Lesson 2
Development through the lifespan
Introduction to Psychology
Children see, children do
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=KHi2dxSf9hw
Developmental Psychology
Focuses on development across life span – a field of psychology that focuses on development across the life span.
Development
More-or-less predictable changes in behavior associated with increasing age
Nature or nurture?
Nature: behavior unfolds like a plant over time
Nurture: behavior is molded by experiences
Developmental Psychology
Basic Processes of Development
Maturation
Biological process of systematic physical growth
Experience plays a role in specific contexts
Children change dramatically from birth to adulthood
Developmental Psychology
Development in Infancy and Childhood
Neonatal period
First two weeks of life
Marks transition from womb to independence
Reflexively grasps anything placed in hand
Sucking and Rooting reflex http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=umesL6OcZG8
Grasp reflex http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=BF1j1PXRq-I
Walking reflex http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-ih_pCBo70o
Developmental Psychology
Physical and Cognitive
Development
Infant’s sensory capabilities
Newborns can see and hear reasonably well
Non-nutritive sucking procedure for studying sensory and
cognitive capabilities
Vision estimated at 20/150 – focus best at 9 inches – prefer
face to other figures
Can discriminate tones and have preferences for voice sounds
even before birth – infants learn voices
Development in Infancy and Childhood
Infancy
Age: 2 weeks until 2 years
Time of rapid physical, perceptual, cognitive, linguistic, social,
and emotional growth
During sensorimotor stage – infants stare at interesting visual
stimuli
Preference for human faces
Developmental Psychology
Development in Infancy and Childhood
Infancy
Physical development
Cognitive development
Object permanence
Video shown later
Telegraphic speech
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=n3cu4l-
qJjU&playnext=1&list=PLBA379864B2FCF408
Developmental Psychology
Development in Infancy and Childhood
Infancy – emotional and social development
Visual cliff and depth perception
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=p6cqNhHrMJA
Attachment
Strong attachments formed between infants and caregivers
Separation anxiety
Fear of strangers
Developmental Psychology
Early Childhood
Growth less explosive and rapid than during infancy
Lasts 2 to 7 years of age
Cognitive development
Children in preoperational stage show egocentric thought
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=OinqFgsIbh0
Animism
Transductive reasoning
See Piaget stages
Developmental Psychology
Early Childhood
Emotional and social development
Most notable changes in peer relationships and types of
play
Solitary play
Parallel play
Cooperative play
Developmental Psychology
Developmental Psychology
Early Childhood
Solitary play
Parallel play
Cooperative play
Middle Childhood
Lasts from 7 to 11 years of age
Characterized by slow physical growth
Important cognitive changes occur
Conservation and reversibility
Child decenters – allows conservation problems to be solved;
learns some matter changes shape but not volume
Developmental Psychology
Middle Childhood
Emotional and social development
Child enters with close ties to parents
Peer relationships become increasingly important Friendships more important, last longer
Cliques or groups formed, mostly same sex
Terms boyfriend and girlfriend have little meaning at this stage
Developmental Psychology
Adolescent Development
Adolescence
Physical changes of puberty
Adolescent growth spurt
Heightened sexual and romantic interest
Peers become more important than parents
Cognitively – capable of abstract reasoning
Ponders abstract issues like justice or equality
No clear cut end to adolescence in society
Developmental Psychology
Adolescent Development
Physical development
Puberty becomes production of sex hormones
Primary sex characteristics appear
Females – menarche: menstruation, ovulation
Secondary sex characteristics appear
Females – breasts, pubic hair, wider hips
Males – testes and penis growth, facial and pubic hair, broadened shoulders
Developmental Psychology
Adolescence
Adolescent egocentrism
Imaginary audience – everyone is watching
Personal fable – belief that s/he is unique
Hypocrisy – okay for one to do it but not another
Pseudostupidity – use of oversimplified logic
Social development
Time of drifting or breaking away from family
Developmental Psychology
Adolescence
Emotional development
G. Stanley Hall – time of storm and stress
Most adolescents are happy, well-adjusted
Areas of problems
Parent-child conflicts
Mood changes - self-conscious, awkward, lonely, ignored
Risky behavior - aggression, unprotected sex, suicide, use of substances or
alcohol
Developmental Psychology
Adulthood
Young adulthood through older adulthood
Developmental changes continue throughout adulthood: not a
single phase of life
Taking on adult responsibilities in work and social relationships
Challenges: love, work, play continue changing
Developmental Psychology
Adulthood
Physical development
Growth and strength in early adulthood, then slow process of
decline afterwards
Speed and endurance
Vision and ability to see in weak lighting
Hearing and detection of tones
Taste – intact until later in life; men tend to lose hearing and taste earlier
than women
Decline affected by health and lifestyles
Developmental Psychology
Adulthood
Cognitive development
Continues throughout adulthood; some abilities improve while
others decline
Overall, individual rates vary depending on lifestyle and health
Developmental Psychology
Adulthood
Emotional and social development
Many aspects of personality are fairly stable over time, and
changes are predictable
On average, adults become
less anxious and emotional, socially outgoing, and creative
People become more dependable, agreeable, and accepting of life’s
hardships
Gender differences lessen over time
Developmental Psychology
Adulthood
Emotional and social development
Much disagreement about when and how changes occur
during aging – differences between stages of infant/child
development and adult development
Not all adults go through every stage
Order of stages can vary for individuals
Timing of stages not controlled by biological maturation
Developmental Psychology
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=QX_oy9614HQ
Kids marshmallow experiment
-What is it about?
Cognitive Development
Jean Piaget (1896-1980)
Swiss psychologist
Cognitive development
Made almost all of his observations on his own 3 children–
not very good science–profound impact on ideas about child
development and education
Epistemology – study of knowing – How do we know?
Developmental Psychology
Birth to 2 yrs
Sensorimotor Uses senses and motor skills, items known by use; Object permanence
2 - 7 yrs Pre-operational Symbolic thinking, language used; egocentric thinking, imagination/ experience grow, child de-centers
7 - 11 yrs Concrete operational
Logic applied, objective/rational interpretations; conservation, numbers, ideas, classifications
11 yrs on Formal operational
Thinks abstractly, hypothetical ideas; ethics, politics, social/moral issues explored
Piaget’s cognitive development theory
Sensorimotor stage
Substage 1: Birth-1 month
Rigid, stereotyped
reflexive actions
Reflexive imitations
No object concept
Substage 2: 1-4 months
Primary circular reactions
actions and responses both
involve infants own body
(e.g., sucking thumb,
laughing)
Exploration of body
Perceptual integration
Eye-hand coordination
Pseudoimitation
No object concept
Substage 3: 4-8 months Secondary circular reactions
actions that elicit responses from others (e.g,. cooing may elicitsmiling from another, and more cooing)
Creep, crawl, climb to explore
True imitation of actions baby already performs
First glimmerings of object concept
Recognition memory helpsestablish: Object permanence Social attachment
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ue8y-JVhjS0
Substage 4: 8-12 months Communication by gesture
and speech
Stereotyped actions applied to new objects
Observational learningthrough immediateimitation of simple actions
Intentionality shown by:
Removal of obstacles to obtain goals
Use of instruments as tools
Substage 5: 12-18 months Tertiary circular reactions
actions that lead to pleasing results lead infant to perform similar actions (squeeze a duck get a response, now step on it)
Perhaps some deferred imitation of very simple, single actions
Solution of problems through overt trial and error
Searches for toy in last hiding place, but only if sees researchermove it
Uses tools in novel ways
Preoperational Stage
2-7 years
child can now represent objects not present and can think about
actions that are not being performed – called
RepresentationalThinking
Deferred imitation
imitate behavior long after it was seen (can be observed at the
end of sensorimotor period after object permanence develops)
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=NbXHyIlsG0M&feature=
related
Preoperational Stage
Failure of conservation
liquid quantity
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=YtLEWVu815o
number (checkers)
mass (clay)
These occur because the child cannot think of both
dimensions at the same time and trade one off against the
other
Appearance-reality distinctions
2-3-year-olds do not easily discriminate what things look like
from what things are
Problem is dual nature of object and conflicting information
Occurs in many cultures
Resists simple training
Emerging Theory of Mind
3-5-year-olds distinguish real from imagined objects
False beliefs
Requires differentiation of self from others; mental vs.
physical world
Concrete Operations Stage
7-11 years
child is able to manipulate 2 variables at the same time so has
developed schemas necessary for conservation – the child can
mentally coordinate the two states of the liquid in the glass
for example
Concrete Operations Stage
Classification
concrete operational child can classify objects into hierarchies
and, unlike the preoperational child, can think about addition of
classes – sort 8 poodles, 3 cats, and 2 collies – If asked “are
there more dogs or poodles?” the preoperational child will say
poodles, concrete operational child will say dogs
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3F1O4BGgW64
Concrete child cannot think hypothetically or carry out
systematic hypothesis testing. On a fulcrum problem, for
example, concrete operations child can add or subtract
weights OR if weights are unequal in distance, can move one
closer or farther but can not do both to achieve balance
Formal operations child can do this – marked by systematic
hypothesis testing of several variables
Self
Self is a set of properties and processes, each of which can be
defined
Properties are complex
Self operated within the social world
The Dionnes - http://www.quintland.com
The McCaugheys –
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/McCaughey_septuplets
The Olsens
The Gosselins - http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jon_%26_Kate_Plus_8
Identity
Sense of individuality
Sense of wholeness
Sense of personal stability
Combining own experiences in time
(past, present and perspective of the self)
Sense of belonging to ideals and values
J.E. Marcia (1966) Crisis
Doubts about goals and values set by parents
Active search, trial and deciding about commitments of identity
Commitment
Selection of personal goals and values
Commitment means reaching of stable values and ideals in different aspects of life
J.E. Marcia (1966)
1. Diffussion
Crisis and commitment are absent
Individual did not start to develop his identity
2. Foreclosure
Crisis is absent, Commitment present
Individual accepted value system, which was offered to him
Commitment to identity was formed without crisis or search
J.E. Marcia (1966)
3. Moratorium
Crisis present, Commitment absent
Individual is in process of searching alternatives but did not
reach final commitment
4. Achievement
Present both Crisis and Commitment
Individual has reached his own stable system of commitments
after a process of search and identity crisis.
Development Across the Life Span
Erikson’s Psychosocial Theory
Focuses on the individual’s developing relationships with
others in social world
Eight stages - development continues over life span
Crisis at each stage of development
Developmental Psychology
Developmental Psychology
Autonomy vs. Shame/doubt
Initiative vs. Guilt
Industry vs. Inferiority
Identity vs. Role confusion
Intimacy vs. Isolation
Generativity vs. Stagnation
Integrity vs. Despair
Trust vs. Mistrust
Erikson’s
psychosocial
theory
Psycho-social development
E.H. Erikson (1963)
Development of the psycho-social personality
It relates to cultural and historical conditions of an individual
then biological
Psycho-social conflict
8 stages
1. Trust vs. mistrust
1 year old
Passivity and resignation x activity and self-presentation in
the world
Infants learn to trust that their needs will be met by the
world, especially the mother. If not, mistrust will develop.
When and how the infants needs are met determines
whether the infant decides the world is a good and satisfying
place to live or source of pain, frustration and uncertainty.
2. Autonomy vs. shame
1 – 3 years
The will to do something
Children learn to exercise will, to make choices, to control
themselves, if not, they become uncertain and doubt that
they can do things by themselves.
Development of self-awareness and independence
Must be met with patience and good humour, if met with
ridicule and impatience the child will develop feelings of
shame and doubt.
3. Initiative vs. guilt
3 – 6 years
Sense of purpose in life
Children learn to initiate activities and enjoy their
accomplishments, acquiring direction and purpose, if they
are not allowed initiative, they feel guilty for their attempts
at independence.
Major conflict is between childs desire to initiate activities
and the guilt that comes from unwanted or unexpected
consequences.
4. Industry vs. inferiority
6 – 11 years
Sense of competence
Children develop a sense of industry and curiosity and are
eager to learn, if not, they feel inferior and lose interest in
the tasks before them.
The children develop a sense of industry or competency as
they begin to practice skills they will use in the future. How
the external world reacts to childs successes and failures
determines whether the child develops feelings of
competency or feelings of insecurity.
5. Identity vs. role of confusion 11 – 18 years
Sense of fidelity to themselves
Adolescents come to see themselves as unique and integratedpersons with an ideology if not they become confused aboutwhat they want out of life.
During identity crisis adolescents attempt to discover whothey are, what their skills are, and what kinds of roles theyare best suited to play for the rest of their lives. Failure to resolve identity crisis lead to a lack of stable identity, delinquency or difficulty in maintaining close personalrelationships in later life.
6. Intimacy vs. isolation
Early adulthood
Meaningful social relationships
To love
Young people become able to commit themselves to another
person, if not, they develop a sense of isolation and feel they
have no one in the world but themselves.
If we are to have close, loving relationships with others, we
must first learn who we are and how to be independent.
7. Generativity vs. stagnation
Middle adulthood
What is my contribution to this world
Adults are willing to have and care for children, to devote
themselves to their work and the common good, it not they
necome self-centered and inactive.
The individual expands the love and concern beyond the
immedeate family group to include all of society. If not, the
individual becomes concerned only with material
possessions.
8. Integrity vs. despair
Old age
The wisdom of old age
Older people enter a period of reflection, becoming assured
that their lives have been meaningful, and they grow ready to
face death with acceptance and dignity. If not, they despair
for their unacomplished goals, failures and ill-spent lives.
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