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Foundations of Group Behavior
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1. Differentiate between formal and informal groups.
2. Compare two models of group development.
3. Explain how group interaction can be analyzed.
4. Identify the key factors in explaining group behavior.
5. Explain how role requirements change in different situations. L E A
R
N I
N
G
O B
J E C
T I V
E S
AFTER LEARNING THIS TOPIC,
YOU SHOULD BE ABLE TO:
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6. Identify the benefits and disadvantages of cohesive groups.
7. Define social loafing and its effect on group performance.
8. Describe how norms exert influence on an individual’s behavior.
9. List the strengths and weaknesses of group decision making.
10. Contrast the effectiveness of interacting, brainstorming, nominal andelectronic meeting groups.
L E A
R N
I N G
O B
J E C
T I V E
S ( c o n t ’ d )
AFTER LEARNING (CONT’D)
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Defining and Classifying Groups
Group(s)Two or more individuals interacting and
interdependent, who have come together to
achieve particular objectives
Formal Group
A designated work group
defined by theorganization’s structure
Informal Group
A group that is neither formally
structured nor organizationallydetermined; appears in
response to the need for social
contact
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Formal Vs Informal Groups
Formal Groups
Tasked by management
Members have no choice
Usually have rules &
procedures
• Often meet at scheduledtimes
• Often with limited agendas
• Have varied influence with
organization
Informal Groups
When individuals in the
organization meet to develop
relationships
• Fulfill personal needs
• Fulfill unsanctionedorganizational needs
• Fulfill organizational
sanctioned needs
More problems in the
organization, more informalgroups develop
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Classifying Groups
Formal
Command Groups
Task Groups
Interest Groups
Friendship Groups
Informal
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Defining and Classifying Groups (cont’d)
Command Group A group composed of the
individuals who report
directly to a given
manager
Task GroupThose working together to
complete a job or task
Interest Group
Those working together to
attain a specific objective
with which each is
concerned
Friendship Group
Those brought together
because they share one
or more common
characteristics
Command and task groups are dictated by the formal organization.
Interest and friendship groups are informal alliances.
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True or False: All command groups are also
task groups, and all task groups are Command
Groups.
Check-up:
False. The first part is true, but the second part is false.
As a task group may include members from different
levels.
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Why People Join Groups
• Security
• Status
• Self-esteem
• Affiliation
• Power
• Goal Achievement
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How to make the groups work with you
Formal Groups
Let them know their value
Let them know what they offer to the whole
Make sure all know what they can do to assist in the
process Communicate expectations
Keep all informed
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How to make the groups work with you
Informal Groups Respect Confidences
Respect differences of group members
Be aware of the ―difficulties‖ that participation
requires/ imposes on group members• Many are uncomfortable with the formal channels
• Many have trust problems with formal channels
They are powerful, and have influence
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Stages of Group Development
Groups pass through standardized sequence called FIVE
STAGE MODEL
Temporary groups follow an alternative modal calledPUNCTUATED EQUILIBRIUM MODEL
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The Five-Stage Model of Group Development
Forming StageThe first stage in group development, characterized by
much uncertainty
Storming Stage The second stage in group development, characterized
by intragroup conflict
Norming Stage
The third stage in groupdevelopment, characterized
by close relationships and
cohesiveness
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…Group Development (cont’d)
Performing StageThe fourth stage in group development, when the group
is fully functional
Adjourning Stage
The final stage in group
development for temporary
groups, characterized by
concern with wrapping upactivities rather than
performance
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Stages of Group Development
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Discussion
great deal of uncertainty about structure of group, purpose,leadership. Members try to determine what types of behaviors
are acceptable.
group is fully functional
wrapping up activities, disbandment.
intragroup conflict. By the end
relatively clear hierarchy is established.
close relationships develop and group demonstrates
cohesiveness. Ends when group structure solidifies.
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An Alternative Model: Temporary Groups
with Deadlines
Sequence of Actions
1. Setting group direction
2. First phase of inertia
3. Half-way point transition
4. Major changes5. Second phase of inertia
6. Accelerated activity
Punctuated-Equilibrium
Model
Temporary groups
under time constraineddeadlines go through
transitions between
inertia and activity—at
the halfway point, they
experience an increasein productivity.
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The Punctuated-Equilibrium Model
groups as exhibit : long periods of inertia
brief revolutionary changes triggered by awarenessof - time and deadlines
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True or False: The Punctuated EquilibriumModel suggests that groups have an equilibrium,
but that equilibrium will be punctuated at the half-
way point. But, after the punctuation, the group
will return to the equilibrium it had prior to the
punctuation.
Check-up:
False. The first part is true, but the second sentence isfalse. After the punctuation, the group will have a new
equilibrium of increased productivity.
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Group Dynamics
The forces operating in groups that affect theway members relate to and work with oneanother from the perspective of an open system,
group dynamics are the processes through whichinputs are transformed into outputs.
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Behaviors of group dynamics
Required behaviour
Formally defined and expected by the organization
E.g. punctuality, customer respect Emergent behaviour
Job done beyond the formal requirement
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Intergroup Dynamics
Relationship between groups co-operating and
competing with one another
Positive: Encourages hardwork
Negative :Conflict between two departments
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Sociometry and Analyzing Group Interaction
Sociometry is an analytical technique forstudying group interactions
Seeks to find out whom people like or dislike and with
whom they would or would not wish to work.
Information is gathered through the use of interviews
or questionnaires.
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Questions
With whom in the organization would you like to associate in a
job?
With whom you would like to spend some of your free time?
Information is used to create a sociogram.
– maps the preferred social interactions obtainedfrom the interviews or questionnaires
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Key sociogram terms
Social networks—Specific sets of linkages among a
defined set of individuals
Clusters—Groups that exist within social networks
Prescribed clusters—Formal groups such asdepartments, work teams, task forces, etc.
Emergent clusters—Informal, unofficial groups
Coalitions—Clusters of individuals who temporarilycome together to achieve a specific purpose
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Key sociogram terms (cont’d)
Cliques—Relatively permanent informal groupings
that involve friendship
Stars—Individuals with the most linkages in anetwork
Liaisons—Individuals who connect two or moreclusters but are not members of any cluster
Bridges—Individuals who serve as linking pins bybelonging to two or more clusters
Isolates—Individuals who are not connected to asocial network .
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Prescribed clusters
Emergent clusters
F
A
B C D
E
J K
I
H
G
SOCIOGRAM
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IMPACT OF SOCIOMETRY
Turnover linked to emergent clusters-members of common
clusters act in concert- they stay or quit as a group
Lower conflict levels- members of emergent clusters tend tointeract more with each other
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Why some group efforts are more successful?
The ability of the group’s members
The size of the group
The level of conflict
The internal pressures on members to conform to thegroup’s norms
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Group Behavior Model
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External Conditions
Imposed on the Group Overall strategy
Authority structures
Formal regulations
Resources
Employee selection
Evaluation-rewards
Culture
Work setting
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EXTERNAL CONDITIONS IMPOSED ON THE
GROUP
Strategy of the Organization is put into place by top management
The organization’s goals and the means for attaining these goals
expanding market share, shrinking of operations
– determine the resources with groups… – less resources, more member anxiety and more conflict within
the group.
Authority structures
formal relationships, leaders, organizational hierarchy
– Placement of group and members of a group in the hierarchy,higher more power.
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EXTERNAL CONDITIONS (cont’d)
Formal regulations
rules, procedures, policies, job descriptions to standardize employeebehaviour
– more rules, more standardization – so behavior of members more consistent and predictable
Resources
money, time, raw materials, equipment
– The presence or absence of resources which are allocated to the
group by the organisation have a large bearing on the group’sbehaviour.
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EXTERNAL CONDITIONS (cont’d)
Performance evaluation and reward system
how performance is evaluated,how behavior is rewarded
Organization Culture
– unwritten code of conduct, or standards
dress code, importance of honesty, integrity, flexibility in rule
Physical work settingarrangement of equipment, illumination, acoustics
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The Resourcesof Group Members
Knowledge,
Skills, and
Abilities
Personality
Characteristics
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Group Member Resources Cont.
Knowledge, Skills, and Abilities
– Interpersonal skills
• Conflict management and resolution
• Collaborative problem solving
• Communication
– Personality Characteristics• Sociability
• Initiative
• Openness
• Flexibility
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Personality characteristics affects group productivity,
morale and cohesiveness.
sociability, initiative, flexibility, openness
- positive connotation
authoritarianism, dominance, unconventionality
- negative connotation
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Group Behavior Model
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GROUP STRUCTURE
Work groups are not unorganized mobs.
Have a structure that shapes the behavior
of members of group.
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STRUCTURE VARIABLES
Formal leadership
Roles
norms
group status
Group size The degree of group cohesiveness
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Formal Group Leadership
Task Force
Head
Supervisor
Committee
Chair
Project
Leader Foreman
Department
Manager
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Formal Leadership
– Leadership that is imposed on the group by the
organization. – Leaders who derive their power from the positions they
occupy in the organizational structure.
– Formal leaders may or may not also be the informalleaders of the groups in which they function.
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― All the world is a stage and all men and women merely
players‖.
- Shakespeare
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Identity
GroupRoles
Expectations
Conflict Perception
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Roles
Role(s) A set of expected behavior patterns attributed to
someone occupying a given position in a social uniton the job roles
off the job roles
Role Identity
Certain attitudes and behaviors
consistent with a role
Role Perception
An individual’s view of how he or she is
supposed to act in a given situation
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Group Properties—Roles (cont’d)
Role Conflict
A situation in which an individual is confronted
by divergent role expectationsHusband - executive
Impact on behavior
increase in tension
frustration
withdrawal
negotiationredefine facts to make them appear congruent
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Lorraine is a non-traditional student (she’s 51
years old) and is working in a group for a class
project. They keep turning to her for the answers
to questions. Which of the following might the
group have that is driving Lorraine’s experience?
Groupthink
Groupshift
Role Conflict
Role Expectations
Check-up:
The group may have role expectations of Lorraine—e.g.,
because she’s older, she should be the wise one and
know the answers like a parent should.
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One should not criticize his/her boss in public
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Group Properties—Norms
Classes of Norms
• Performance norms
• Appearance norms
• Social arrangement norms
• Allocation of resources norms
Norms
Acceptable standards of behavior within a group that
are shared by the group’s members
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Group Structure—Norms (cont’d)
Conformity
Adjusting one’s behavior to
align with the norms of the
group
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Need for conformity
1. Desire of acceptance by the group
2. Susceptible to conforming to the group’s norms
3. Group’s pressures on individual members to change theirattitudes and behaviors to conform to the group’s standard
Do individuals conform to the pressures of all the groups towhich they belong?
1. People belong to many groups and their norms vary.
2. Conform to the imp. groups to which they belong or hopeto belong
Group Structure—Conformity
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Group Structure—Norms (cont’d)
Reference Groups
Important groups to which individuals belong or hope to
belong and with whose norms individuals are likely to
conform
Characteristics of Reference Group
1. Each person is aware of the other
2. The person defines himself/herself as a member
3. Group members are significant for him or her
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Studies by Solomon Asch
XA B C
Conclusion - there are group norms that press us toward conformity.
i.e. we desire to be one of the group and avoid being visibly different.
Impact of group pressures on individuals in the group
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Group Structure—Norms (cont’d)
Deviant Workplace Behavior
Antisocial actions by organizational members that
intentionally violate established norms and result in
negative consequences for the organization, its
members, or both
Group norms can influence the
presence of deviant behavior.
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Types of Deviant Workplace Behavior
Category Examples
Production Leaving early
Intentionally working slowly
Wasting resources
Property SabotageLying about hours worked
Stealing from the organization
Political Showing favoritism
Gossiping and spreading rumors
Blaming coworkers
Personal Aggression Sexual harassment
Verbal abuse
Stealing from coworkers
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Group Structure—Status
Power over
Others
Ability to
Contribute
Personal
Characteristics
Group Member
Status
Status: A socially defined position or rank given to groups or
group members by others
Norms and
Interaction
Status Inequity National Culture
Other things influencing or
influenced by status
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Group Structure—Size
Group Size
Performance
Other Conclusions
• Odd number groups dobetter than even.
• Groups of 5 to 7 performbetter overall than largeror smaller groups.
Social Loafing
The tendency for individuals to expend less effort whenworking collectively than when working individually
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Causes of Social Loafing
Belief that others are not carrying their fair share.
Reestablish equity by reducing effort Dispersion of responsibility.
Results cannot be attributed to any single person
The relationship between an individual’s input and the group’s output is
clouded
Individuals tempted to become free riders and coast on the group’sefforts
How to reduce social loafing?
individual efforts must be identified
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Group Structure—Cohesiveness
Increasing Group Cohesiveness
1. Make the group smaller.2. Encourage agreement with group goals.
3. Increase time members spend together.
4. Increase group status and admissiondifficultly.
5. Stimulate competition with other groups.
6. Give rewards to the group, not individuals.
7. Physically isolate the group.
Cohesiveness
Degree to which group members are attracted to each
other and are motivated to stay in the group
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Relationship Between Group Cohesiveness,
Performance Norms, and Productivity
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Group Behavior Model
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Group Processes
Communication patterns
– formal
– informal
decision process
leader behavior
power dynamics
conflict interactions
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Group Processes
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Effects of Group Processes
+
–
=
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Group Decision Making
Decision Making
– Large groups facilitate the pooling of information about
complex tasks.
– Smaller groups are better suited to coordinating and
facilitating the implementation of complex tasks.
– Simple, routine standardized tasks reduce the
requirement that group processes be effective in order
for the group to perform well.
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Group Decision Making (cont’d)
Strengths
– More complete
information
– Increased diversity of
views
– Higher quality ofdecisions (more
accuracy)
– Increased acceptance
of solutions
Weaknesses
– More time consuming
(slower)
– Increased pressure to
conform
– Domination by one ora few members
– Ambiguous
responsibility
Group Decision Making (cont’d)
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Group Effectiveness
and Efficiency
Accuracyhigh
Creativityhigh
Acceptancehigh
Speed less
Group Decision Making (cont d)
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Group Decision Making
Groupthink Groupshift
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Groupthink
– describes situations in which group pressures forconformity deter the group from critically appraisingunusual, minority, or unpopular views. This can
dramatically hinder performance of the group.
S f G
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Symptoms of the Groupthink Phenomenon
Group members rationalize any resistance to the
assumptions they have made.
Members apply direct pressures on those who
express doubts about shared views or who question
the alternative favored by the majority.
Members who have doubts or differing points of view
keep silent about misgivings.
There appears to be an illusion of unanimity.
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G D i i M ki T h i
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Group Decision-Making Techniques
Interacting Groups
– members meet face to face and rely on both verbaland nonverbal interaction to communicate with eachother.
Weakness
– pressure individual members toward conformity ofopinion.
B i t i
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Brainstorming
An idea-generation process that specifically
encourages any and all alternatives, while
withholding any criticism of those alternatives.
B i t i
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Brainstorming
People sit around a table.
The group leader states the problem clearly.
Members give various alternatives in a given length of
time. No criticism is allowed
All the alternatives are recorded for later discussion andanalysis.
One idea stimulates others, and group members areencouraged to ―think the unusual.‖
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Rules of Brainstorming
Rule 1: Postpone and withhold your judgment of
ideas
Rule 2: Encourage wild and exaggerated ideas
Rule 3: Quantity counts in the initial stage, not
quality Rule 4: Build on the ideas put forward by others
Rule 5: Every person and every idea has equal
worth
Nominal group technique
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Nominal group technique
A group decision-making method in which
individual members meet face to face to pooltheir judgments in a systematic but independent
fashion.
The Nominal Group technique
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The Nominal Group technique
All members are physically present, but operateindependently.
Each member writes down their ideas on the problem
and then makes a presentation.
Followed by group discussion Each member silently and independently rank-orders the
ideas.
The idea with the highest aggregate ranking determines
the final decision.
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Electronic meeting
Blend of nominal group technique with sophisticatedcomputer technology.
– Members sit around a horseshoe-shaped table withcomputer terminals.
– Issues are presented to participants. They type theirresponses onto their computer screen.
– Responses are displayed on a projection screen.
The major advantages
– anonymity
– honesty
– and speed
Evaluating Group Effectiveness
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Evaluating Group Effectiveness
TYPE OF GROUP
Effectiveness Criteria Interacting Brainstorming Nominal Electronic
Number and quality of ideas Low Moderate High High
Social pressure High Low Moderate Low
Money costs Low Low Low High
Speed Moderate Moderate Moderate Moderate
Task orientation Low High High High
Potential for interpersonal c High Low Moderate Low
Commitment to solution High Not applicable Moderate ModerateDevelopment of High High Moderate Low
group cohesiveness
Conflict:
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– Conflict is a process that begins when one partyperceives that another party has negativelyaffected, or is about to negatively affect somethingthat the first party cares about.
– Conflict is a process in which an effort is purposelymade by A to offset the efforts of B by some form
of blocking that will result in frustrating B inattaining his goals or furthering his interests
Conflict
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Conflict
Definition
– That point in an ongoing activity when an interaction “crosses over” to become an interparty conflict
– Encompasses a wide range of conflicts that peopleexperience in a group.
• Incompatibility of goals
• Differences over interpretations of facts
• Disagreements based on behavioral expectations
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Traditional
View
Human
Relations
View
Interactionist
View
Transitions in Conflict Thought
Transitions in Conflict Thought
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Transitions in Conflict Thought
Causes:
• Poor communication
• Lack of openness
• Failure to respond toemployee needs
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conflict - a natural occurrence in all groups and organizations
conflict is inevitable, it should be accepted
At times conflict is beneficial
Human relations view
Interact ionist view : encourages conflict in group/teams
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harmony
peace
tranquility
cooperation
static
apathetic
nonresponsiveto needs for
change and
innovation
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Group leaders should maintain minimum level of conflict to keepthe group
viable
self-critical
creative
Functional versus Dysfunctional Conflict
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Functional versus Dysfunctional Conflict
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Positive FeelingsNegative Emotions
Conflict Definition
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The Conflict Process
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Stage III: Conflict-Handling Intentions
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Compromising
Competing Collaborating
AccommodatingAvoiding A s s e r t i v e n
e s s
U n a s
s e r t i v e
A s s e r t i v e
CooperativenessUncooperative Cooperative
Stage III: Conflict Handling Intentions
Dimensions of Conflict-Handling
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Intentions
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Stage IV: Behavior and Conflict Intensity
DysfunctionalConflict
No Conflict
Overt efforts to destroy the other party
Aggressive physical attacks
Threats and ultimatums
Assertive verbal attacks
Overt questioning or challenging of others
Minor disagreements or misunderstandings
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Authoritative
Command
Superordinate
Goals
Resource
Expansion
Avoidance Smoothing Compromise
Human
Variables
Structural
Variables
Conflict Resolution Techniques in a group
Problem
Solving
The Conflict Process
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Check-up: Conflict
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Check up: Conflict
Suppose you are a staunch Congressi and your uncle is a B J Pien.
Every time he sees you, he tries to pick a fight about politicsand “those stupid Hindu muslim riots.” What conflict handling
intention should you use in dealing with him?
CompetingCollaborating
Accommodating
Avoidance
Stage V: Outcomes
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Stage V: Outcomes
Functional Outcomes from Conflict
– Increased group performance – Improved quality of decisions
– Stimulation of creativity and innovation
– Encouragement of interest and curiosity
– Creation of an environment for self-evaluation and change
Creating Functional Conflict
– Reward dissent and punish conflict avoiders
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Devil’s Advocate
Outsiders
Restructuring
Communication
ConflictStimulation
Stage V: Outcomes
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Stage V: Outcomes
Dysfunctional Outcomes from Conflict
– Development of discontent
– Reduced group effectiveness
– Retarded communication
– Reduced group cohesiveness
– Infighting among group members overcomes groupgoals
The Conflict Process
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NEGOTIATION
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NEGOTIATION
Process in which two or more parties exchange
goods or services and attempt to agree upon theexchange rate for them.
Negotiation and bargaining terms used
interchangeably.
Staking Out the Bargaining Zone
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g g g
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Types o f Bargaining
Distr ibut ive bargaining
Integrat ive bargaining
Distributive versus Integrative Bargaining
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g g g
Integrative bargaining to succeed,
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g g g ,
open candid
sensitive
trusting
flexible
Th P f N ti ti i
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The Process of Negotiation in a group
Preparation
and Planning
Definition of
Ground Rules
Clarification and
Justification
Bargaining andProblem
Solving
Closure and
Implementation
BATNA
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Information develop a strategy
Determine Best Alternative To a Negotiated Agreement
(BATNA) ie. lowest value acceptable to you for a negotiated
agreement
Any offer received that is higher than BATNA is better than animpasse
BATNA
The Best Alternative To a Negotiated
Agreement; the lowest acceptable value(outcome) to an individual for a
negotiated agreement
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Negotiation Issues
Gender
Differences
Cultural
Differences
Personality
Traits
Mediator
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Third-Party
Negotiation
Mediator
Arbitrator
Conciliator
Consultant
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Third-Party Negotiations
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Consultant
An impartial third party, skilled in conflict
management, who attempts to facilitate creative
problem solving through communication and
analysis
Conciliator
A trusted third party who provides an informal
communication link between the negotiator and the
opponent
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Group Behavior Model-Group Task
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Group
TasksComplexity
Input
Requirements
Interdependence
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Check-Up:
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List two drawbacks of brainstorming and two
pluses of the Nominal Group Decision-making
Technique. Compare your answers with your
neighbor and discuss which one you would use
for a group project in this class and why.