8/12/2019 Lectures 7, 8
1/27
Lectures 7, 8: Word Classes
5.1 Open and closed classes
Word classes such as noun, verb, adjective, etc., are traditionally called parts of speech. There is not a fixed
number of ord classes. We can set up as many classes and subclasses as e need for our analysis. The moredetailed our analysis, the more classes and subclasses e need.
Word classes can be divided into open classes and closed classes. !pen classes are readily open to neords" closed classes are limited classes that rarely admit ne ords. #or example, it is easy to create nenouns, but not ne pronouns. Listed belo, ith examples, are the classes that ill be examined further on.
Open classesnoun Paul, paper, speech, play adjective young, cheerful, dark, round
main verb talk, become, like, play
adverb carefully, firmly, confidentially
Closed classes
pronoun she, somebody, one, who, that
determiner a, the, that, each, someauxiliary $verb% can, may, will, have, be, do
conjunction and, that, in order that, if, though
preposition of, at, to, in spite of
There are also some more minor classes, such as the numerals $one, twenty-three,first% and the interjections
$oh, ah, ouch%. &nd there are some ords that do not fit anyhere and should be treated individually, such as
the ne'ative not and the infinitive mar(er to $as in to say%. The conjunction in order that and the prepositionin spite of are complex ords even thou'h each is ritten as three separate ords.
5.2 Word classes and word uses)n *.+ some ords are listed in more than one class. #or instance, play is both a noun and a verb" that is a
pronoun, a determiner, and a conjunction. any more examples could be 'iven of multiple membership of
ord classes. We can identify the class of some ords by their form, but very often e can tell the class of a
ord only from its use in a con-text.
Reply is a noun in:
+/ ) expect a replybefore the end of the month.)t is a verb in:
0/ 1ou should replybefore the end of the month.
)t is particularly easy to convert nouns to verbs and to convert verbs to nouns. Reply in +/ and 0/ representsto different ords that share the same form. They are to different ords, thou'h related in meanin'" they
are entered as separate ords in dictionaries $2lexicons3%.
)f ords happen to share the same form and are not related in meanin' at all, they are homonyms" examples
arepeer $2person belon'in' to the same 'roup in a'e and status3% and peer $2loo( searchin'ly3%, or peep
$2ma(e a feeble shrill sound3% andpeep $2loo( cautiously3%. We can ma(e further distinctions if e ish to
emphasi4e identity in pronunciation or identity in spellin'. )f homonyms share the same sound but perhapsdiffer in spellin', they are homophones;examples are weigh and way or none and nun. !n the other hand, if
they share the same spellin' but perhaps differ in pronunciation, they are homographs;examples are row
$2line of objects3% and row $25uarrel3%.
& ord may have more than one 'rammatical form. The noun play has the sin'ular play and the plural
plays; the verb play has the base form play and the past played. )t is common to use word for the
8/12/2019 Lectures 7, 8
2/27
'rammatical form, so e can say that the past of the ord see issaw and e can also say that the ordsaw
is spelled ith a final w.
6ometimes there is neutralization in form: rather than havin' the distinctions found in most ords, some
ords have only one neutral form. #or example, the verb cut represents at least three 'rammatical ords:
present tense ) alays cut my stea( ith this (ind of (nife.
past tense ) cut my fin'er earlier today.
past participle ) have cut my fin'er.The examples of ord classes in *.+ are 2lexical3 ords $listed as main entries in dictionaries%, but theyinclude any associated 'rammatical forms.
We reco'ni4e the class of a ord by its use in context. 6ome ords have suffixes $endin's added to ords toform ne ords% that help to si'nal the class they belon' to. These suffixes are not necessarily sufficient.
#or example, -ly is a typical suffix for adverbs $slowly,proudly%, but e also find this suffix in adjectives:
cowardly, homely, manly. &nd e can sometimes convert ords from one class to another even thou'h theyhave suffixes that are typical of their ori'inal class: an engineer, to engineer" a hopeful candidate, a hopeful.
5.3. NOUN
Noun su!!i"es& noun is a ord that can be the only or main ord in a noun phrase. We cannot identify all
nouns merely by their form, but certain suffixes can be added to verbs or adjectives to ma(e nouns. ere are
a fe typical noun suffixes ith ords that exemplify them:
-tion $and variants% education, relation, invasion, revision-er, -or camper, speaker, actor, supervisor
-ism optimism, socialism, terrorism
-ity mentality, normality, reality, sanity-ment environment, equipment, government
-ness happiness, compactness, darkness
6ome suffixes ere part of the ords hen they ere borroed from other lan'ua'es: doctor, eternity,courage.
5.# Noun classes
ouns are commonor proper. 9roper nouns are the names of specific people, places, or occasions, and theyusually be'in ith a capital letter: Shakespeare, hicago, !anuary, hristmas, Ramadan.ames may consist
of more than one ord: "he #ague, "he $ew %ork "imes, #eathrow &irport, Captain &ndrews, 'ount
(verest.9roper nouns are sometimes converted into common nouns: the "hompsons) know" the proper nounThompson cannot ordinarily be made plural, but here the "hompsonsmeans 2the people in the family ith
the name Thompson3.
Common nouns are nouns that are not names, such as capitalin:
The capitalof the etherlands is The a'ue.
Common nouns can be subclassified in to ays:+. type of referent: concrete or abstract
0. 'rammatical form: count or non-count
Concretenouns refer to people, places, or thin's: girl, kitchen, car.
$%stractnouns refer to 5ualities, states, or actions: humour, belief, honesty.
6ome nouns may be either concrete or abstract, dependin' on their meanin':
Concrete Thomas can (ic( afootball* yards.
$%stract Thomas often playsfootballon 6aturdays.
8/12/2019 Lectures 7, 8
3/27
Countnouns refer to entities that are vieed as countable. Count nouns therefore have both a sin'ular and a
plural form and they can be accompanied by determiners that refer to distinctions in number:a*one; everystudent
ten*many; thosestudents
Non&countnouns refer to entities that are vieed as an indivisible mass that cannot be counted" for example,
information, furniture,software. on-count nouns are treated as sin'ular and can be accompanied only by
determiners that do not refer to distinctions in number: much*your*thatinformation.
There is a 'eneral tendency for abstract nouns to be non-count.
8/12/2019 Lectures 7, 8
4/27
With some nouns, both re'ular plurals in ?s and ?vesplurals are possible:
scarf + scarfs* scarves
hoof + hoofs* hooves
Nouns ending ino have the plural forms if the noun ends in 'owel (o:
radio + radios, or in nouns of forei'n ori'in:
kilo + kilos, photo + photos
oever, if the sin'ular noun ends in consonant (o, the plural is+es:
hero + heroes, potato + potatoes, tomato + tomatoes$%%re'iations ta(e the re'ular+splural endin':Ps, s, s.
& fe irre'ular plurals reflect older An'lish forms:
man? menmouse? mice
woman? women
louse? lice
foot? feetbrother? brethren $in special
senses%
goose? geese
child? childrentooth? teeth
o ? oen
*.*.+. )n some of the nouns in the list above $goose + geese man + men mouse + mice etc/, there is a chan'e
of voel sound and spellin' $2mutation plurals3% ithout an endin', hich distin'uishes the sin'ular form
from the plural one:
5.5.2. ,ero plural & 6ome nouns have the same form in the sin'ular and in the plural. They fall into three
main cate'ories: names of animals, 5uantifyin' nouns and nationality names.a% ouns namin' animals.Sheep, deer, andcod thou'h countable have the same form for the sin'ular and
the plural. These nouns ta(e a verb either in the sin'ular or in the plural:
"his sheep has 0ust had a lamb."hese sheep have 0ust had lambs.
!ther animals, birds and fishes can have 4ero plurals, especially hen vieed as prey:
"hey shot two reindeer, though this is strictly forbidden.
"he woodcock/ pheasant/ herring/ trout/ salmon/ fish are not very plentiful this year.
When these animals are not seen as a prey, they have the re'ular ?s plural:&ren1t those pheasants beautiful2
b% ouns of 5uantity. There is a stron' tendency for units of number, len'th, value and ei'ht to have a 4ero
plural hen premodified by another 5uantitative ord:
three do3en * hundred peoplemany thousand * million insects
eight ton of coal
ten head * yoke of oen
three pound/stone of potatoesoever, hen not preceded by numerals, these nouns have normal plural forms:
Dozens 4and dozens/ of people crowded into the room.Thousands of people had lived in the flooded area.
c% ationality names endin' in ?ese4Portuguese, hinese, !apanese/ also have 4ero plurals:
"he Chinese are friendly, honest, and terribly proud of their country.
5.5.3. -oreign plurals & umerous nouns adopted from forei'n lan'ua'es, especially Latin, and Bree(,
retain the forei'n inflection for plural. )n some cases, there are to plurals: an An'lish re'ular form used ineveryday lan'ua'e and the forei'n plural preferred in technical discourse:
a% ouns in+us ; s; ith plurali ;ai;:
8/12/2019 Lectures 7, 8
5/27
bacillus - bacilli
stimulus - stimulib% ouns inus ; s; ith plurala ; ; $only in technical use%:
corpus - corpora
genus - generac% ouns ina ; ; ith pluralae ;i:; or ;ai;:
regular plural !oreign plural
formula - formulas formulaevertebra - vertebras vertebraed% ouns inum ;m; ith plurala ;: ;:
curriculum - curricula
stratum - stratae% ouns inex, -ix ith pluralices ;isi:4;:
inde - indices
matri - matricesf% ouns inis ;is; ith plurales ;i:4;:
analysis - analyses
ais - aes
basis - bases
crisis - crises
hypothesis - hypotheses
parenthesis - parentheses
thesis - theses
'% ouns inon ; n; ith plurala ;;:
criterion - criteria
phenomenon - phenomena
6ome nouns from #rench sometimes retain a #rench plural in ritin', ith the #rench 4ero endin' in speech
or, more usually, a re'ular An'lish plural:
regular plural !oreign plural
bureau - bureaus *-5 u3 * bureau *-5 u*
plateau + plateaus plateau
Compound nouns form the plural in different ays:a% plural in the first element:
attorney general attorneysgeneral
notary public notariespublic
passer-by passers-by
mother-in-law mothers-in-law
grant-in-aid grants-in-aid
b% plural in both first and last element:
gentleman farmer gentlemenfarmers
manservant menservants
woman doctor women doctorsc% plural in the last element:
grown-up grown-ups
stand-by stand-bys
forget-me-not forget-me-nots
sit-in sit-ins
5. /ender
Delatively fe nouns are distin'uished in 'ender, but there are some male nouns and female nouns" forexample:
8/12/2019 Lectures 7, 8
6/27
father? mother
widower? widowboy? girl
bridegroom? bride
host? hostessbull? cow
hero? heroine
lion? lioness
)n compound nouns either the first constituent or the second one is lexically mar(ed for the masculine ?feminine distinction:
a% the first constituent
male nurse 4female/ nurse4male/ student 4female/ student
boy-friend girl-friend
!ack ass !enny ass
he-goat she-goat
cock sparrow hen sparrow
tom cat tabby cat
#e was in the police you know, and he was a male nurse.
"hey ordered the drinks from a female bartender.
"hese were female prisoners convicted of violent crimes.
!udy told a story about a 6ritish female reporter.b% the second constituent:
chairman chairwoman
spokesman spokeswoman
businessman businesswoman
congressman congresswoman
& spokeswomanfor the company announced the decision.
& State epartment spokesman eplained the situation.
Compounds endin' in -person$s% and -people are sometimes used to express reference to both males and
females and to avoid sex-bias associated ith the use of the correspondin' masculine forms:
'rs. 'oon, their Chairperson, was interviewed yesterday.7e have a vacancy for an eperienced salesperson.
!ane was the spokespersonfor the delegation.
5..1. 0orphological e"pression o! gender
& fe An'lish nouns have 'ender-specific derivational suffixes. ost of the personal nouns refer topositions and jobs. )n most cases the feminine noun is derived from the masculine one:
masculine & !eminine
actor 8 actressgod 8 goddess
governor 8 governess
hero 8 heroine
mayor 8 mayoressmister 8 mistress
waiter8 waitress
The arro E shos the direction of derivation $from the masculine to the feminine%. evertheless, there are
a fe exceptions to this rule:
masculine & !eminine
widower 9: widow
bride 9: bridegroom
ual gender nouns
8/12/2019 Lectures 7, 8
7/27
Within personal nouns, there are several nouns in An'lish here the distinction male;female is neutrali4ed,
the same noun namin' both. 6ome 'rammarians call them dual gender nouns:0ournalist, friend, teacher, child, baby, pupil, doctor, student, etc.
fo, deer, sheep, pig, horse, fowl, etc.
When referrin' to nouns of dual 'ender and pronouns such as anybody or nobody, special problems arise,hoever, here the sex of the referent is unidentified or irrelevant. Traditionally, masculine pronouns have
been used:
"he individual can deal directly with his employer if he chooses so.o!ody in his right mind punishes a quarter-century-old dereliction.
oadays, a plural form pronoun is preferred as a ay of purposely not specifyin' the sex of the person
referred to $althou'h the expressions he or she, him or her may also be used%:$obody came, did they2
(veryone thinks they are in the centre of the universe.
nce you have let any!ody in they
8/12/2019 Lectures 7, 8
8/27
=ut the independent 'enitive is also used to refer to places:The party is at &lan1s toni'ht.
6he3s 'one to the hairdresser1s .
#inally, the independent 'enitive may combine ith the of -structure:
a friend of 'artha1s
a su''estion of $orman1s
The independent 'enitive in the of-structure differs from the normal 'enitive in its meanin': 'artha1s
friendmeans 2the friend that artha has3 $the spea(er assumes that the hearer (nos the identity of the
friend%, hereas a friend of 'artha1smeans 2one of the friends that artha has3.
The 'enitive is mainly used to express possession. That is hy it is sometimes called the 2possessive3 case.
oever, besides shoin' possession the 'enitive has other meanin's related to some basic sentencestructure:
/eniti'es $nalogues
a% possessi'e geniti'e
'ary1s passport Fary ons a passport.G
the car1s wheel FThe car has a heel.G
b% su%4ecti'e geniti'e
the parents1 consent FThe parents consented.Gc% geniti'e o! originthe girl1s story FThe 'irl told ; rote a story.G
(ngland1s cheeses Fthe cheeses produced in An'land.Gd% o%4ecti'e geniti'ethe family1s support Fsomebody supports the familyG
the boy1s release Fsomebody released the boyGe% descripti'e geniti'ea women1s college Fa colle'e for omenG
a doctor1s degree Fa doctoral de'ree ; a doctorateG
5..1. Choice o! the s geniti'e
The choice of the 3s-'enitive depends on the 'ender of the noun in the 'enitive case. Benerally spea(in', the
3s 'enitive is favored by the animate nouns, that is persons and animals ith personal 'ender characteristic.The folloin' four animate noun classes ta(e the 3s 'enitive, but the of-'enitive is also possible in most
cases:
personal names =eorge 7ashington1s statue
personal nouns the boy1s new shirt
collecti'e nouns the government1s decision
higher animals the horse1s neck
The 3s 'enitive is also used ith certain (inds of inanimate nouns:
a% 'eo'raphical names:
continents> Aurope3s future
countries> 6pain3s immi'rants
cities6towns> ?ondon1s water supply
uni'ersities> arvard3s Lin'uistics department
b% 2locative nouns3 denote re'ions, institutions, etc., can be very similar to 'eo'raphical names and are often
ritten ith initial capital letter:
8/12/2019 Lectures 7, 8
9/27
the world1s economic organi3ation
the hurch1s missionthe country1s population
c% temporal nouns:the decade1s events this year1s sales
a day1s work a week1s holiday
d% nouns of 2special interest to human activity3the body1s needs the car1s performance
The of-'enitive is chiefly used ith nouns denotin' loer animals and ith inanimate nouns. )nanimatenouns re'ularly ta(e of 'enitive, but many inanimate nouns occur ith the 3s 'enitive. The folloin' nouns,
for example, ill e5ually ell admit both 'enitive constructions:
the car1s engine the engine of the carthe book1s title the title of the book
the town1s population the population of the town
5.7. 0$8N 9:. &ingparticiple: laughing, hearing, cutting, speaking
H. past!orm: laughed, heard, cut, spoke*. &edparticiple: laughed, heard, cut, spoken
The hi'hly irre'ular verb behas ei'ht forms.
5.11 Classes o! irregular 'er%s
There are over 0* irre'ular verbs in An'lish. &part from the verb be , the -s form and the -ing participle
can be predicted for all verbs from the base form. We therefore need list only three forms to shoirre'ularities: the base, past, and -ed participle. These three forms are (non as the principal parts of the
verb. )f e leave aside the verb be , e can 'roup the irre'ular verbs into seven classes accordin' to
hether or not three features apply to their principal parts:
8/12/2019 Lectures 7, 8
10/27
$a% the past and -ed participles are identical"
$b% the base voel is the same in the other to principal parts"$c% the past and -ed participle have inflectional endin's. )f an irre'ular verb has inflectional endin's, these
may be irre'ular" for example, kept from keep or spoken from speak .
Class 8
bend bent bent
earn earnt earntbuild built built
learn learnt learnt
have had hadsmell smelt smelt
make made made
spoil spoilt spoilt
Those in the second column also have re'ular variants: earn , earned , earned .
Class 88mow mowed mown
shear sheared shorn
show showed shown
swell swelled swollen
The past is formed re'ularly, but the participle has an -n inflection. Those in the second column have a
different voel in the participle. &ll the verbs have re'ular variants for the participle: mow , mowed ,
mowed .
Class 888
buy bought boughtdream dreamt dreamt
hear heard heard
kneel knelt kneltlose lost lost
lean leant leant
say said saidleap leapt leapt
Those in the second column also have re'ular variants: dream , dreamed , dreamed .
Class 89
blow blew blownsee saw seen
break broke broken
take took takenhide hid hidden
tear tore torn
lie lay lainwrite wrote written
The participle has an inflection, but not the past. )n some verbs $e.' . blow% the participle has the same voel
as the base" in some $ e.g.break % the past and participle have the same voel" in some $ e.g. write % all thevoels are different. The verb beat has the same voel in all parts $ beat , beat , beaten %, but it may
be included in this class rather than in class )) because it is not inflected in the past.
Class 9
burst
hit
hurt
let
fit
rid
sweat
wet
&ll three principal parts are identical. Those in the second column also have re'ular variants: fit , fitted ,
fitted , as ell as fit , fit , fit .
Class 98
bleed bled bled
get got gotdig dug dug
hold held held
find found foundstrike struck struck
fight fought fought
win won won
The past and participle are identical, but there is a chan'e from the base voel and there are no inflections. &fe verbs in this class have re'ular variants: light , lighted , lighted , as ell as light , lit , lit .
Class 988
8/12/2019 Lectures 7, 8
11/27
begin began begun
come came come
sing sang sung
run ran run
Those in the second column have the same form for the base and the participle. 6ome verbs also havevariants in hich the past and participle are identical: sing , sung , sung , as ell as sing , sang ,
sung .
5.12. $>:C?89:
$d4ecti'e su!!i"es
&n ad4ecti'eis a ord that can be the only or main ord in an adjective phrase. & lar'e number of suffixes
are added to nouns and verbs to ma(e adjectives. ere are the most common suffixes and ords thatexemplify them:
-able, -ible disposable, suitable, fashionable, audible
-al, -ial normal, cynical, racial, editorial-ed wooded, boarded, wretched, crooked
-ful hopeful, playful, careful, forgetful
-ic romantic, atmospheric, heroic, atomic
-ical historical, political, paradoical, economical
-ish amateurish, darkish, foolish, childish
-ive, -ative defective, communicative, attractive, affirmative
-less tactless, hopeless, harmless, restless-ous, -eous, -ious famous, virtuous, erroneous, spacious
-y tasty, handy, wealthy, windy
The suffix -ed is often used to form adjectives from noun phrases: blue-eyed , long-haired , good-
natured , open-minded .
Li(e nouns and verbs, many adjectives have no suffixes: sad , young , happy , true . 6ome suffixes ere
part of the ords hen they ere borroed into An'lish: sensitive , virtuous .
5.13 $d4ecti'e classesWe can divide adjectives into three classes accordin' to their function. Ised alone orith one or more modifiers, an adjective can be:
+. pre-modifier of a noun
0. subject complement>. object complement
&djectives are attri%uti'e$attributin' a 5uality to hat is denoted by a noun% hen they are bein' used aspre-modifiers. They are predicati'e$part of the predicate% hen they are bein' used as complements.
Central ad4ecti'escan be used in all three functions:+. )t as a comfortable ride. attri%uti'e
0. The ride as comfortable . predicati'e
>. ) made the bed comfortable . predicati'e
!ther examples of central adjectives include: clever , brave , calm , hungry , noisy .
6ome adjectives are attributive only:
That is utter nonsense.1ou are the very person ) as loo(in' for.
!ther examples include: chief , main , sheer .
8/12/2019 Lectures 7, 8
12/27
8/12/2019 Lectures 7, 8
13/27
a%solute comparati'e superlati'e
in!lection polite politer politest
pre&modi!ier polite more polite most polite
6ome very common adjectives have irre'ular inflections:
a%solute comparati'e superlati'e
good better best
bad worse worstfar farther*further farthest*furthest
Words of one syllable 'enerally ta(e inflections: older, oldest, purer, purest.
any ords of to syllables can usually ta(e either form: politer , politest or more polite , most
polite , noisier , noisiest or more noisy , most noisy .
Words ith more than to syllables ta(e the pre-modifiers: more important, most important " more
epensive , most epensive .
5.15 $9:
8/12/2019 Lectures 7, 8
14/27
0. possessive pronouns my , mine, your, yours
>. reflexive pronouns myself, yourselfH. demonstrative pronouns this, these, that, those
*. reciprocal pronouns each other, one another
J. interro'ative pronouns who, what, which7. relative pronouns which , who, that
8. indefinite pronouns some, none
The first three classes are related in that they ma(e distinctions in person $first, second, third%, 'ender$masculine, feminine, and non-personal%, and number $sin'ular and plural%. ost of them also share at least
some resemblance in their sound and in their appearance $you, yours, yourself%.
9ronouns 'enerally substitute for a noun phrase:
) went around the hospital with r "homas. "ewas highly intelligent, austere, and warm all at the same
time."ecould perceive almost instantaneously whether a problem was a serious oneor not.
The to instances of herefer bac( to an antecedent, in this instancer "homas.
The pronouns are used to avoid repeatin' the noun phrase r "homas. ne, hoever, replaces the noun head
problem$and therefore is literally a pronoun rather than a substitute for a noun phrase%.
ere is another example of pronoun substitution:
& property development company has been found guilty of racial discrimination because it attempted to
prevent blacks from buying its homes.
)n this case, the pronoun itreplaces a noun phrase that is not identical ith the antecedent noun phrase &
property development company. )f e did not substitute it, e ould have to rite the property developmentcompany$ith the definite article the% or $more economically% the company.
The pronoun occasionally comes before its antecedent:
7hen shemoved into her own at, #elen seemed much more relaed.
)f e assume that the pronounsheand#elenrefer to the same person,sheand the possessive determiner her
both refer forard to#elen.
9ronouns can also refer directly to somethin' that is present in the situation:
?ook at that@)1ll pick itup.
*.+8 @ersonal pronouns&ll the personal pronouns have distinctions in person $first, second, third%. ost also have distinctions in
number $sin'ular, plural% and in case $subjective, objective, 'enitive%.
su%4ecti'e case o%4ecti'e case
!irst person singular ) me
plural e us
second person singular6plural you you
third person singular + masculine he him
? !eminine she her
? non&personal it it
8/12/2019 Lectures 7, 8
15/27
plural they them
The subjective case applies hen the pronouns are the subject of a finite clause:
# know that shelives in oventry and that helives in 6irmingham.
)n all other instances except the one that ) am about to mention, the objective case is used:
She knows mewell.
#e has told herabout me.%ou must go with him.
The exception is that the subjective case is also used for the subject complement. )n these examples the
complement follos the lin(in' verb be:"his is he.
)t was#who issued the order.
)n non-formal style, hoever, the objective case is common here too:)t1s him.
The masculine and feminine 'enders apply to human bein's and also to other bein's that are treated aspersons, such as pets or perhaps some farm animals. The distinction beteen the to 'enders is made on the
basis of natural distinctions in sex. 6ome other objects $such as ships or cars% or even personified
abstractions $such as
8/12/2019 Lectures 7, 8
16/27
? non&personal its
? plural their theirs
5.2= e!le"i'e pronouns
The reflexive pronouns parallel the personal and possessive pronouns in person and number, but have nodistinctions in case. There are separate forms for the second person sin'ular $yourself% and plural
$yourselves%, hereas there is only one form of the second person for the personal pronoun $you% and the
possessive pronoun $yours%.!irstpersonsin'ular myself
plural ourselves
secondperson
sin'ular yourself
plural yourselves
third person
sin'ular ? masculine himself- feminine herself
- non-personal itself
plural themselves
The reflexive pronouns have to main uses:
+. They refer to the same person or thin' as the subject does:
"hey behaved themselvesfor a change.%ou1ll hurtyourself.
0. They 'ive emphasis to a noun phrase:She herselfspoke to me.
#e wrote to me himself.
) appealed to the captain himself.
5.21 emonstrati'e pronouns
There are four demonstrative pronouns:
singular this that
plural these those
Thisis for you.Thatdoesn1t make sense.
Theseare tasty.
%ou may take those.
The demonstratives may also be determiners:Thisletter is for you.Thatsign doesn1t make sense.Thesebiscuits are tasty.
%ou may take thoseboes.
5.22 eciprocal pronouns
There are to reciprocal pronouns, and they have 'enitives:
each other one another
8/12/2019 Lectures 7, 8
17/27
each other3s one another3s
"he partners trusted each othercompletely.
'y brother and ) borrow one another$sclothes.
5.23 8nterrogati'e pronouns
!ne set of the interro'ative pronouns has distinctions in 'ender and case:
su%4ecti'e case o%4ecti'e case geniti'e casepersonal ho hom hose
)t is normal to use whofor both the subjective and objective cases, and to reserve whomfor formal style. The
other interro'ative pronouns, which and what, have only one form. 7hich, what, and whosemay also bedeterminers.
7e use who and whom when we refer to persons>%hois your favourite pop singer2
%ho$or whom/ have they appointed2%hoseis that towel2
7hichcan be either personal or non-personal:%hichis your sister2%hich4of the drinks/ do you prefer2
7hatis normally only non-personal:%hatdo you want2
5.2# elati'e pronouns
Delative pronouns introduce relative clauses. They also have distinctions in 'ender and case:
su%4ecti'e case o%4ecti'e case geniti'e case
personal ho hom hose
non&personal hich hich hose
that that
&s ith the interro'ative pronouns, whois the normal form for the subjective and objective cases, hereas
whomis used only in formal style.
The relative pronoun that, hich is 'ender-neutral, may be omitted in certain circumstances. The omitted
pronoun is sometimes called the zero relati'e pronoun.the teacher who4or that/ taught me hemistry
the house which4or thatorzero/ we bought
the person whom4or, less formally, who & that & orzero/ they appointed t
he student to whomyou gave it 4formal/the student who4or that or 3ero/ you gave it to
Benitive whoseis a determiner, li(e hisor her.
There is another set of relative pronouns that introduce nominal relative clauses" these are the nominal
relati'e pronouns. )n addition to who, whom, and which, they include whoever, whomever$in formal style%,whichever, what, and whatever.
%ou may take what/whatever/whicheveryou wish%hat) need is a long holiday.
8/12/2019 Lectures 7, 8
18/27
)1ll speak to whoeveris in charge.
ominal relative pronouns correspond to a combination of a relative pronoun ith a precedin' antecedent:
What ) need . . . $2the thin' that ) need3%
...to hoever is in char'e $2to the person ho is in char'e3%
5.25 8nde!inite pronouns and numerals
)ndefinite pronouns are the lar'est 'roup of pronouns. They refer to the presence $or absence% of a 5uantity.ere are some examples of indefinite pronouns:'anyhave replied to the advertisement and severalhave been interviewed.
%ou take oneand )1ll take theother.oonewas absent today.'orewill be arriving later.
%ou can have !oth.(itherwill do for me."here arefewerhere today.
(very!odywas pleased with the speech.
Thesome-set of indefinite pronouns contrasts ith the any-set:
some any
someone anyone
somebody anybodysomething anything
The any-set is normal in ne'ative contexts. Contrast:She has someclose friends.
She doesn1t have anyclose friends.
Someimplies a 5uantity, thou'h the 5uantity is not specified. &nydoes not imply a specific 5uantity" the
5uantity is ithout limit.
The any-set is also normal in 5uestions unless a positive reply is expected:id anyonecall for me2
id someonecall for me2
To uses of indefinite onedeserve special mention:
+. Beneric onehas the meanin' 2people in 'eneral3:
)f oneis concerned about the increasing deterioration of the environment, onemust be prepared to accept alower standard of living.
0. 6ubstitute oneis used as a substitute for a noun:
&> o you want an ice cream26> )1ll have a small one.
Inli(e most pronouns, onein the response by = substitutes for a noun, not a noun phrase. )t is the main ordin the noun phrase a small one.
any of the indefinite pronouns may be post-modified. !f-phrases are particularly common:some!odyelse
neitherof usseveralin our group
8/12/2019 Lectures 7, 8
19/27
noneof the peoplesomethingquite funnya fewof my friends
umerals may be used as pronouns. ere are to examples of cardinal numerals as pronouns:Twenty-twowere rescued from the sinking ship.
Threeof the children wandered off on their own.
The ordinal numerals $first, second, third, . . .% combine ith the in this function:"hefirstof my children is still at school.
5.2. :?:08N:
Classes o! determiners
. post-determiners
ere is an example ith determiners from each class:all$+% those$0% other$>%people
any ords may be either determiners or pronouns:
pronoun Some have left.
determiner Some people have left.
pronoun ) need more .
determiner ) need more money.
pronoun &ll are forgiven.
determiner &ll faults are forgiven.
pronouns %ou may borrow this.
determiner %ou may borrow this pencil.
5.2 Central determiners
The central determiners fall into several subclasses.
+. definite article the0. indefinite article aor $before a voel sound% an
>. demonstratives this, that , these , those
H. possessives my , our , your , his , her , its , their*. interro'atives what , which , whose
%hatday is it2%hosecoat are you wearing2
J. relatives which , whose , whatever , whichever
... at whichpoint ) interrupted him . . .
... whosestudent ) used to be.
%ou can use it for whateverpurpose you wish.7. indefinites some , any , no , enough , every , each , either , neither
We cannot combine to or more central determiners to introduce the same noun phrase.
5.2 ?he articles and re!erence
We can apply three sets of contrast in the reference of noun phrases:
+. 'eneric and non - 'eneric
8/12/2019 Lectures 7, 8
20/27
0. specific and non - specific
>. definite and non-definite
Beneric;non-'eneric reference oun phrases are 'eneric hen they refer to a class as a hole:Dogsmake good pets.
They are non-'eneric hen they refer to individual members of the class:
6ring in the dogs.
#or 'eneric reference, the distinction beteen sin'ular and plural is neutrali4ed, and so is the distinction
beteen the definite and indefinite articles. )n their 'eneric use, all of the folloin' are rou'hly similar in
meanin':ABC)n )mericanworks hard.
ADC)mericanswork hard.
AEC The )mericanworks hard.AFC The )mericanswork hard.
8/12/2019 Lectures 7, 8
21/27
0. The phrase may refer to somethin' mentioned previously:$ancy introduced me to a young man and his wife at the reception. The young manwas her nephew.
&t the first mention of the young man, the sentence refers to him by the indefinite phrase a youn' man .
>. The information may be identified by modifiers in the noun phrase:
) wonder whether you would mind getting for me the !lue !ook on the top shelf
oun phrases may be definite even thou'h they are not introduced by the definite article. #or example, ina particular situation, personal pronouns $), you, etc.% and names are uni5uely identifiable and so are the
demonstrative pronouns. !ther determiners, such as the demonstrative determiners, may also si'nal that
the noun phrase is definite.
5.27 @re&determiners
There can also be pre-determiners before the central determiners. These include the multipliers $double ,twice , three times , . . .% and the fractions $half , one-third,...%: dou!leher fee
halfa loaf
They also include the ords all , both , such , andwhat:
allthe stations!othour childrensucha 0okewhata good idea
These can also occur ithout a central determiner:allstations
!othchildrensuch0okes
Suchis exceptional in that it can combine ith other pre-determiners $all such0okes% and can come after
a central determiner $no such0okes% and even a post- determiner $many such0okes%.
5.3= @ost&determiners
9ost-determiners can come after the central determiners. They include the cardinal numerals and the
ordinal numerals:the threerooms
ourfirstapartment
They also include many, few, andlittle:
my manygood friends
thefewpossessions that he owned
the littlemoney that ) have
The ordinal and cardinal numerals can co-occur:
thefirsttwoweeks
The post-determiners can occur ithout other determiners:
#e hasfewvices.7e saw twoaccidents on our way here.
5.31 $UA8B8$8:
8/12/2019 Lectures 7, 8
22/27
Classes o! au"iliaries
&uxiliaries come before the main verb in a verb phrase. The primary auxiliaries are be, have, anddo.They are different from each other and from the other auxiliaries. Their uses are:
+. be for $a% the pro'ressive : was playing
$b% the passive : was played
0. have for the perfect : has played
>. do as the dummy operator : did play
The remainin' auxiliaries are the modal au"iliariesor, more simply, the modals. The central modals
are:
present can may ill shall must
past could mi'ht ould should
Li(e other verbs, most of the modals have a tense distinction beteen presentand past$the exception
bein' must%, but the past forms are often used for present or future time:
7e may/mightcome along after dinner.
) can/couldhelp you later.
5.32 0eanings o! the modals
The modals express to main types of meanin':+. human control over events, such as is involved in permission, intention, ability, or obli'ation:
%ou mayleave now.$2) 'ive you permission to . . .3%
) couldspeak =reek when ) was young.$2) (ne ho to . . .3%%ou mustgo to bed at once. $2) re5uire you to . . .3%
0. jud'ment hether an event as, is, or ill be li(ely to happen:"hey maybe away for the weekend. $2)t is possible that they are . . .3%
"hat couldbe your mother.$2)t is possible that it is . . .3%
)t mustbe past midnight.$2)t is certainly the case that it is . . .3%
5.33 Con4unctions
There are to classes of conjunctions:
+. coordinatin' conjunctions , or coordinators0. subordinatin' conjunctions , or subordinators
The central coordinators are and, or, andbut. They are used to lin( units of e5ual status:) en0oy novels andshort stories best of all ) can and will speak@
"he device seals a plastic shopping bag andequips it with a handle.
%ou may pay by cash orcredit card.
#e was apologetic !uthe refused to intervene.
The coordinators may be reinforced by correlative expressions: both ... and ; either ... or ; not only ... but
also >!othSusan andher brother
eithertea orcoffeeot onlywas the speech uninspiring, !utit was also full of illogical statements.
The mar'inal coordinator nor may be reinforced by the correlative neither:
) have neitherseen the movie norread the book.
8/12/2019 Lectures 7, 8
23/27
6ubordinators introduce subordinate clauses:"he negotiations succeeded !ecauseboth sides bargained in good faith.
#fyou like the service, tell the manager.
ere are some common subordinators:
after
beforetillwhere
although
if unlesswhileas
since
untilbecausethat
when
6ome subordinators consist of more than one ord:ecept that andas long as, for example.
6ome ords are both subordinators and prepositions. )f the ord introduces a finite clause, it is a
subordinator" if it introduces a phrase, it is a preposition:
su%ordinator ) saw her after) had my interview.
preposition ) saw her afterthe interview.
5.3# @repositions
@repositions introduce a prepositional phrase, and are folloed by a prepositional complement. The
preposition lin(s the complement to some other expression. )f it lin(s the complement to the rest of thesentence or clause, the prepositional phrase may be placed in any of various positions:
7e had an argument inthe supermarket.
&ll the members of the team, inmy view, contributed equally to the victory.+ythat time ) was feeling sleepy.
)t may also lin( the complement to a phrase:#e became personal assistant tothe managing director of the company.
"he government suppressed all information a!outthe epidemic.
ere are some common prepositions:about
before
durin'over
until
abovebehind
for
pastup
across
belo
fromsince
ith
afterbeside
in
thanithout
a'ainst
beteen
insidethrou'h
amon'$st%
butinto
till
aroundby
off
to
asdespite
on
toard$s%at
don
outunder
any of the ords listed here may also be used as adverbs or conjunctions.
6ome prepositions consist of more than one ord" for example, because of , in spite of , in addition to .
She looks nice to me.
She looks nicely at me.
8/12/2019 Lectures 7, 8
24/27
:A:C8:
Axercise *.+ oun suffixes
Convert the folloin' ords into nouns by addin' noun suffixes and ma(in' any other conse5uentchan'es. 6ome ords may ta(e more than one noun suffix.
+. perform
0. able
>. conceive
H. spea(
*. construct
Axercise *.0 oun classes
Construct to sentences for each of the folloin' nouns. Ise the noun in the $a% sentence as a count
noun and the noun in the $b% sentence as a non-count noun.+. beer
0. beauty
>. sound
H. su'ar
*. paper
Axercise *.> umber
6upply the plural form for each of the sin'ular nouns listed belo.
+. analysis0. thief
>. criterionH. deer
*. stimulus
Axercise *.H . ripe
H. mar'in
Axercise *.7 Classes of irre'ular verbs
Bive the three principal parts for each of these irre'ular verbs.
+. 'ro0. put
>. driveH. send
*. brea(
Axercise *.8 &djective suffixes
Convert the folloin' ords into adjectives by addin' adjective suffixes and ma(in' any conse5uentchan'es. 6ome ords may have more than one adjective suffix.
+. style
0. cycle
>. ish
H. aller'y
*. care
Axercise *.K &djective classes
8/12/2019 Lectures 7, 8
25/27
Construct three sentences for each of the folloin' central adjectives. Ise the adjective in the $a%
sentence as a pre-modifier of a noun, in the $b% sentence as a subject complement, and in the $c% sentenceas an object complement.
+. useful 0. foolish >. difficult
Axercise *.+ Bradability and comparison
Bive the inflected comparative and superlative of each of these adjectives.
+. pure0. cruel >. easyH. narro *. happy
*.+> &dverb suffixes
Convert the folloin' ords into adverbs by addin' - ly or - ically and ma(in' any conse5uent chan'es.+. 'enetic
0. realistic
>. la4y
H. specific
Axercise *.+H 9ronoun classes
Circle the antecedents of the underlined pronouns and possessive determiners.
+. 6cientists have discovered that pets have a therapeutic effect on their oners.0. & do', for instance, can improve the health of the people it comes in contact ith.
>. )n a recent study, the blood pressure of subjects as measured hile they ere pettin' their pets.
H. )n 'eneral, an individual3s blood pressure decreased hile he as in the act of pettin' his pet.
Axercise *.+* 9ersonal pronouns
6pecify the person $first, second, or third%, number $sin'ular or plural%, and case $subjective or objective% of
the underlined personal pronouns. )f the pronoun has a form that neutrali4es the distinction in number orcase, state the alternatives, and if only one of the alternatives fits the context underline that alternative.
+. ost of us don3t have the time to exercise for an hour each day.
0. We have our hearts in the ri'ht place, thou'h.>. ) thin( 2diet3 is a sinister ord.
H. )t sounds li(e deprivation.
*. =ut people ho need to lose ei'ht find that they need to lose only half the ei'ht if they exercise
re'ularly.
Axercise *.+J 9ossessives
)ndicate hether the underlined ords are possessive determiners or possessive pronouns.+. Can you tell me your addressP
0. 1ou3ve made a mista(e. The phone number is not his.
>. This is
8/12/2019 Lectures 7, 8
26/27
>. That is not the ay to do it.
H. 1ou3ll have to mana'e ith these for the time bein'.
Axercise *.+K Delative pronouns
)ndicate hether the underlined clause is a relative clause or a nominal relative clause.+. We could see hoever e anted.
0. They spo(e to the official ho as or(in' on their case.
>. This is the ban( )3m hopin' to borro some money from.H. 1ou can pay hat you thin( is appropriate.
Axercise *.0 9ronouns
)ndicate hether the underlined pronouns are personal, possessive, reflexive, demonstrative, reciprocal,interro'ative, relative, or indefinite.
+. obody has ever seen a unicorn.
0. ) intend to collect beetles.>. What do you ant me to doP
H. e can resist everythin' except temptation.
*. 6he did it all by herself.
Axercise *.0+ )ndefinite pronouns
)ndicate hether the underlined determiners are definite articles, indefinite articles, demonstratives,
possessives, interro'atives, relatives, or indefinites.+. is parents ould not let him see the video.
0. any applicants ere 'iven an intervie.
>. Whose shoes are thosePH. What plans have you made for the ee(endP
Axercise *.00 The articles and reference)ndicate hether the underlined phrases are 'eneric or non-'eneric.
+. There is no such beast as a unicorn.
0. The train is late a'ain.
>. The dinosaur has lon' been extinct.H. Teachers are poorly paid in this country.
*. e came on a small mar(et here omen ere sellin' dried beans.
Axercise *.0> The articles and reference
)ndicate hether the underlined phrases are specific or non-specific.
+. Can you find me a boo( on An'lish 'rammarP0. ere is a boo( on An'lish 'rammar.
>. )3d li(e a straberry ice cream.
H. e says he hasn3t any stamps.*. Who is the oman you ere tal(in' to at lunchP
Axercise *.0H eanin's of the modals
9araphrase the meanin's of the underlined modals in the sentences belo.+. )f you hit volleys li(e this you ill have lots of success.
0. )n addition to the basic volley, you may have to play half-volleys.
>. )f played badly, a half-volley can have drastic conse5uences.H. The 'rip must be firm on impact.
*. <hou'h you can use a to-handed volley, the major disadvanta'e is one of reach.
8/12/2019 Lectures 7, 8
27/27
Axercise *.0* eanin's of the modals
Axplain the ambi'uity of the underlined modals in the folloin' sentences by paraphrasin' the differentmeanin's.
+. They may not smo(e durin' the meal.
0. Could you explain these fi'ures to the tax inspectorP
Axercise *.0J ConjunctionsAxamine the sentences belo. Then explain the differences in the uses of the coordinators $andand or% andthe subordinator hen
+. The election as held last month, and the 'overnment as decisively defeated.
0. The election ill be held in Mune or in Muly.>. ) intend to travel here ) li(e and hen ) li(e.
Axercise *.0J 9repositions)ndicate hether the underlined ords are subordinators or prepositions by puttin' 263 or 293 in the brac(ets
that follo each ord.
While $ % he developed the theory of special relativity in $ % about +K*, &lbert Ainstein lived ith $ % afello student of physics ho became his first ife. 6ome researchers believe that $ % his ife ileva should
'et at least some of the credit for $ % the theory, since $ % there are letters from $ % Ainstein to her that refer to
2our or(3 and 2our theory3.
Axercise *.07 Word classes
&t the end of each sentence you ill find a label for a ord class. Inderline all the ords in the sentence that
belon' to that ord class.+. )t is remar(ably difficult to define hat literature is. ? main verb
0. 6ome definitions of literature say that it is lan'ua'e used for ma(in' fiction. ? noun
>. !ther definitions say that it is lan'ua'e used for the purpose of pleasin' aesthetically. ? prepositionH. oever, some critics have shon convincin'ly that the to definitions are necessarily connected. ?
adverbs
Top Related