, an interaction designer for Fluke Corporation and chairperson for the Industrial
Design Society of America¶s Northwest Chapter. This investigation revealed the need to
understand the variety of forms knowledge may take and multiple routes of transference.
Specialized knowledge held within an organization, usually containing strong oral and
experiential components, is commonly referred to as institutional memory. When
discussing institutional memory, the notion of procedural knowledge, the knowledge
incorporated in the completion of a task, is of particular importance. This research paper
will analyze the limitations and impact of the information age upon the retention of
procedural knowledge and examine current and theoretical solutions.
The Nature of Knowledge and Memory
If the digital revolution is the instrument of the information age, then knowledge
serves as its currency. Like currency, knowledge needs to represent a useful or desirable
commodity in order to remain valuable. In order to understand the value of knowledge,
we must understand what it consists of and what it allows us to do. Bellinger (2004)
states that knowledge begins as data; data is the fundamental building block of
understanding and embodies the basic symbols used to encrypt higher ideas. But without
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context, ³data is just a meaningless point«without reference to either space or time´
(Bellinger, 2004, para. 4). By perceiving the relationship between separate pieces of data,
data becomes information. Information not only incorporates data, but also gives it
meaning by adding context. Awareness of the relationship between data points does not
provide an understanding of what causes data to change however, so information is
relatively static and context dependent. By perceiving the patterns in data relationships,
information becomes knowledge. As a result, knowledge becomes less context specific
than the information it is drawn from and allows for a more general application of
information. It needs to be emphasized that understanding the patterns in information
does not imply an understanding of the underlying principles that cause such patterns to
form. Discerning the principles that govern information patterns turns knowledge into
wisdom. Wisdom allows for the universal application of the information and knowledge
it embodies and is therefore context independent. Wisdom, as it is applied to
organizational management, can be thought of as the practical application of knowledge
and is the desired outcome of knowledge systems (Bellinger, 2004). The value of
knowledge in the Information Age is derived from its capacity for transference. In order
for knowledge to be useful, it must be reliably stored, transferred, and retrieved1.
Inaccuracy during any of these steps can adversely affect the usefulness of the
information in question. As knowledge is encoded, it must be reduced to its base unit:
data. The ability of knowledge to be accurately placed into memory and transferred is
1Because knowledge entails higher levels of cognition, knowledge must be reduced to
information before being transferred or stored. Memory is how information is stored and
can be organic, as in human memory, or synthetic, such as books, databases, or computer files.
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dependent upon its ability to be encrypted into a suitable memory system. While insight
into the hierarchy and composition of knowledge provides an understanding of its utility,
it does not describe the forms that knowledge may take.
Explicit, implicit, and tacit are terms frequently encountered in the study of
knowledge management. While this might imply that distinct forms of knowledge exist, a
careful examination of current theory reveals these knowledge types sit on a continuum.
At one pole resides convention dependent knowledge and at the other context dependent
knowledge. The convention dependent pole is generally accepted as being knowledge
free of context and ³ . . . is easily codified and can be shared independent of its human
source, or it can be embedded in processes or systems.´ (DeLong, 2004, p. 83).
Convention dependent knowledge is representative of ideas that are highly orthodox and
absolute and which retain precise meaning. Occupying the opposite end of the continuum
is context dependent knowledge, which incorporates external cues into its makeup and
consequentially, is impossible to comprehend outside of the experiences that formed it.
Knowledge of this type can be thought of as know-how or skill and has a large intuitive
component. Where knowledge resides on the continuum determines how it is transferred.
Explicit Knowledge
Explicit knowledge refers to ideas that are represented by immutable encryptions
and thus allow them to transcend time and place while retain their original intent.
Knowledge of this type is referred to as rules based and may be thought of as instructions
or procedures. For humans, this may be the ability to read or to understand the meaning
and use of symbolic notations such as those found in blueprints or sheet music; for
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computer systems, this might include the ability to recognize a file format or retrieve data
from a database. The major part of information held in knowledge repositories and
presented during formal education is composed of explicit knowledge. Despite the high
value placed on explicit knowledge, exceptions to the rules it describes occur regularly.
Results from the 2009 survey illustrate this point:
70% of the respondents rated formal education as moderately to very significant in the
acquisition of their skill set. Additionally, 80% of the respondents reported written
material played a moderate to very significant role in self-education. Despite this, 69% of
those surveyed also reported encountering exceptions to explicit rules on a regular basis.
Since explicit knowledge deals with concepts that tend to be absolute, it does not readily
incorporate exceptions to the conventions it describes. Explicit knowledge not only
describes rules, it also adheres to them. Because it is convention dependent, explicit
knowledge is easily captured, stored, and shared in synthetic memory systems by any
entity capable of understanding the conventions that governed the original encryption.
Once encoded into memory, explicit knowledge remains viable as long as the integrity of
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the memory system containing it remains intact and the ability to retrieve the encrypted
data and restore it to its original meaning remains available. Because it is convention
dependent and may include large amounts of data that must be maintained accurately,
encoding and retrieval of explicit knowledge is more suited to synthetic memory than
human memory.
Explicit knowledge¶s first point of failure occurs when knowledge escapes
encoding for one of two reasons: the value of the knowledge is not recognized or the
knowledge holder becomes isolated. The responsibility for improved recognition lies
with the owner of the capture process. Those responsible for management policy
frequently fail to recognize the value of knowledge held outside their own sphere of
influence due to entrenchment within organizational dogma, cultural myopia, or overly
attributing the value of knowledge they themselves hold. Livingstone & Sawchuk
attribute this phenomenon to ³ . . . a form of exaggerated individualism obscuring the
actual processes that are ongoing.´ (Livingstone & Sawchuk, 2005, An educational
approach for working people section, para. 5). This quality is not limited to commercial
organizations, but extends to academia, fields of scientific enquiry, or anywhere the
perception of wisdom determines social stature. Marginalized communities, indigenous
cultures, and the laity hold large blocks of undocumented knowledge. Changing
entrenched views and recognizing the value of knowledge held outside the organizational
culture may identify new sources of knowledge. Once identified, knowledge must be
available for encryption. Isolation may occur due to employee turnover or relocation, by
segregation brought about by de-centralization, or by lack of involvement on the part of
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the knowledge holder. While the knowledge holder may readily volunteer knowledge,
they may often be reluctant to do so for fear of losing their value or individuality,
antagonistic feelings towards the organization, or a belief that the knowledge they hold
will not be utilized. Once knowledge holders are identified, managerial or
anthropological tools may be brought to bear in order to elicit usable knowledge.
Assuming convention dependent knowledge has been successfully encoded, the
memory it is stored in must remain safe. Memory failure may occur through degradation
or loss. Degradation can be thought of as loss of data or spontaneous damage of the
storage medium; examples of which might include fading of written material, the
decomposition of film stock, or generational infidelity when data is reproduced. Viability
issues can be addressed through proper preservation measures or transfer of data into a
more stable form. Preservation consists of the proper application of archival principles
and techniques. Transfer to a stable form must take into account generational infidelity.
Programs such as Project Gutenberg and Google Books suggest the digital revolution
offers many potential solutions such as new scanning technology, optical character
recognition and data storage for the transfer of analog media to digital storage with a high
degree of fidelity. The value of analog media already subject to a low signal to noise ratio
may be increased by the inclusion of supplemental documentation. Loss occurs when
memory is physically unavailable due to poor archival procedure or liquidation. With the
continued use of venerable technology such as the Air Force¶s B-52 and NASA¶s Ares-
Saturn Rocket, the need to show restraint in the purging of information perceived to be
obsolete is particularly important and the use of digital media allows for virtually infinite
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storage capacity. If codified knowledge is properly backed up and archived and if those
archives are subject to well-established preservation techniques, it should remain
available indefinitely.
Even if knowledge is properly encoded and stored, it may remain unavailable if
no method exists to return the encoded data back into usable information. One possible
reason is knowledge cannot be decrypted due to a failure or inaccessibility of the
conventions applied to the original encryption. This may be as fundamental as a dead
language or as sophisticated as the lack of a suitable playback system for specialized
recording media. In order for information held in synthetic memory to once again become
knowledge, it must remain accessible. This requires the identification of systems and
formats used to encode and decode information held within memory. Proper hardware or
software needs to be maintained or conversion algorithms put in place at the incept of
new technology in order to preserve access to encoded information. Once retrieved, it
must be understood that despite explicit knowledge¶s adherence to convention,
conventions themselves are not universal and consideration of the cultural norms and
precepts of the culture from which the knowledge is derived must be taken into account.
Tacit Knowledge
The concept of tacit knowledge2
is derived from the works of Michael Polanyi,
who is frequently referenced in the literature of knowledge management. Polanyi¶s work
was partially based upon his understanding of the Gestalt theory of perception as a global
process. The result being that Gestalt constructs are incorporated into contemporary
2³Tacit knowledge is often described as what we know but cannot articulate, . . .´
(DeLong, 2004, p. 83).
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understandings of tacit knowledge. The gestalt theory of perception maintains the human
mind will fill in patterns missing in the information provided by external cues in order to
construct the simplest and most reasonable explanation of the stimuli presented to it. As a
result, what is perceived is informationally richer than the stimuli that produced the
perception. In this regard, the mind becomes an active participant in the construction of
context dependent knowledge. Conversely, the information produced by this process
cannot be successfully reconstructed into knowledge outside of the context in which it
was formed. Methods of transferring tacit knowledge have a large experiential
component and successful reconstruction or learning must occur in situ. The current
knowledge holder cannot directly transfer knowledge to the learner but must act as a
facilitator between the learner and the environment. The importance of a facilitator in
acquiring tacit knowledge is evident in the 2009 survey:
Respondents were asked to evaluate the rate at which proficiency with a new technique
was achieved under two scenarios. The first considered the technique being demonstrated
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first by a facilitator, the second considered when the technique was learned indirectly
through explicit means. Under both scenarios more than 50% of the respondents stated ³It
takes a few tries´. What is significant is the overall shift in responses towards a slower
acquisition rate, as demonstrated by the graph (Survey, 2009). The physical presence of
the facilitator within the environment directly impacts the rate and ease of knowledge
transference.
One view of the success of the information age might state it has removed barriers
of time and place, allowing for the decentralization of the workforce. Additionally, many
procedures have become automated and are completed with exponentially increased
speed and precision. It would be difficult to argue these outcomes are not beneficial but
they are also highly biased towards convention dependent knowledge. As Schultze
explains, ³ . . . science has taught us to value the objective over the subjective: therefore
the gathering of subjective knowledge is in direct contradiction to scientific value.´ (as
cited in Gonzalez-Reinhart, 2005, p. 3). The very aspects that make the information age a
boon for explicit knowledge become obstacles for tacit knowledge. In order for context
dependent knowledge to be successfully retained, subjective knowledge must be placed
on par with objective knowledge. Through decentralization, knowledge holders become
isolated and automation causes skills held in human trust to become devalued. When
evaluating procedural knowledge, the value of human interaction is supported by the
results of the 2009 survey. 86% of respondents agreed with the following statement, ³I
have acquired skills that significantly affect my ability to participate in my vocation
through personal interaction and I could not have readily acquired them through other
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means.´ with 49% saying they ³Strongly agreed´ (Survey, 2009). Because tacit
knowledge transfer requires the knowledge holder to act as a facilitator between the
learner and the context ingrained within the knowledge, decentralization negatively
impacts the ability of the knowledge holder to assist the dynamic between the learner and
the environment. Tacit learning has traditionally taken the form of cognitive
apprenticeships, which immerse the learner in the environment that produced the
knowledge and foster acquisition through interaction. Modern medical training is one
example of social learning still in use and cognitive apprenticeships in particular. If tacit
knowledge is to be successfully retained in the Information Age, it will be through
accommodation rather than conversion.
When direct interaction between the learner and environment are not possible,
alternative methods of encoding information need to be found. Alternative solutions may
be thought of as either changing the nature of the knowledge in question or changing the
way it is transferred. Recent advances in Virtual Reality suggest that haptics3
and motion
capture may allow for the encoding of tacit knowledge in non-traditional means. The
greatest advances have occurred in the training of minimally invasive surgical techniques.
Since the student cannot directly observe this procedure, other means must be found to
understand the context of the surgeon¶s actions. Surgical trainers are computer simulators
that allow students to receive immediate feedback through the use of haptic surgical
instruments and 3D computer modeling. The use of simulators allows the student to train
in a virtual environment, apart from the instructor and operating room. Along with
3Haptic controls function as computer input devices but provide tactile feedback through
a variety of technology. Force-feedback controllers are a type of haptic device.
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recording the movements of the haptics, the addition of motion capture devices allows for
the evaluation of the students actions.4
In evaluating the usefulness of surgical simulators
Halvorsen, Elle, & Fosse (2005, p. 221) state, ³ . . . virtual reality trainers not only train
psychomotoric skills, but also give the possibility to train decision making.´ Another
alternative method of encryption puts forth a compensation mechanism in the form of
intuitive design. Intuitive design incorporates what a user already knows about his
environment into the interface of new technology. When asked how this might be
accomplished, Berdan (2009) explains, ³We will often use parallels or reference other
[devices] like a cell phone¶s four-way navigation button . . . . we leverage those existing
conventions to help people get into our product´. Classic examples of this technique can
be found in most modern computer systems. The icons used to control computer
commands are symbolic of real world items whose functions are already familiar. These
same principles can be incorporated into emerging technology, lessening the users
dependence on convention based documentation which ³ . . . general only describes a
series of actions leading to a desired result´ (Merkel & Nishida, 2009, p. 1). In order to
make the devices she designs more accessible to novice users, Berdan (2009)
incorporates the general conventions and functions already familiar within the electronics
industry into the product¶s commands and then elevates those functions to the top level of
the instrument¶s interface. Intuitive design provides the user cues to possible actions and
feedback to actions already undertaken. To illustrate this concept Berdan (2009) uses her
companies practice of incorporating a double beep as a convention to inform users of a
4³[A simulator] can assess the students based on specific metrics and compare the
performance to preformed proficiency criteria levels.´ (Halvorsen et al, 2005, p. 218)
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bad button press. Alternative methods of encoding need not be high tech; Barrett¶s
(2007) research indicates knowledge considered difficult to codify through conventional
means may be transmitted through aesthetic means. Aesthetic disciplines have developed
their own syntax for communicating ideas that cannot otherwise be easily verbalized.
Boast, Bravo, & Srinivasan cite the example of an Inuit artisan carving a kayak. When
compared to an actual kayak, the carving is observed to be disproportionate. But to
someone familiar with the kayaks use, these deviations are immediately recognized as ³ .
. .[emphasizing] the important details in its function.´ (2007, p. 396). Aesthetic syntax is
rich in context and allows understanding of tacit ideas apart from the environment that
formed them.
Implicit knowledge
Convention dependent and context dependent knowledge occupy opposite ends of
the spectrum but they are not mutually exclusive qualities. Knowledge may contain
varying degrees of both elements. This middle ground is termed implicit knowledge and
is thought of as knowledge that is capable of being codified but usually isn¶t. Like
explicit knowledge, implicit knowledge is capable of documentation, but like tacit
knowledge, it tends to be context specific. Transference of implicit knowledge blends
methods suitable to each element. Implicit knowledge may be capable of being
verbalized or otherwise encoded, but its contextual component limits its ability to be
understood on a universal basis. Implicit knowledge can be recorded, but the knowledge
holder must be presented with appropriate prompts in order to elicit usable information.
Transference of this type must retain a human element in order to understand its full
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meaning. Factors governing convention dependence allow implicit knowledge to be
transferred by synthetic means5, but in order to retain context, the information being
conveyed must retain personal meaning. This takes the form of socialized learning.
Transfer occurs when internal knowledge is socialized by the knowledge holder and then
internalized by the recipient to form their own knowledge (Gonzalez-Reinhart, 2005,
Knowledge management section. para. 6). What is termed oral tradition consists of
contextual knowledge and is transferred through social learning. Environment plays a key
role in social learning. The significance of social learning is born out in the results of the
2009 survey:
Of those respondents who underwent formal training, a median time of 2-3 years was
required before respondents considered themselves proficient in their vocation. Of the
modes of training respondents were asked to evaluate, on-the-job training was rated
highest with 70% of respondents reporting it played a ³Very significant´ role in the
5If these associative meanings are compromised due to errors similar to those in explicit
encryption or if the implied meaning is lost due to cultural changes, implicit knowledgemay be lost.
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development their skill set and 17% reporting it was ³Moderately significant´. In
comparison, the highest rated form of explicit learning, self-education using written
material, was rated ³Very significant´ by 41% of participants rating it and ³Moderately
significant´ by 39% (Survey, 2009). As one can see, social learning and context play
significant roles in developing the ability to apply prior training. Boast et al underscore
the importance of context when they point out, ³ . . . oral tradition is strongest in the
places where it is set . . . ´ (2007, p. 396). Not only is location important, but the tone
and pace of the exchange is also a critical factor in social learning. Informal settings
allow organizational members to exchange ideas and narratives more readily (Desouza,
2003, para. 4). Learning of this type may include storytelling, workshops and seminars.
If implicit knowledge is to be retained, all of the qualities that compose it must be taken
into account.
Implicit knowledge can remain un-documented for two reasons. The first
possibility is it is rules-based knowledge that is known by the individual but has escaped
documentation. DeLong offers the example of a technician knowing when the explicit
knowledge governing the production of a radar component are in error and should be
ignored (2004, p. 84). If this knowledge became encoded, it would become explicit. The
second possibility is it is knowledge that is codifiable but is so highly contextual it cannot
be applied to general rules and conventions (DeLong, 2004). When verbalized, implied
meanings contained within the convention dependent component can convey the context
dependent qualities of implicit knowledge. Context is conveyed not in the literal meaning
of language, but by its associative meanings. In either case, the contextual component of
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this type of knowledge can be elicited through properly applied interviewing techniques.
Efficient interview techniques utilize the knowledge holder's own expertise to disclose
critical knowledge. Eucker underscores the relevance of expertise when he states, ³If we
fail to recognize the contributions of experience and context we will treat all knowledge
the way that we treat information . . . ´ (2007, p. 12). Hylko (2005, para. 9) lays out a
multi-step process for interviewing implicit knowledge holders. Preparation begins with
determining the scope of the interview and identifying background information. The
interviewer begins by probing the knowledge holder for specific occasions where the
knowledge holder made decisions or interacted in a way that shaped the final outcome of
events. The interviewer then takes the knowledge holder back and forth over the events.
At first this is done passively, with the interviewer verifying his understanding of the
story and allowing the knowledge holder to volunteer supporting information. During
later retellings, the interviewer actively probes for additional information, first for key
times and events, then for factors that shaped decisions and changed outcomes. The
interview concludes with the interviewer interjecting hypothetical situations into the
scenario for the knowledge holder and recording their theoretical response. The interview
process may illuminate underlying knowledge by highlighting the choices available and
options a knowledge holder accepted and rejected. If allowances are made for the
contextual aspect of implicit knowledge in the Information Age, then it may be
successfully encoded into the digital infrastructure.
Once encoded, access to implicit knowledge remains impaired by its contextual
aspect. In order for information to be accessed, it must be recalled from memory through
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a search. Successful results are achieved when the search is able to match the query to
keywords associated with the encoded information. In the case of explicit knowledge, this
is a fairly straightforward process. But due to the contextual nature of implicit
knowledge, ambiguity arises. Dillon uses this fact to support his contention that the
quality of knowledge held within library systems is superior to Google search results
since ³Google returns truth and falsehoods in the same result set, and presents them all
without context´ (2007, p. 31). While certainly a valid warning regarding the veracity of
online information as opposed to vetted sources, Dillon fails to take into account the
point made by Boast et al when they state, ³ . . . indexes and catalogues are management
tools, not access tools.´ (2007, p. 396). Memory systems are designed for data
interoperability and not necessarily historical and cultural context (Boast et al, 2007,
Standardizing and meta-ontologies section, para. 6). To counteract this, multiple
ontologies and user driven taxonomies, termed folksonomies6, have been developed. By
incorporating multiple ontologies into data base organization, multiple associations are
made that support the data managers need for interoperability but also support the need of
the knowledge users by maintaining the contextual relationship needed to reconstruct the
encoded information back into usable knowledge. Folksonomies allow the person
accessing information to add keywords with contextual meaning to the data record.
Through continued use, associative meanings are developed that were not incorporated
into the governing ontology. The use of Folksonomies, also referred to as tags, have led
to pivot browsing, a form of electronic searching that uses Folksonomies to find relevant
6Folksonomy refers to classification key words supplied by the end user of information
as opposed to those supplied in formal taxonomies.
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information not directly associated with the data record. Associative tags need not be
provided only by the end user of information searches. Sophisticated data mining
programs are capable of making connections in electronic communications. Applications
for this technology range from Avantis Pharmaceutical¶s Tacit K-Mail, which forms a
searchable database from its scientist¶s e-mail, to the NSA¶s Echelon system that
monitors worldwide communication (Dillon, 2007, Avantis and NSA sections). Though
the veracity of information held in any knowledge repository is always suspect, the
utilization of these new tools allows for additional vetting and understanding by retaining
contextual meanings. One key obstacle to these associative tools is responsibility for
implementation still resides with the knowledge manager rather than the knowledge
holder.
The success of open source software such as Lynux and Mozilla has encouraged
the adaptation of open source knowledge management tools, commonly referred to as
wikis. Wikis consist of user editable records that contain hyperlinks to other records. In
addition to the record, edit history and user discussion pages are attached to the main
entry. Because wikis are open to any user with editing privileges and not a vetted few,
wikis are frequently subject to criticism based on their veracity. While inaccuracy and
outright vandalism do occur, the accuracy of information contained in wikis has proven
surprisingly robust due the innate properties of open source architecture and principles
that govern wiki communities. Most wikis operate on the open principle, which allows all
users to edit entries. The attached discussion page provides users with the open
socialization required to elicit implicit knowledge. As mentioned, vandalism and errors
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do occur, but has not proven problematic due to the ability to roll back to prior versions
through the history page and the guardianship of legitimate user-editors. Functioning in
much the same way as peer review, the open principle also means multiple editors are
available to spot erroneous information. Gonzalez-Reinhart underscores the importance
of this point by observing, ³Persistent knowledge in a wiki page is considered objective
since it endured the open principle¶s deletion capability available to any potential critic.´
(2005, p. 7). Multiple editors and the use of hyperlinks also serve to consolidate
knowledge and remove redundancy and the inclusion of open hyperlinks encourages new
entries. The use of wikis is not limited to general information sites. When used in
conjunction with explicit procedural databases, wikis have proven useful as a way for
employees to record and share implicit procedural knowledge that has not been
considered by novice employees. (Fitch, 2007, Possible uses section, para. 1). As a
result, employees¶ implicit knowledge improves the operability of the organization¶s
convention based explicit knowledge.
Temporal Realization of Porcine Primary Flight Characteristics
While understanding the fundamental qualities of knowledge and the ways in
which learning occurs may serve as a beginning in stemming the tide of knowledge loss,
the architecture of current technology is still primarily convention dependent. And while
compensatory mechanisms have been adopted, the full integration of contextual
understanding into the infrastructure of the Information Age has yet to be realized. If this
is to occur, a new understanding of knowledge itself must become the subject of future
investigations. The topic of emergence, the development of ordered, complex constructs
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and systems from more chaotic ones, holds particular promise in understanding the
development of knowledge, but has yet to be adequately explored in the literature of
knowledge management. Along with a new understanding of knowledge, an emerging
understanding of knowledge systems in the form of contextual computing holds the
promise of building an awareness of the user¶s environment into the infrastructure of the
Information Age.
The history of human progress has, for the most part, been judged by the rate at
which emerging technology is assimilated. But in considering the effects of the
Information Age upon procedural knowledge, it is evident that greater value must be
placed upon context dependent knowledge if the sum total of human understanding is to
increase and not merely change, leaving behind the wisdom of those marginalized by the
Information Age as it moves forward to incorporate emerging technology. To date,
knowledge management has held two primary concerns: the development of new systems
and transferring ownership of procedural knowledge from individual knowledge holders
to organizational stewardship. A larger concern, and one that seems yet to be adequately
considered, is the knowledge currently at risk of being lost. Environmental, cultural, and
socio-economic pressures are causing fringe populations to change or disappear faster
than the wisdom they contain can be preserved. Without greater awareness of the value
this wisdom holds and the incorporation of new techniques in gathering it, this wisdom
may yet be lost before the Information Age learns how to preserve it.
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