Orpheus
This edition published in 2007 by Franklin Watts,338 Euston Road, London NW1 3BH
Copyright © 2007 Orpheus Books Ltd.
Created and produced byJulia Bruce, Rachel Coombs,
Nicholas Harris and Sarah Hartley, Orpheus Books Ltd.,6 Church Green, Witney, Oxfordshire, OX28 4AW
Text Julia Bruce
Illustrated by Peter Dennis (Linda Rogers Associates)
Consultant Philip Wilkinson
All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced, stored in aretrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic,
mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, without the prior writtenpermission of the copyright owner.
ISBN 978 0 7496 7710 7
A CIP record for this book is available from the British Library.Dewey Classification: 937
Printed and bound in China
Franklin Watts is a division of Hachette Children’s Books, an Hachette Livre UK company.
20 Building an aqueduct
22 Bath-house and town house
24 A Roman province
26 Timeline
28 Glossary
30 Index
THE ROMAN EMPIRE is getting bigger by the day.Its great success in conquering new lands isdue mainly to the superb organization and fightingskills of its army, and the leadership abilities of its generals. Romewants new lands in its Empire to bring in wealth such as food andnatural resources – copper, tin, iron and precious metals – as wellas slaves, goods and taxes.
Your challenge, as a general in the Roman army, is to conquera barbarian region and make it part of the Empire. If you aresuccessful, the rewards will be great. Victorious army leaders canbecome governors of their conquered provinces. As a governoryou will be very rich and powerful. But you will be expected togovern wisely, keep the peace, collect fair taxes and build new,civilized towns for people to live in.
This book will guide you inconquering your province.You will meet the different types ofsoldiers under your command andsee how your army is organized.You will be shown how to planyour attack on the barbarians, howto march with your large army, andhow to set up camps and forts foryour men. Once victory is yours,learn how to build proper roadsand towns in your province, andhow to deal fairly with the peopleyou have conquered. Finally, if allgoes well, you’ll see your provinceprospering and bringing wealth tothe glorious Roman Empire.
Contents
12 Building a fort
14 Inside the fort
16 Daily life in the fort
18 Ruling the land
5 Your challenge
6 How the army is organized
8 Marching camp
10 Into battle!
5
Your challenge
How the army is organized
T he Roman army is the mostprofessional, organized, well-trained and best-equipped fighting forcein the western world. It is divided intolegions, which are made up of cohorts,centuries and contubernia.The contubernium is the army’s basic
unit. It consists of eight soldiers whowill live, train and fight togetherthroughout their time as legionaries.Ten contubernia (that’s 80 men) makeup a century, commanded by acenturion. Six centuries make up astandard cohort. In each legion of 6000men there are nine standard cohortsplus one special cohort, called theprima cohort, which is made up of 10centuries, or 800 men.
TThhee cceennttuurriioonn iiss
iinn ccoommmmaanndd ooff
aa cceennttuurryy..
CCeennttuurriioonnss aarree
ppaaiidd wweellll aanndd
wweeaarr ssiillvveerreedd
aarrmmoouurr.. TThheeiirr
pplluummeedd hheellmmeett
sshhoowwss tthheeiirr rraannkk..
TThheeyy ccaarrrryy aa
ccrrooookkeedd ssttiicckk
mmaaddee ooff vviinnee ttoo
bbeeaatt ddiissoobbeeddiieenntt
ssoollddiieerrss wwiitthh..
TThhee aaqquuiilliiffeerr
ccaarrrriieess tthhee
ssttaannddaarrdd ooff tthhee
lleeggiioonn –– aa ggoolldd
oorr ssiillvveerr eeaaggllee..
SSttaannddaarrdd bbeeaarreerrss
hhaavvee aa ggrreeaatt
rreessppoonnssiibbiilliittyy nnoott
ttoo lloossee tthhee
ssttaannddaarrdd iinn
bbaattttllee.. TThhiiss
wwoouulldd bbrriinngg
ddiissggrraaccee ttoo tthhee
wwhhoollee lleeggiioonn..
TThhee ssiiggnniiffeerr
ccaarrrriieess tthhee
cceennttuurryy’’ss
ssttaannddaarrdd.. HHee
aallssoo oorrggaanniizzeess
tthhee ssoollddiieerrss’’
““bbuurriiaall cclluubb””..
LLeeggiioonnaarriieess ppaayy aa
ssmmaallll aammoouunntt ooff
tthheeiirr ssaallaarryy eeaacchh
wweeeekk iinnttoo tthhiiss
ffuunndd ttoowwaarrddss tthhee
ccoosstt ooff tthheeiirr
ffuunneerraall..
CCeennttuurryy (80 men):Ten contubernia
CCoohhoorrtt (480 men):Six centuries
A legion withsupport staff
LLeeggiioonn(6000men): Ninecohorts ofsix centuriesplus one primacohort of tencenturies
Cavalry (120 men) T here are about 120 cavalry soldiers in the legion. They often come from wealthyfamilies. The cavalry soldier carries a sword, aone-handed fighting spear and several smallerspears, called javelins, for throwing.
Signum
Animalskin
Scalearmour
Shinguards
Vinestick
Helmet
Smallroundshield
Hand grip
Decoratedbelt
Cuirass(body
armour)
Pilum (spear)
Largesquarescutum(shield)
Gladius(sword)
Chain mail
Metalmask
Signum
Leatherharnesswithphaleraediscs(medals)
Plume to showrank
Tunic
Sandals
Saddledesigned togrip ridersecurely
Fighting spear
Bedroll
6 7
TThhee lleeggiioonnaarryy iiss aa
bbaassiicc ffoooottssoollddiieerr..
LLeeggiioonnaarriieess aarree
RRoommaann cciittiizzeennss,,
tthheeyy mmuusstt bbee aatt
lleeaasstt 11..7755 mm ttaallll,,
aanndd pphhyyssiiccaallllyy ffiitt
wwiitthh ggoooodd
eeyyeessiigghhtt.. WWaaggeess
aarree ggoooodd,, aanndd tthhee
aarrmmyy ppaayyss ffoorr
tthheeiirr ffoooodd,,
ccllootthhiinngg aanndd
wweeaappoonnss..
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Marching camp
You should aim to march 30 kilometres a day toget your army to its destination. Any more andyou risk over-tiring your men. Each day, as eveningapproaches, send out scouts to find and mark out asuitable site to make camp. Remember, it will takeabout two hours to set up camp, and ideally youwant to complete this while it is still light. Your menwill carry most of the things they need and shouldbe well drilled in what they have to do. Formaximum efficiency, ensure the layout of the campis the same each night. This also means the men willbe always able to find their way around after dark.
L egionaries have to carry all their personalsupplies and equipment, such as rations, apick axe, weapons, shield, basket, waterbottle, cooking pan, razor and comb. Theirheavy leather tents are carried by mules. Anarmy column includes scouts, which go aheadof the main army, standard bearers, campbuilders, legionaries, generals, baggage mules,cavalry and auxiliaries – additional soldiersrecruited for the campaign.
If you plan to camp forseveral days, make thecamp secure by clearingturf and digging a defensiveditch around it. Buildramparts from the turf andset a palisade of sharpenedstakes on top. For atemporary defence onovernight camps, create abarrier with bundles ofsharpened stakes aroundthe camp edge to deterintruders. Detail onecentury to stand guardovernight. Check suppliesand get the cooks busy –your men need to be wellfed to march and fight.
Kit bag
Bed roll
Pilum (spear)
Shield inprotectiveleather cover
Plan of marching campfor one legion
Legionaries
Commander andcenturions
Rearguardcavalry
Auxiliaries Legionariesand standards
Legionaries
Setting upcommander’s tent
Supply wagon Removing turf Contubernia split betweentwo tents – four men in each
Putting upleather tents
Cooking pan Carryingpole
Helmet
Marching legionarycarrying his weaponsand basic belongings
Baggage
Erectingpalisade
Diggingditch
Unloading tentoff mule
Shields andweapons atthe readyin case of
attack
Scouts Camp buildersGenerals
Cavalry
8 9
Sharpenedstakebundles
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This is the testudo, which meanstortoise. Your men march inclose formation, overlappingtheir shields both over theirheads and in front of them. Thisforms an almost impenetrablebarrier, protecting the men fromarrows and spears as theyadvance towards the enemy. Thetestudo is very useful during asiege to get close to the target.
All men use their weapons intheir right hand and their shieldin their left. There isn’t room intight fighting formations tohave some the other way round.Javelins can be launched at theenemy over the heads of yourown men. Sword fighting is forcombat at close quarters. Theshield protects the body so thatonly the fighting arm is exposed.
The barbarians are not going to give up theirland easily. They have mustered a largearmy to face you. This is no time for caution;you must be ruthlessin your battle tactics.
F or maximum advantage before you even start to engage the enemy,position your troops either on high ground,or with the wind blowing away from you.Having the sun behind you so that it glaresin the face of the enemy would also behelpful. A combination of all three would,of course, be ideal. To overcome the enemy, your men must
keep their ranks and maintain an unbrokenfrontline that keeps pushing forwards.Keep some troops in reserve who canmove in immediately to replace tired orfallen men, filling in any gaps that appear.
Into battle!
Pilum(throwing
spear)
Belt withapron ofstuddedleatherstrips
Gladius(sword)
Dagger
Scutum(shield)
Cuirass (bodyarmour)
Tunic
Sandals
Overlappingshields
Swords drawnready for action
Enemyarrow
Usingslingshots
Reserve troopswaiting to replacefront-line men
Ballista: a largepowerfulcrossbow
Enemy cavalrycounter-attacking
Your cavalry pursuingthe enemy
Retreatingenemy
Commanderissuing orders
Shields creatingan impenetrablebarrier
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After the battle has been won, it is essentialthat you secure your gains as soon as possible.By all means, give your soldiers a chance tocelebrate their victory – and mourn the deathsof their comrades. But impress upon them theurgent need to build a fort to protect the area.Issue the command to start building works thevery next day. It is very likely that enemyforces will regroup and attempt to win backtheir lands. A delay could result in heavy lossesin this hostile terrain. The fort will provide apermanent base for a unit of around 500 men.
Building a fort
1Your first task is to choose a suitable site forthe fort. This should be on high ground,forcing the enemy to climb a slope to make anattack. Have the ground levelled and cleared oftrees and bushes. Your surveyors should stakeout the layout of the main roads and buildings. 3The walls of the buildings should be builtin sections, which are fitted into place later.
Each section has a wooden “skeleton” filled inwith wattle (interwoven sticks) and daub(rough plaster). The walls are fixed to thick
posts and given a coating of smoothplaster. They are painted to look
like blocks of stone.
2 Next, construct thefort’s defences.Command a group ofyour men to dig thefortification ditches andstrip turf from the wholearea. The rubble andearth should be used tobuild the ramparts. Atthe same time, get othermen to collect timber forthe buildings. Thecarpenters should thenstart cutting the timberto shape.
Surveyors using a gromato mark out right angles
Shields, helmets andweapons at the ready
Carryingaway timber
Camp
Plastering
Section of wall madeof timbers and wattle
Carpenter working at trestle
Barracks
Principia(Headquarters)
Ditch
Sidegate
Heavily guardedgateway
High earth rampartsurrounding fort
Commandingofficer’s house
Levellingground
Site offort
KEY TO PLANBarracksHQGranaryWorkshopsCommandingofficer
Granary
12 13
Main gate
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Your fort is now completed and provides an excellent securecommand centre for you and yourtroops. Your headquarters, the principia,is at the heart of the fort. There shouldalso be a hospital, a granary, a bath-house, barracks and stables. An areaoutside the fort must be levelled tomake a parade ground. There is an ever-present threat of rebel uprisings, so yourmen must always be at the ready. Keepthem fit and well-disciplined withparading, training and ensuring the fortis always in good repair.
Inside the fort
Commander’shouse
Auxiliaries Legionaries
returning fromparade ground
Cavalrygoing outon exercises
Latrineblock
Repairing the bath-house roof
Officers’wives andchildren
Principia(Headquarters)
Barracks
Hospital
Barracks
Granary
Stables
Rebel barbarianprisoner
Centurion
14 15
Siegeenginesstore
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Daily life in the fortYour men must be kept busy while they are incamp. There is plenty to be done, and the menneed to keep fit, disciplined and focused.There is a mix of experienced men and rawrecruits in the legion. The trainees inparticular need to use their time practisingtheir fighting skills.
The day starts with the morning report.All centurions must give you, as campcommander, a written account listing howmany men are available for work, andwhat tasks have already been given out.You then discuss the duties for the day anddivide them up between the centuries.Finally, you tell the centurions the day’spassword. This is to maintain security.Without the password, soldiers who leavethe camp will not be allowed back in.
Line up your men for inspection on the parade ground before the centurions give them theirtasks for the day. Your centurions should reprimandany legionary who is not properly dressed andequipped. Legionaries must train every day. Makesure new recruits are taught fighting skills andspend several hours a day in practice. Until theyhave learned proper control of their weapons theyshould use wooden swords and practise movesagainst a training stake. They could easily injureeach other if they used real weapons at this stage.
Your army is still putting down pockets of resistance in theprovince so injuries are common.Medical aid in the camp hospital isbasic. Wounds are cauterized (burntto seal them) or sewn up, andbroken bones put in a splint. Ifnecessary, the surgeon will amputatebadly injured limbs. The medical staffwill use wine to dull pain and herbalremedies to aid healing.
Maintaining discipline isvital. Your soldiersmust obey orders instantly.Disobedience, incompetenceand laziness must not betolerated. A centurion willbeat any soldier who stepsout of line. Remember, if aman deserts, then ten of hiscentury’s soldiers should beexecuted as a punishment.Such measures will help youmaintain complete obedience.
Recruits usingtraining weapons
Cavalrymen atjavelin practice
Training officerPractisingagainst a
training stake
Centurions makingtheir reports
Campcommander
(you)
Reportswritten onwax tablets
Legionaries linedup for inspection
Centurionreprimandinglegionary
Surgeon removingarrowhead
Preparingherbalremedy
Surgicalinstruments
Used swabsandbandages
Examining wound
Centurion’splumedhelmetshows hisrank
Stickused tobeatsoldiers
Trainingstake
Your legionaries are notpermitted to have wives orfamilies at the fort—it would distractthem from their duties. You and yourcenturions are, however, allowed this
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Ruling the landYYou must waste no time in turning thisbarbarian land into a civilized Roman province.You may find the local population resistant atfirst, so a firm approach is vital. But rememberthat one of the secrets of the Empire’s successis its tolerance. Keep order, but let the peoplecontinue to follow their own customs andreligions. You need to assess the wealth of theland and the people so that they can pay a fairtax to Rome. Introduce Roman coinage to helpintegrate your province into the Empire.
Begin a building programme at once. Overtime, the fort will expand into a propertown. If you are near the coast, you may needto build a port. Money from taxes can be usedto construct public buildings such as bath-houses, a basilica (town hall), granaries and anamphitheatre. The streets should be laid out inan ordered grid pattern for ease of access, andpaved so that they don’t turn to mud in wetweather. Building a water and seweragesystem is another important part of bringingthe Roman way of life to your province.
It is essential that supplies can get to you easily and safely. Your road-building programme is the firststep towards this (see pages 20–21). If the localpeople are still hostile towards you they may attacksupply trains, so ensure these are always providedwith an armed guard. In time, you will probably wishto import valuable luxury items, such as wine andglass, from other parts of the Empire.
You will need craftsmen, such ascarpenters, leatherworkers, smithsand potters, to provide the town withgoods and services. You will havebrought some with you, but integratelocal people by encouraging them toset up businesses in the town as well.
Rome demands that all provinces pay tax – aproportion of their wealth. Some of this willgo back to Rome, but you can use some to fundyour Romanizing programme. Do not over-taxand do not take bribes – you must be seen to befair to gain trust and respect. Tax may be takenin the form of crops and goods as well as coins.
Building thebasilica (townhall)
Plastering anew building
Stage coach
Shops
Steppingstones acrossthe street
Public water-supply
Gold aureus
Silver denarius
Kiln
Barbarianleader
Governorreceiving tax
Centurion
Potter atwork
Finishedpots readyto go in kiln
Supplyconvoy
Newly builtroad
Armedguard
Oxen
Publicbath-house
18 19
Bronze sestertius
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Afresh-water supply is essential for yournew settlement. Send out surveyors andengineers to find the best natural water source thatcan be piped to it. The river or spring selected mustbe higher than the town so the water will flowdownhill. If the water pipeline needs tocross a valley, you will have toconstruct an aqueductto support it. Thisneeds to becarefullyengineered tomaintain thedownhill flowto the town.
Building an aqueduct
Infill the ditch with stones and clayand edge with slabs. Finish off with atop layer of flat slabs. Tamp thesedown so they are even and firm. Thefinal surface should be slightly curvedso that rain will run off it. Dig ditchesalong the sides of the road to drainthe water away. Your men should beable to build about 300 metres ofroad a day.
Barrels of nails and othersupplies brought by barge
Workers’huts
Crane usedfor liftingbuildingmaterials
Woodenframesupportsarch duringconstruction
Supportcolumns builtin sequence
Constructinga woodenarch support
Supervising engineer
Liningedge
Tampingdown surface
Drainageditch
Laying andlevelling infill
Plasteringfinishedarches
Woodenscaffolding
Unloading bargeusing a crane
Workshop
Woodenscaffoldingsupported onbarge
One of your first tasks will be toimprove and extend the roads inyour province, so that your men andsupplies can move around easily.Your surveyors should plot thecourse of the road as straight aspossible, as this will be the shortestroute. To construct the road, dig outa trench and stamp it down. Level itwith a layer of sand.
Removingwaste
Supervisingcenturion
20 21
Stone infill Digging outditch
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Bath-house and town house
If you have done your job well, you maybe asked to stay on as provincialgovernor. This is a very responsibleposition of high status. Build yourself asplendid home in the town to reflect yourimportance. You should also ensure thatthe town itself has all the trappings ofRoman civilization, such as an amphitheatreand at least one bath-house. This is all partof the process of integrating the newprovince fully into the Empire. Don’t forget,you will need slaves to serve you in yourhomes and in public places. You will havebrought some with you, but may have toget others from the local population.
Bathing is a civilized Roman custom that isessential to introduce to your province.Bath-houses should be some of the first publicbuildings you put up. You will need ahypocaust (underfloor heating) for the warmand hot rooms. A furnace in the boiler househeats up both water for the baths – which isstored in cylinders until needed – and air, whichcirculates under the floors and in the walls.
Cold plungepool
High outer wallswith no windows
Even in the provinces, your domus (townhouse) should be a splendid affair: whynot show local residents who’s boss? A grandcentral atrium with a calming rainwater poolwill impress your guests. Mosaics and wallpaintings add style. Lower rooms can berented out as shops. High walls with fewwindows and doors around the rest of thehouse will keep out the noise of the street.
Changingroom
Cold room(frigidarium)
Door to warmroom(tepidarium)
Hot room(caldarium)
Hotplungepool
Boilerroom
Hypocaust
Latrines
Cold watertank
Stokingthe fire
Hot watercylinders
Garden(peristyle)
Upper-floor bedroomsoverlooking garden
Rainwater pool(impluvium) coolsatrium in hotweather
Shops rentingground floorrooms on mainstreet
Atrium
Pantiledroof
Diningroom(triclinium)
Kitchen
Mosaicfloor
Studywithglasswindow Bakery Soldiers
arrestinga thief
A well-appointed domusshould include glasswindows, but these arevery expensive. Less well-off homes would useanimal skins stretchedacross the openings.
23
A bath-house
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A Roman province
Y ou have completed your challenge successfully, and in a few years, your forthas expanded into a thriving town. Althoughyou will have brought peace to the land, ensurethat a strong wall surrounds the settlement toguard against any future native uprising. It islikely that some of your troops will settle here,and you should encourage local people tomove to the town. If you makeyour province attractiveenough, citizens mayeven move herefrom Rome.
Outside the town, on the coast, there is abusy port. This imports luxury goods from other partsof the Empire and exports wool, pots and other commoditiesfrom your province. It is linked to the town by new roads.Farms are dotted around the countryside, providing food forthe town. A newly built race track is a popular place to go towatch chariot races. The aqueduct continues to supply thetown with fresh water. Well done! Your province is thriving. Itis a shining example of how Roman civilization can be broughtto the farthest reaches of the Empire.
Theatre
Farm
Large villaand farm
Harbour
Farm
Race trackQuarry: sourceof buildingstone for townand roads
Villa
Aqueduct
Amphitheatre:outdoor venue forgladiatorial contests
Defensive ditch
Original fortbuildings
Forum
Temple
Defensive wallswith lookout towers
Roadbuildingparty
Farm
Port protected bystrong walls. Importand export goodsfrom here.
Farm
Bath-house
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Timeline
JUDAEA
.. Rome
GAUL
GREECE
MEDITERRANEAN SEA
The Roman Empire
SPAIN
A F R I C A
TTHHEE RROOMMAANN EEMMPPIIRREE
This map shows the Roman
Empire at its greatest extent
around the year AD 117. It
stretched from Britain in the
north to Egypt in the south
and the Caspian Sea in the
east. About 50 million
people lived under
Roman rule at
this time.
Carthage ..
BRITAIN
CASPIANSEA
753 BCIn what is now modern Italy, the building ofthe city of Rome begins.
510 BCRome becomes a republic. It is ruled by theSenate, a group of men from wealthy Romanfamilies. Over the next 250 years Romegradually conquers the country around it.
264 BCRome now controls all of Italy. The Punic Warsbetween Rome and the North African city ofCarthage begin. Each side seeks control overthe Mediterranean Sea.
218 BCHannibal, a Carthaginian general, leads amassive army, including 37 elephants, acrossthe Pyrenees and Alps to invade Italy.
202 BCRome defeats Hannibal andinvades Spain.
146 BCRome conquers Greece.
73–71 BCGladiator Spartacus leads arevolt of 90,000 slaves againstthe Republic. After severalvictories the revolt is finally put down by thearmy. Spartacus is killed in battle.
58–51 BCJulius Caesar, a clever politician and generalfrom a wealthy Roman family, conquers Gaul(France) and becomes very popular in Rome.
49 BCJulius Caesar takes control of Rome, becomingits most powerful leader ever. He brings innew laws to make Rome wealthier.
44 BC.Julius Caesar is assassinated by a group ofsenators, who believe he has become toopowerful. A struggle to succeed him followsbetween Octavian (Caesar’s adopted son) andsoldier Mark Antony.
31 BCOctavian defeats Mark Antony at the Battle ofActium. Egypt becomes a Roman province.
27 BCOctavian becomes the first emperor of Romemarking the beginning of the Roman Empire.He takes the name Augustus. He dies in AD 14.
AD 43Emperor Claudius conquers Britain.
AD 60British leader Boudicca rebels against Romanrule, but is defeated.
AD 64Half of Rome is destroyed by fire.
AD 105–117Emperor Trajan conquersland in eastern Europe andthe Empire reaches itslargest extent.
AD 235–84Plague, famine, rebellionsand barbarian attacksweaken the Empire. Romeis defeated by Persia inAD 260 and abandons partsof eastern Europe.
Boudiccaleads arebellion inBritain inAD 60
AD 370–410The Empire is invaded by Huns from Asia andBarbarians from the north and east. Romanswithdraw from Gaul and Britain.
AD 395The Empire is split into two—East and West.The West is rapidly overrun by Barbarians.
AD 455Barbarian Vandals destroy Rome.
AD 476Barbarian general Odoacer defeats EmperorRomulus Augustulus and makes himself King ofItaly, marking the end of the Western Empire.
EGYPT
GERMANY
ITALY
26
Vandals destroyRome in AD 455
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Amphitheatre A place where Romans wentto watch entertainments. Usually roughlycircular or semicircular with the stage in thecentre and seats on raised steps all around.
Aqueduct A system of pipes and channelswhich brought clean water into towns fromnatural springs and rivers.
Barbarian A person who lived outside theRoman Empire. Barbarians were regarded bythe Romans as rough and uncivilized.
Basilica A large public building, often built inthe town’s central square, where importantlocal business was carried out – much like amodern town hall.
Chariot A cart with two wheels pulled byhorses. The Romans used chariots fortransport and racing.
Centurion Commandingofficer of a century.
Century Army unit of 80men (10 contubernia).
Cohort Roman infantryunit. Usually six centuries,480 men. See prima cohort
Contubernium A basicarmy unit of eight men.
Glossary Governor The ruler of a Roman province.Sometimes a high-ranking soldier wouldbecome governor of a province.
Hypocaust A central-heating system using hotair from a furnace forced through channelsunder floors and within walls.
Latin The official spoken and writtenlanguage of the Roman Empire. It is notspoken today, but there are many words ofLatin origin in modern European languages,such as English, French, Italian and Spanish.
Legion The largest unit of the Roman armymade up of 6000 men.
Mosaic A decorative pattern or picture madefrom coloured pieces of stone, pottery or glassset into cement. Mosaics were often used todecorate floors.
Phalerae Disc-shaped medals worn bycenturions on leather straps on their chest.
Cuirass Leather or metal body armour wornby Roman soldiers. It was made of severalstrips joined together to make it more flexiblethan a single piece.
Denarius A silver coin. In the first century ADa legionary was paid 225 denarii a year.
Empire The lands and people controlled byRome for about 400 years from 27 BC. TheEmpire was ruled by an emperor.
Forum An open space in the middle of atown where markets were held. The forum wasalso a popular meeting place.
Gladiator A slave, criminal or prisoner of wartrained to fight other gladiators and animals inarenas for the entertainment of the people.Gladiators sometimes fought to the death. Aftermany victories gladiators might be given theirfreedom. A few gladiators were actuallywomen.
Prima cohort The largest cohort in a legionmade up of ten centuries, or 800 men.
Republic Rome between 509 and 27 BC ruledby the Senate.
Senate A group of important men who helpedgovern both the Republic and the Empire.
Slave A person sold to another to work forthem for free. Slaves had no rights, but couldbe granted their freedom – for instance forlong service – by their masters.
Testudo A military formation where soldiersprotected themselves with their shields.
Villa A large house in the countryside.
Testudoformation
A centurion shows off hisphalerae (medals)
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Gladiators doing battle
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A Roman chariot race
AActium, Battle of 27amphitheatre 18, 22, 25, 28
aqueduct 20-21, 24, 28aquilifer 7armour 6-7, 8, 10army, Roman 5, 6-7atrium 23Augustus (Octavian) 27aureus 18auxiliaries 9, 14
Bballista 11barbarians 5, 14, 18, 26-27, 28
barracks 13, 14-15basilica 19, 28bath-house 15, 19, 22-23battles 10-11Boudicca 27Britain 26-27burial club 6
CDCaesar, Julius 26-27caldarium 22camp, marching 5, 8-9Carthage 26Caspian Sea 26cavalry 7, 9, 15, 17centurion 6-7, 9, 16-17, 28-29
century 6-7, 9, 28-29chariot 28citizens, Roman 6, 24
Claudius 27cohort 6-7, 28coins 18contubernium 6-7, 8, 28cuirass 6, 10, 28dagger 10denarius 18, 28domus 22-23
EFEgypt 26-27Empire, Roman 5, 18, 22, 25, 26-27, 28-29
engineers 20families 17fort 12-13, 14-15, 16-17,25
forum 25, 28frigidarium 22
Ggarden 22Gaul 26-27gladiator 28-29gladius 6, 10glass 23governor 5, 22, 29Greece 26groma 12
HIJHannibal 26hospital 15, 17Huns 27hypocaust 22-23, 28impluvium 23Italy 26-27Judaea 26javelin 7, 10, 17
LMLatin 29latrines 15, 22leatherworkers 19legion 6-7, 16, 29legionaries 6-7, 8-9, 10-11, 16-17
Mark Antony 27medicine 17Mediterranean Sea 26money 18morning report 16mosaics 23, 29
OPOdoacer 27Octavian see Augustuspalisade 8-9peristyle 22phalerae 7, 28-29pilum 6, 8potters 19prima cohort 6, 29principia 13, 14-15province, Roman 5, 18-19, 24-25
Punic Wars 26
Rrace track 25rampart 9, 12, 15rebels 14-15religion 18remedy, herbal 17Republic, Roman 26, 29roads 5, 18-19, 20-21construction of 20-21
Romanization 18-19, 22-23
Rome 18, 26-27
Romulus Augustulus 27
Sscaffolding 21scutum 6, 10Senate 26, 29sestertius 18sewerage 18shield 6, 8-9, 10-11shops 19, 23signifer 6signum 6-7slaves 5, 22, 29smiths 19Spain 26spear 6-7, 8standard bearer 6-7, 9surgeon 17surgery 17surveyors 12, 20sword 6, 10
TVtaxes 5, 18tepidarium 22testudo 11, 29Trajan 27training (army) 16-17training stake 16-17triclinium 23Vandals 27villa 24-25, 29
Wwater supply 18-19, 20-21
wattle and daub 13weapons 6-7, 8-9, 10-11wives 14, 17
Index
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