Learner Language:Vocabulary & Phonology
Amalia Caruso & Karen Murphy
Structure
1. Vocabulary
2. The Aspects of a Word
3. Frequency
4. Strategies for Meaning
5. Strategies for Acquisition
6. A brief History of L2 Acquisition Phonology
7. Learner Problems
8. Teaching Pronunciation
1. Vocabulary
“Of all error types, learners consider vocabulary errors the most serious“
“[L]exical errors are the most common among second language learners“
“[N]ative speakers find lexical errors to be more disruptive than grammatical errors“
source: Gass, S.M. & Selinker, L. (2001). Second Language
Acquisition. An Introductory Course. 2nd ed. London: LEA, 372.
1. Vocabulary
is everywhere
can disturb communication
connected to phonology, orthography, morphology, grammar, etc.
1. Vocabulary1.1 English in Numbers
It is estimated that the vocabulary of English ranges from 100,000 to 1,000,000 words (dependant on the way one counts the words)
An educated speaker of English is believed to know at least 20,000 words
Most everyday conversation requires about2,000 words
80 – 90% of most non-technical texts is made up by2,000 to 3,000 words (the most frequent ones)
1. Vocabulary1.2 L1-Learners vs. L2-Learners
L1 acquisition in children
(first 1,000 or 2,000 words)
L2 acquisition in older learners
L1 spoken in environment exposed to far smaller samples of language
helpful contexts not always very helpful
less difficult words more difficult, meanings may not be easily guessed
1. Vocabulary1.3 Vocabulary Tests (Meara)
“The first step in knowing a word maysimply be to recognize that it is a word”
http://www.lextutor.ca/tests/yes_no_eng/test_1/
items which look like English words but are not
estimate vocabulary size
effective even for advanced learners as number of chosen non-words is also taken into account
2. The Aspects of a Word
“A word is more than its meaning!”
form: written or spoken grammatical properties
category, (im-)possible structure, idiosyncratic grammatical information
lexical properties word combinations, appropriateness
Meaning general & specific
3. Frequency
as long as students receive natural input from course books and teachers they will be getting the most common words automatically
but it is often the edited texts and classroom conversations which do not have these natural properties
(e.g. vocabulary is listed according to alphabetical order with brief translation into L1)
(cf. Cook)
3. Frequency
with which a word is seen, heard and understood
up to 16 encounters to establish it in memory
even more to use it in fluent speech & to understand it immediately
(cf. Nation)
4. Strategies for Meaning4.1 One-Syllable & Borrowed Words, Cognates
List 1 List 2 List 3
Friend Hamburger Government
More Coke Responsibility
Town T-shirt Dictionary
Book Walkman Elementary
Hunt Taxi Remarkable
Sing Pizza Description
Box Hotel Expression
Smile Dollar International
Eye Internet Preparation
Night Disco Activity
(source: Lightbown, P.M. & Spada, N. p.98)
4. Strategies for Meaning4.1 One-Syllable & Borrowed Words, Cognates
List 1: One-Syllable Words
among most common words but not likely to be known without former instruction
or exposure to English form and pronunciation give no clue to meaning many exposures in order to establish them in
memory
4. Strategies for Meaning4.1 One-Syllable & Borrowed Words, Cognates
List 2: Borrowed Words
international vocabulary
might be known to people who have never learned English, as well
borrowed words
4. Strategies for Meaning4.1 One-Syllable & Borrowed Words, Cognates
List 3: Cognates
Infrequent
but known on sight or learned after single exposure
resemblance to their translation equivalent in other languages
4. Strategies for Meaning4.1 One-Syllable & Borrowed Words, Cognates
Cognates
misinterpretation possible
recognition not always easy
in general, more accessible in written than in spoken language
4. Strategies for Meaning4.2 Other Strategies
guessing from situation or context
using a dictionary
making deductions from the word-form
5. Strategies for Acquisition5.1 Acquisition through Reading?
some theorists suggest that one can learn vocabulary with little intentional effort (“Reading for pleasure”)
has a positive impact on learning, but doubtful:
one has to know 95% of the words in a text in order to get the meaning of a new word (cf. Laufer)
5. Strategies for Acquisition5.1 Acquisition through Reading?
one has to encounter a new word many times (cf. Nation)
certain types of words are very rare in narratives (cf. Gardner)
certain types of books forbid the acquisition of words important for academic needs
5. Strategies for Acquisition5.1 Acquisition through Reading?
more successful with focused attention through activities and productive tasks (cf. Hulstijn
Laufer)
more effective with good learning strategies, as well (cf. Kojic-Sabo & Lightbown)
5. Strategies for Acquisition5.2 Other Strategies
repetition and rote learning
organizing words
linking to existing knowledge
reviewing
6. A brief History of L2 Acquisition Phonology
Not as much research on phonology as on other components of language
Audiolingualism: techniques aimed at perception and production of the distinction of single sounds
Critical period hypothesis: native-like pronunciation = unrealistic for L2
Communicative language teaching: little attention, if included: emphasis on rhythm, stress and intonation
7. Learner Problems7.1 The basic Trouble: L1 Influence
Languages differ in sounds & their structuring into syllables as well as intonation
Degree of L1/L2 difference influences L2 phonology
More difference = longer period to achieve fluency Chinese vs. German or Dutch
Affects other areas of language, too
7. Learner Problems7.1 The basic Trouble: L1 Influence
Can you think of typical mistakes foreigners from a specific
country make?
7. Learner Problems7.1 The basic Trouble: L1 Influence
Some examples: Korean L1: problem hearing & producing /l/
and /r/ sound Sounds not distinct in Korean
Spanish L1: “I e-speak e-Spanish” No consonant clusters starting with “s” at the
beginning of words in Spanish French L1: stress on last syllable
Normal in French
7. Learner Problems7.2 In Detail: Phonemes
Phoneme: sound that distinguishes meaning in a particular language
Languages differ in their choice of phonemes Typical pronunciation material: hearing and
repeating sentences with high concentration on particular phoneme Emphasis on practice rather than
communication Tries to build up new pronunciation habits
7. Learner Problems7.2 In Detail: Phonemes
Problem: Phoneme itself is not responsible Distinctive features of phonemes differ (e.g. voice,
aspiration) Learner needs to learn both Harder to learn distinctive features (esp. of known
phoneme) than a new phoneme Learner stages:
Presystematic stage Transfer stage Approximative stage
7. Learner Problems7.3 In Detail: Syllable Structure
Which of the following do you believe to be possible and which impossible English words?
Pfunging Plin Pzan Prush Trilly Tnuc
7. Learner Problems7.3 In Detail: Syllable Structure
Language specific rules how syllables are made up English: compulsory vowel preceded or followed by
one or more consonants
Main L2 trouble: consonant combinations Even if consonants of both languages are the
same combinations may differ
L2 learners try to make syllables fit their L1 Interlanguage solution
7. Learner Problems7.3 In Detail: Syllable Structure
Epenthesis: insertion of extra vowel to make English fit L1 (e.g. Korean, Arabic)
Korean: “kelass” for class Japanese “sutoraki” for strike
Simplification: deletion of consonants out of words if not allowed in L1
Cantonese: “Joa” for Joan
7. Learner Problems7.4 In Detail: Voicing (VOT)
Voice onset time: the moment voicing starts Systems differ Example: stops
English voiced: before or almost simultaneous to moment of release
English unvoiced: after release Spanish: before release Spanish unvoiced: almost simultaneous to
release Spanish speaker may interpret voiced as unvoiced
7. Learner Problems7.5 Universal Processes
Occur in later stages of L2 acquisition (Major, 1986)
Early stages: stronger L1 interference
Simplification happens almost regardless of L1
Devoicing of final consonants
Epenthesis depends on structure of L1 but seems available to all L2 learners
8. Teaching Pronunciation
Recent studies: can make difference when focus lies on suprasegmentals rather than segmentals (Hahn, 2004)
Typical: Ad-hoc correction of single words in isolation Learning must include: pronunciation rules,
syllable structure & precise VOT control Relationship reception/production of sounds is
complex
8. Teaching Pronunciation
Evelyn Altenberg (2005) Learners good at writing pseudowords NOT so good at production
Faults need to be related to students current interlanguage
Learner stage orientation: Beginners: emphasis on single words Intermediate: relate to L1 Advanced: L2 sound system separate
8. Teaching Pronunciation8.1 Standards
Controversial issue Intelligibility rather than native-like ability
Strong foreign accent can still be comprehensible (Munrow/Derwing, 1995)
Teachers should be aware that some sounds will never improve (treat them differently to the ones that will)
Remember: success rate depends on learner’s motivation
8. Teaching Pronunciation8.2 Influential Factors
Student’s L1
Amount and type of exposure to L2
Degree of L1 use
Ethnic orientation and sense of identity
8. Teaching Pronunciation8.3 Standard Teaching Techniques
Phonetic Script Disputed whether conscious awareness
converts into ability to speak Imitation Discrimination of sounds
Minimal pair exercises: no context Consciousness raising
Training ears to hear things better (cf. Cook) Communication
Real life problems
8. Teaching Pronunciation8.4 Intonation
Intonation shows: grammatical points, discourse connections, speakers’ attitudes
Helps intelligibility L2 intonation similar to L1: few problems New patterns: own strategies of students Mostly: practice and repetition Better: awareness for nature of intonation Dickerson (1987): L2 intonation instruction is indeed
very helpful
Sources
Gass, S.M. & Selinker, L. (2001). Second Language Acquisition. An Introductory Course. 2nd ed. London: LEA.
Cook, V. (2001). Second Language Learning and Language Teaching. 3rd ed. New York: OUP.
Lightbown P.M. & Spada, N. (2006). How Languages are Learned. 3rd ed. Oxford: OUP.
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