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Course: Ilmu Sosial Untuk Psikologi
Human Diversities 2:Religion and Arts
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This chapter discusses the role of religion in
a variety of societies. It focuses on the
types of religion and the situations in which
religions can change rapidly. It concludeswith a discussion of secular rituals and the
way in which a trip to Walt Disney World
might be studied as a secular ritual.
ReligionReligion
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Introduction
Religion is defined, according to Wallace, as belief andritual concerned with supernatural beings, powers, and
forces.
So defined, religion is a cultural universal.
Neanderthal mortuary remains provide the earliest evidence
of what probably was religious activity.
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Animism
Tylor first studied religion anthropologically, and developeda taonomy of religions.
Animism was seen as the most primitive, and is defined as a
belief in souls that derives from the first attempt to eplain
dreams and li!e phenomena.
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"ana and Taboo
"ana is defined as belief in an immanent supernaturaldomain or life#force, potentially sub$ect to human
manipulation.
The %olynesian and "elanesian concepts of mana are
contrasted."elanesian mana is defined as a sacred impersonal force that
is much li!e the Western concept of luc!.
%olynesian mana and the related concept of taboo are related
to the more hierarchical nature of %olynesian society.
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"ana and Taboo
"ap of"elanesia and
%olynesia.
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"ana and Taboo
This member of the Iban tribe of "alaysia
believes that the s!ull held here possesses
mana.
Photo Credit: David Alan Harvey/ Woodfn Camp & Associates
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"agic and Religion
"agic refers to supernatural techni&ues intended toaccomplish specific aims.
"agic may be imitative 'as with voodoo dolls( or
contagious 'accomplished through contact(.
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Aniety, )ontrol, Solace
"agic is an instrument of control, but religion serves to provide stability when no control or understanding is
possible.
"alinows!i saw tribal religions as being focused on life
crises.
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Rituals
Rituals are formal, performed in sacred contets.Rituals convey information about the culture of the
participants and, hence, the participants themselves.
Rituals are inherently social, and participation in them
necessarily implies social commitment.
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Rites of %assage
Rites of passage are religious rituals which mar! andfacilitate a persons movement from one 'social( state of
being to another 'e.g. %lains Indians* vision &uests(.
Rites of passage have three phases+
Separation the participant's( withdraws from the group and
begin moving from one place to another.
-iminality the period between states, during which the
participant's( has left one place but has not yet entered the
net.
Incorporation the participant's( reenters society with a new
status having completed the rite.
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Rites of %assage
-iminality is part of every rite of passage, and involves thetemporary suspension and even reversal of everyday social
distinctions.
)ommunitas refers to collective liminality, characteried by
enhanced feelings of social solidarity and minimieddistinctions.
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Totemism
Rituals play an important role in creating and maintaininggroup solidarity.
In totemic societies, each descent group has an animal, plant, of geographical feature from which they claim
descent. Totems are the apical ancestor of clans. The members of a clan do not !ill or eat their totem, ecept
once a year when the members of the clan gather forceremonies dedicated to the totem.
See discussion of clans and lineages in )hapter /0. Totemism is a religion in which elements of nature act as
sacred templates for society by means of symbolic association.
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Totemism
Totemism uses nature as a model for society.1ach descent group has a totem, which occupies a specific
niche in nature.
Social differences mirror the natural order of the
environment.
The unity of the human social order is enhanced by
symbolic association with and imitation of the natural order.
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Sacred )attle in India
Ahimsa is the 2indu doctrine of nonviolence that forbids the !illing ofanimals.
Western economic development eperts often use this principle as an
eample of how religion can stand in the way of development.
2indus seem to irrationally ignore a valuable food source 'beef(.
2indus also raise scraggly, thin cows, unli!e the bigger cattle of
1urope and the 3S.
These views are ethnocentric and wrong as cattle play an important
adaptive role in an Indian ecosystem that has evolved over thousands of
years 2indus use cattle for transportation, traction, and manure.
4igger cattle eat more, ma!ing them more epensive to !eep.
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Sacred )attle in India
India*s ebu
cattle are
protected by a
doctrine of
ahimsa.
Photo Credit: Michele Burgess/he !toc" Mar"et
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Social )ontrol
The power of religion affects action.Religion can be used to mobilie large segments of society
through systems of real and perceived rewards and
punishments.
Witch hunts play an important role in limiting social deviancyin addition to functioning as leveling mechanisms to reduce
differences in wealth and status between members of society.
"any religions have a formal code of ethics that prohibit
certain behavior while promoting other !inds of behavior.Religions also maintain social control by stressing the fleeting
nature of life.
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Religious %ractitioners and Types
Wallace defined religion as consisting of all a society*s cult institutions'rituals and associated beliefs(, and developed four categories from this.
Shamanic religions shamans are part#time religious intermediaries who
may act as curers5these religions are most characteristic of foragers.
)ommunal religions have shamans, community rituals, multiple nature
gods, and are more characteristic of food producers than foragers.
6lympian religions first appeared with states, have full#time religious
specialists whose organiation may mimic the states, have potent
anthropomorphic gods who may eist as a pantheon.
"onotheistic religions have all the attributes of 6lympian religions,ecept that the pantheon of gods is subsumed under a single eternal,
omniscient, omnipotent, and omnipresent being.
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Religious %ractitioners and Types
Type of Religion
(Wallace)
Type of
Practitioner
Conception of
Supernatural
Type of Society
"onotheistic %riests, ministers,
etc.
Supreme being States
6lympian %riesthood 2ierarchical
pantheon of deities
)hiefdoms and
archaic states
)ommunal %art#time specialists7occasional community#
sponsored events,
including rites of
passage
Several deities
with some control
over nature
8ood#producing
tribes
Shamanic Shaman 9 part#
time practitioner
:oomorphic 8oraging bands
Anthony 8. ). Wallace*s typology of religions.
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Religious %ractitioners and Types
A San shaman falls into a trance as he heals.
Photo Credit: #oel $uidu/%amma iaison
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)hristian ;alues
"a Weber lin!ed the spread of )apitalism to the valuescentral to the %rotestant faith+ independent, entrepreneurial,
hard wor!ing, future#oriented, and free thin!ing.
The emphasis )atholics placed on immediate happiness and
security, and the notion that salvation was attainable onlywhen a priest mediated on one*s behalf, did not fit well with
capitalism.
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Religion in North America Today
In the 3S %rotestants outnumber )atholics, but in )anadathe reverse is true.
Religious affiliation in North America varies with ethnic
bac!ground, age, and geography.
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Revitaliation "ovements
Religious movements that act as mediums for social changeare called revitaliation movements.
The colonial#era Iro&uois reformation led by 2andsome
-a!e is an eample of a revitaliation movement.
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Syncretisms
A syncretism is a cultural mi, including religious blends,that emerge when two or more cultural traditions come into
contact.
1amples include voodoo, santeria, and candoml
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Syncretisms
A cargo cult in
;anuatu. 4oys and
men march withspears, imitating
4ritish colonial
soldiers.
Photo Credit: 'al Muller/Woodfn Camp & Associates
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A New Age
Since the />?@s, there has been a decline in formalorganied religions.
New Age religions have appropriated ideas, themes,
symbols, and ways of life from the religious practices of
Native Americans, Australian Aborigines, east Asianreligions.
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Secular Rituals+ Walt isney World
A %ilgrimage to Walt isney WorldWalt isney World functions much li!e a sacred shrine
which is a ma$or pilgrimage destination
It has an inner, sacred center surrounded by an outer more
secular domain. %ar!ing lot designations are distinguished with totem#li!e
images of the isney cast of characters.
The monorail provides travelers with a brief liminal period
as they cross between the outer, secular world into the inner,
sacred center of the "agic Bingdom.
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Secular Rituals+ Walt isney World
Within the "agic Bingdom+Spending time in the "agic Bingdom reaffirms, maintains,
and solidifies the world of isney as all of the pilgrims
share a common status as visitors while eperience the same
adventures."ost of the structures and attractions at the "agic Bingdom
are designed to reaffirm and recall a traditional set of
American values.
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Recogniing Religion
It is difficult to distinguish between sacred and secularrituals as behavior can simultaneously have sacred and
secular aspects.
Americans try to maintain a strict division between the
sacred and the profane, but many other societies li!e the4etsileo do not.
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This chapter introduces students to the
anthropological study of art. It shows how
the appreciation, creation, transmission, and
use of art are embedded in culture and arelearned.
The ArtsThe Arts
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What is ArtC
Art is very difficult todefine, but it generally
refers to the
manifestations of human
creativity through which people epress
themselves in dance,
music, song, painting,
sculpture, pottery, cloth,story telling, verse, prose,
drama, and comedy.
This photo, ta!en in 4erlin, =ermany,illustrates art within art. In the bac!ground,
the eperimental artist )hristo has wrapped
the Reichstag. Another man has wrapped
himself and is now posing in front.
Photo Credit: homas Hoep"er/ Magnum Photos
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Art and Religion
efinitions of both art and religion focus on the more than ordinary
aspects of each with regard to how they are different from the ordinary
and profaneDsecular.
A lot of Western and non#Western art has been created in association
with religion, but it is important to remember that not all non#Western
art has ritual or religious importance. Art and religion both have formal 'museums and churches, temples( and
informal 'par!s, homes, and regular gathering places( venues of
epression.
State#level societies have permanent structures for religion and art. Nonstate#level societies lac! permanent structures for religion and
art.
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Art and Religion
This artist
carves a statue
of the 4uddha
on the groundsof a temple in
%hnom %enh,
)ambodia in
/>EE.
Photo Credit: P ) %ri*ths/Magnum Photos
i
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-ocating Art
In states, art is housed in special buildings li!e museums,concert halls, and theaters.
In nonstates, artistic epression ta!es place in public spaces
that have been set aside for art.
In states, critics, $udges, and eperts determine what is artand what is not.
The Balabari eample demonstrates that not all sculpture is
art because wooden carvings are manufactured eclusively
for religious reasons.
- i A
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-ocating Art
"ap
showing the
location of
the
Balabari.
A d I di id li
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Art and Individuality
Some anthropologists have criticied that the study of non#Western art ignores the individual and focuses too much on
the group.
2owever, in many non#Western societies, there is more
collective production of art than in Western cultures.4ohannan argued that among the Tiv, the emphasis should
be on the critics rather than the artists because the Tiv do not
recognie the same connection between artists and their art.
The degree to which artists can be separated from their wor!
varies cross#culturally.
Th W ! f A
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The Wor! of Art
In all societies art is wor!. In nonstate societies, artists cannot wor! on their art all of the
time as they still must hunt, gather, fish, herd, or farm to eat.
In states, artists are full#time specialists whose career is their
wor!.Artistic completeness or mastery is determined and
maintained by both formal and informal standards.
A t S i t d ) lt
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Art, Society, and )ulture
Art is usually a public phenomena that is ehibited, performed, evaluated, and appreciated in society.
1thnomusicology is the comparative study of the music of the
world and of music as an aspect of culture and society.
8ol! art, music, and lore refer to the epressive culture ofordinary people.
Art is a form of social communication.
Th ) lt l T i i f th A t
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The )ultural Transmission of the Arts
Art is a part of culture and as a result appreciation for thearts are internalied during enculturation.
The appreciation of different art forms varies cross#
culturally.
In nonindustrialied societies, artistic traditions aregenerally transmitted through families and !in groups.
The art of storytelling plays a critical role in the
transmission, preservation, and epression of cultural
traditions.
Th A ti ti )
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The Artistic )areer
In many non#Western societies children born into certainlineages are destined for a particular artistic career 'e.g.,
leather wor!ing, wood carving, and ma!ing pottery(
8ull craft specialists find support through their !in ties in
non#Western societies or through patrons in Westernsocieties.
The arts rely on individual talent which is shaped through
socially approved directions.
) ti it d )h
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)ontinuity and )hange
The arts are alwayschanging.
The arts incorporate
a wide variety of
media.
In Athens, =reece, ancient =ree! theater is being
staged for a contemporary audience.
Photo Credit: )ames P( Blair/ #ational %eographic !ociety