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3.1 Wastes on vermicompost
A revolution is unfolding in vermiculture studies (rearing of useful
earthworms species) for multiple uses in sustainable waste management and
sustainable agriculture explained by (Bhawalkar, 1995; Fraser-Quick, 2002;
Martin, 1976; Satchell, 1983). The viability of using earthworms as a treatment
or management technique for numerous organic waste streams has been
investigated by a number of workers (Hand et al., 1988; Logsdon, 1994;
Madan, 1988; Singh and Sharma, 2002).
In nature, worms are known to feed mainly on dead leaves (Bahl, 1927;
Hess, 1925; Hesse, 1899; Langdon, 1900; Comfort, 1956; Cooper and Baculi,
1968; Cooper, 1968a; 1968b; 1969a; 1969b; Cooper et al., 1969; Cooper and
Rubilotta, 1969) and loam (Laverack, 1963). Darwin (1881) studied the role of
earthworms in the breakdown of dead plants, animal residues, soil and forest
litter. The ability of some species of earthworms to consume and break down a
wide range of organic residues such as sewage sludge, animal wastes, crop
residues and industrial refuse was studied by (Mitchell et al., 1980; Edwards et
al., 1985; Chan and Grifths, 1988; Hartenstein and Bisesi, 1989; Elvira et al.,
1996a, 1998). The ability of earthworms to recycle organic wastes into organic
manure by biological degradation process was studied by various authors
(Collier, 1978; Graff, 1981; Giraddi, 2000).
The disposal of organic wastes from domestic, agricultural and
industrial sources is increasingly causing environmental and economic
problems. Vermicomposting technology in processing sewage sludges and
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solids from wastewater studied by Neuhauser (Neuhauser et al., 1988a)
Dominguez (Dominguez et al., 2000), materials from breweries (Butt, 1993),
paper wastes (Butt, 1993; Elvira et al., 1996a), urban food and garden residues,
animal wastes (Edwards et al., 1985; Edwards 1988; Elvira et al., 1996b;
Dominguez and Edwards 1997), as well as horticultural residues from
processed potatoes, dead plants and the brewery and mushroom industries
(Edwards, 1988).
Considerable work has been carried out on vermicomposting of various
organic materials such as animal dung, agricultural waste, forestry wastes, city
leaf litter and food wastes (Hand et al., 1988; Logsdon, 1994; Madan et al.,
1988; Singh and Sharma, 2002). Similarly, industrial wastes such as guar gum
industrial waste, paper pulp and distillery wastes have been vermicomposted
and turned into nutrient rich manure by many authors (Sundaravadivel and
Ismail, 1995; Suthar, 2006a; Suthar, 2007a; Hand et al., 1988). A wide range of
the organic waste such as sewage sludge (Dominguez et al., 2000), crop residue
(Bansal and Kapoor, 2000), textile mill sludge (Kaushik and Garg, 2003),
agriculture, urban and industrial waste (Garg et al., 2005; Suthar, 2006a),
vegetable waste (Singh et al., 2005), water hyacinth Eichhornia crassipes
(Gajalakshmi et al., 2001b), kitchen waste (Nair et al., 2006) and guar gum
waste (Suthar, 2006b) have been studied the suitablity for vermicomposting. An
experiment was conducted on preparation of vermicompost with different farm
wastes and weeds by (Babu et al., 2008).
Experiments were conducted on vermicomposting using animal dung
such as cow dung (Kale et al., 1982; Reinecke et al., 1992; Edwards et al.,
1998), sheep dung (Kale et al., 1982), poultry manure (Kale et al., 1982), pig
solids (Edwards et al., 1998), horse solid (Edwards et al., 1998) and turkey
waste (Edwards et al., 1998), goat and cow dung (Loh et al., 2003) as
substrates converted from waste into vermicast. Various organic wastes tested
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in past as feed material for different species of earthworms include sewage
sludges (Benitez et al., 1999; Delgado et al., 1995; Diaz-Burgos et al., 1992),
paper mill industry sludge (Butt, 1993), pig waste (Chan and Griffiths, 1988;
Reeh, 1992), Organic debris (Fragoso et al., 1993) water hyacinth (Gajalakshmi
et al., 2001b), paper waste (Gajalakshmi et al., 2002c), brewery yeast (Butt,
1993), crop residues (Bansal and Kapoor, 2000), cow slurry (Hand et al.,
1988k), cattle manure (Mitchell, 1997), vine fruit industry sludge
(Atharasopoulous, 1993), rice stubbles, mango leaves (Talashilkar et al., 1999)
and activated sludge (Hartenstein and Hartenstein, 1981), textile mill sludge
(Kaushik and Garg, 2003) etc.
Experiments were conducted on vermicomposting of food waste, grass
clippings and the leaves from garden wastes by Morgan and Burrows, (1982).
Gajalakshmi et al., (2001a; 2001b; 2002a; 2002b) and Gupta (Gupta et al.,
2007) were studied vermicomposting using water hyacinth. Green waste such
as yard debris (Edwards, 1995; Frederickson et al., 1997), vegetable scraps
(Shanthi et al., 1993), domestic food waste (Haimi, 1990; Haimi and Huhta,
1988), commercial food waste (Edwards, 1995; Kater, 1998), bakery waste
(Greenscene, no date), commercial kitchen scraps and kitchen waste (Scott,
1998) were also processed by vermicomposting.
Babu (Babu et al., 2008) was conducted an experiment on preparation
of vermicompost with different farm wastes and weeds such as Papaya leaf
litter, Glyricidia loppings, Celosia, Parthenium, Redgram stalks and farmyard
manure.
In India wastes such as crop residues, cattle dung and urine, poultry
waste, sawdust, household refuse and night soil are abundant. Use of these
residues for vermicomposting and mushroom cultivation was studied by Madan
(Madan et al., 1988).
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While many studies have been reported in the literature on the use of
vermicomposting for processing of different organic wastes, few studies
reported its use in the processing of source-separated human faeces.
Researches into vermiculture have revealed that worms can feed upon
wide variety of organic wastes and provides sustainable solution for total waste
management (Fraser-Quick, 2002; Kale, 1998). The farm wastes, animal
wastes, garden wastes from homes and parks, the sewage sludge from the
municipal wastewater and water treatment plants, the wastewater sludge from
paper pulp and cardboard industry, brewery and distillery, sericulture industry,
vegetable oil factory, potato and corn chips manufacturing industry, sugarcane
industry, guar gum industry, aromatic oil extraction industry, logging and
carpentry industry were tested as feed material for vermicomposting by
earthworms in many experimental study (Datar et al., 1997; Edwards and
Fletcher, 1988; Edwards, 1988; Edwards, 1998; Frederickson et al., 1997; Gaur
and Singh, 1995; Graff, 1981; Gunathilagraj and Ravignanam, 1996; Kale et
al., 1993; Kale and Sunitha, 1995; Kaviraj, 2003; Lakshmi and Vizaylakshmi,
2000; Loehr et al., 1984; Lotzof, 2000; Seenappa and Kale, 1993; Seenappa et
al., 1995; Senapati, 1992; Sinha et al., 2009; Sudha and Kapoor, 2000; UNSW
ROU, 2002; Sinha and Gokul, 2007; Sinha et al., 2009; Sinha et al., 2009).
Even the fly ash (rich in nitrogen) from the coal power plants once
considered as a biohazard study to compost by earthworms and converted into
organic fertilizers by Saxena (Saxena et al., 1998). Study of pig solid treatment
by vermicomposting (Edwards et al., 1985; Chan and Griffiths, 1988; Wong
and Griffiths, 1991) and cattle solids (Hand et al., 1988; Edwards, 1998) also
studied. Viljoen and Reinecke (1989a) studied that vermicompost produced
from banana wastes and cattle manure in the ratio of 8:1. Worms at are grown
in a mixture of flying heart farm and restaurant residuals are composted with
wood chips, manure, and yard trimmings were studied by Farrell (1997).
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Vermicompost from biological sludges and sewage effluent were
studied as in an ecological strategy for the conservation of arable soils. A soil
sampled in the south of Italy and sown with oats was used in experiments. At
the end of the experiments (one month) a phyto-test (with Lepidium sativum)
was carried out on the treated soils by Masciandaro (Masciandaro et al., 1997).
The composting of household waste by a traditional Indian composting
procedure was compared to vermicomposting in order to select a more efficient
method of composting by Gandhi (Gandhi et al., 1997). A survey of 126 users
of household kitchen waste vermicomposting systems ware studied by
Applehof (1988). Werner (1997) taking a project at the Betty Van Dyke ranch
funded by the California Integrated Waste Management Board to study various
uses of municipal organics in commercial agriculture using vermitechnology.
A laboratory study was undertaken to examine the feasibility of using
vermicomposting to stabilize the waste product - dry olive cake, for use as a
soil amendment. Dry olive cake is obtained from a new two stage centrifugation
process used to extract olive oil from olives. Cattle manure was examined as a
comparison and as a co-composting agent. Different ratios of cake to co-
composting agent were examined by Nogales (Nogales et al., 1998).
Several varieties of earthworms have been recommended to be used in
vermicomposting by various workers, such as, deep burrowing and surface
dwellers (Albanell et al., 1988, Bansal and Kapoor, 2000, Chan and Griffiths,
1988; Ismail, 1997; Kale et al., 1982; Zajonc and Sidor, 1990) and it has been
established that the epigeic forms (surface dwellers) of earthworms are the most
suitable form for vermicomposting. The concept of vermicomposting started
from the knowledge that certain species of earthworms grow and consume a
wide range of organic residues very rapidly, converting them into
vermicompost, a humus like, soil building substance in short time.
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Certain epigeic earthworm species such as Eisenia foetida, Perionyx
excavatus and Eudrilus eugeniae are voracious feeders of organic wastes
(Senapathi, 1994; Kale and Bano, 1985). From this statement, particular species
of earthworms have been used to the process of coirpith and paddy waste
decomposition and end-product. To make out what is the effect of the
earthworm Eisenia foetida (Sav.) on decomposting organic residues was
studied and miscellaneous wastes and sewage sludge added with pine bark were
used to study by Haimi and Huhta (1988). Eudrilus eugeniae (Kinberg), was
used to prepare coirpith based vermicompost (Vijaya et al., 2008). Gupta et al.,
2007 investigated the potential of water hyacinth spiked with cow dung into
vermicompost. Five vermi-reactors containing water hyacinth and cow dung in
different ratios, were run under laboratory conditions for 147 days. In year
2008, a study was conducted by Tajbakhsh and his coworkers to assess the
potential of earthworms, Eisenia foetida and Eisenia andrei in composting
different types of organic substances such as stump and different agro-wastes.
Epigeic earthworms such as Eisenia foetida, Eisenia andrei, Perionyx
excavatus and Eudrilus eugeniae have been used to convert organic waste into
vermicast or the worm faeces that can be used as organic fertilizer and soil
conditioner was studied by various authors (Dominguez et al., 2000; Bansal
and Kapoor, 2000; Loh et al., 2003; Suthar, 2006b; Nair et al., 2006; Garg et
al., 2006a).
Yadav et al., (2010) study the suitability of vermicomposting technology
for processing source-separated human faeces and processed vermicompost by
Eisenia foetida. Gajalakshmi with his coworkers in 2002 (Gajalakshmi et al.,
2002b) conducted six month long trials on different vermireactors fed with one
of the Fresh whole plants, Dried whole plants, Chopped pieces of fresh plants,
Spent weed taken from reactors after extracting volatile fatty acids,
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Precomposted fresh weed, Precomposted spent weed forms of water hyacinth
by the earthworm Eudrilus eugeniae.
Earthworm species Eudrilus eugeniae, Eisenia foetida, Perionyx
sansibaricus, Pontoscolex corethrurus and Megascolex chinensis were
compared for their efficiencies in biodegrading organic wastes such as cow-pea,
banana, and cassava (Prabha et al., 2007). The peels of bitter cassava (Manihot
utilissima) root, was vermicomposted by earthworm, Eudrilus eugeniae (Eug)
and transform the cassava peels into vermicompost. Vermicomposting and field
investigations set up to assess the impact of three agricultural wastes: poultry
dropping, cowdung and guava (Psidium guajava) leaves on Eudrilus eugeniae
ability to vermicompost cassava peel treated by Mba (Mba, 1996).
Zajonc and Sidor (1990) evaluated and compared various non-standard
materials such as cotton waste with cattle manure grape cake etc, for the
preparation of vermicompost. A multiplication trial was conducted at the
International Crops Research Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics (ICRISAT),
Patancheru, Andhra Pradesh with three kinds of earthworm cultures (Eisenia
foetida, Eudrilus eugeniae and Perionyx excavatus) using wheat straw,
chickpea straw, tree leaves (Peltophorum sp.) and Parthenium sp. mixed with
cow dung as feed materials (Nagavallemma et al., 2004).
Eisenia foetida were used to vermicompost woodchip and sewage
sludge that are produced as waste product by platinum mines (Maboeta and
Rensburg, 2003). Gupta (Gupta et al., 2005) evaluate the leachate of municipl
solid waste and the leachate of postvermicomposted sludge and earthworm E.
foetida was used for vermicomposting. Gajalakshmi (Gajalakshmi et al., 2000)
assessed the two epigeic species (Eudrilus eugeniae and Perionyx excavatus)
and two anecic species (Lampito mauritii and Drawida willsi) of earthworms in
terms of efficiency and sustainability of vermicomposting of water hyacinth
and cow dung.
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Kurien and Ramasamy (2006) assessed the bioconversion potential of
two epigeic species (E. foetida and Eudrilus eugeniae) of earthworms was
assessed in terms of efficiency and sustainability of vermicomposting of Taro
(Colocasia esculenta) and 60 g of 6:1 Colocasia: cowdung were given as feed
to worms.
Epigeics like Eisenia foetida and Eudrilus eugeniae have been used in
converting organic wastes studied as agro waste and domestic refuse into
vermicompost by Asha Aalok (Asha et al., 2008).
Jais and Hassan (2008) was studied the ability of the earthworm Eisenia
foetida to convert four different types of organic wastes such as shredded
banana trunk, cafeteria waste, shredded newspaper and cow dung into
vermicast in the natural Malaysian environmental conditions. A new
vermicomposting technology which respecting ecological and economical
aspects was studied by Gajalakshmi using of water hyacinth (Gajalakshmi et
al., 2001a; 2001b; 2002a; 2002b; Gupta et al., 2007). Bharti (2010) studied the
impact of various combinations of Parthenium hyterophorus and cow dung as
well as long grass on the earthworm Eisenia foetida during vermicomposting.
Kale (Kale et al., 1982) studied the potential of Perionyx excavatus to
vermicompost different wastes such as sheep dung, horse waste cow dung,
biogas sludge and poultry manure and sand as control.
Decomposition of various organic substrates such as kitchen waste,
agro-residues, institutional and industrial wastes including textile industry
sludge and fibers into valuable vermicompost has been extensively studied
using an exotic earthworm species (epigeic-Eisenia foetida) were studied by
Ndegwa (Ndegwa and Thompson, 2001) Garg (Garg et al., 2006a) and Nair
(Nair et al.,2006).
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The cow dung has been employed as a medium substrate (Kavian and
Ghatnekar, 1996; Barely, 1961; Arora and Sharma, 2002, Sevenson, 1957;
Ismail and Sasiravanan, 1993) to initial and acclimatize earthworms first to
local conditions and then initiate vermicomposting of some industrial
substrates. 8 experiments were carried out with plerotus harvested on spot
straw and spent straw and spent straw with cow dung with Eudrilus eugeniae.
Cow dung (Shweta and Mamata, 2001), kitchen waste (Allevi et al., 1987), leaf
litter (Bhattacharya et al., 2002), were used individually and / or in
combination utilizing two different types of earthworms, E. foetida and
Lampito maurutii and E. eugeniae was mass cultured on different feed
formulation (mixing cow, sheep and horse dung with other organic wastes (rice
polish, wheat bran, green gram bran, vegetable waste and egg shell powder) in
various combinations). Vermicomposting is an innovative technology for the
treatment of waste water sludge in Mexico, where experience exists in the
treatment of organic garbage and coffee residues (Munnoli and Saroj bhosle,
2009).
Numerous studies have shown the ability of certain earthworm species
such as Eisenia foetida, Eisenia andrei and Lumbricus rubellus to process a
wide variety of organic matter such as animal excreta, sewage sludge, crop
residual and agricultural wastes (Benitez et al., 1999; Monroy et al., 2006;
Khwairakpam and Bhargava, 2009; Eastman et al., 2001). Kretschmar
(Kretschmar, 1998) worked with E. foetida in human faeces. Suthar (2006a)
has attempted vermicomposting with partially degraded faecal matter by using
two different earthworm species E. foetida and Dendrobena veneta at different
temperatures.
Eisenia foetida, Eisenia andrei and E. eugenius species were studied as
the earthworm adapted to water hyacinth decomposition (Gajalakshmi et al.,
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2001b). They present the Perionyx excavatus capacity to degrade different
proportion of water hyacinth with pig manure.
Whiston and Seal (1988), investigated the influence of earthworms in
the formation of soils and the conversion of farm manures into soil conditioners
have led to the establishment of a commercial vermiculture industry in the UK,
based upon the activity of Eisenia foetida. E. eugeniae was cultured in plastic
pots containing ground Paspalum digitatum (P. dilatatum) grass (Dallis grass).
This medium was toxic to the worms, if not fermented. Fermented and aerated
grass was palatable. The worms fed and grew on the fermented-aerated grass
and voided black colloidal casts (vermicompost), similar to the casts normally
voided on cassava peel diet (Mba, 1983).
An outdoor study was undertaken using polyethylene containers to
assess the suitability of different organic residues, soybean straw (Glycine max
L. Merril.), wheat straw (Triticum aestivum L.), maize stover (Zea mays L.),
chickpea straw (Cicer arietinum L.) and city garbage as food for the tropical
epigeic earthworm Perionyx excavatus and to assess the influence of this
earthworm on the decomposition of these materials. (Jefferies and Audsley,
1988; Lee, 1985; Manna (Manna et al., 1997), studies conducted on the
vermicomposting of organic household waste including garden residues and
contents of a composting toilet using crushed bark with earthworm species E.
foetida by Huhta and Haimi (1988).
A laboratory study was conducted to examine the feasibility of
vermicomposting dairy biosolids (dairy sludge), either alone or with either of
the bulking agents - cereal straw or wood shavings, using the epigeic
earthworm Eisenia andrei. Earthworms added directly to these three substrates
died within 48 hours. A system was developed to overcome the toxic effect of
unprocessed dairy biosolids by Nogales (Nogales et al., 1999).
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The vermicomposting of pulp mill sludge mixed with sewage sludge,
pig slurry and poultry slurry at different ratios was studied by Eisenia andrei
(Elvira et al., 1997). The potential for using paper-mill sludge enhanced with
spent yeast from the brewing industry as feedstock for soil-dwelling
earthworms was investigated by Butt (1993).
Vermicomposting of vegetable waste was examined in order to identify
suitable worm species and efficient levels of temperature and moisture.
Laboratory experiments were conducted under controlled conditions using
commonly available species: Pheretima sp., Eisenia sp. and P. excavatus
(Shanthi et al., 1993). Trials were made to treat biosolids and green waste
(chipped yard waste) by Scarborough (1999). The efficiency of recycling cattle
dung and water hyacinth (Eichhornia crassipes) by culture of the earthworm
Megascolex sp. was studied by Balasubramanian and Kasturi (1995).
Anaerobically stabilized effluents of dried vine fruit industry were
treated by earthworm species L. rubellus (Athanasopoulos, 1993; Applehof,
1981). The various groups, during and after the process carried out on rabbit
manure, on full-scale, in a small earthworm farm, comparing it with
spontaneous maturation process of the same material (Allievi et al., 1987). To
study identify the use of the "Vermiculture Ecotechnology" method for the
treatment of household and industrial sewage in different sized system (Wong
and Griffiths, 1991).
An investigation was made for the biomanagement of lantana (Lantana
camara L.) and congress grass (Parthenium hysterophorus L.) through
vermicomposting using earthworm species Eudrilus eugeniae. The mixture of
cowdung and raw material of both the weeds was used in the ratio of 1:1. The
vermicompost was ready for use within two months. The nutrient composition
of vermicompost prepared from lantana and congress grass was higher than that
of its substrates as well as FYM. Further, the effects of vermicompost prepared
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from different sources were evaluated on soil fertility and yield of wheat (PbW
343) by Vivek (Vivek et al., 2008).
The experiments were conducted to obtain compost from some toxic
weeds by using vermicomposting and conventional methods. The weeds used
in the experiment were congress grass (Parthenium hysterophorus Linn.), water
hyacinth (Eichhornia crassipes) and bhang (Cannabis sativa Linn.). Total six
sets of experiments were setup by using above materials. In the experiment
Eisenia foetida were used to treat the process (Chauhan and Joshi, 2010).
Sewage sludges and solids from wastewater (Neuhauser et al., 1988a;
Dominguez et al., 2000), materials from breweries (Butt, 1993), paper wastes
(Butt, 1993; Elvira et al., 1996a), sewage sludge., cattle manure (Sabine, 1978;
Lotzof, 1998) urban food and garden residues, animal wastes (Edwards et al.,
1985; Edwards, 1988; Elvira et al., 1996b; Dominguez and Edwards, 1997) as
well as horticultural residues from processed potatoes, dead plants and the
brewery and mushroom industries (Edwards, 1988) was treated by
vermicomposting. Most of this research has utilized the earthworm species
Eisenia foetida (Savigny, 1862) and Eisenia andrei (Bouche 1972) (Schulz and
Graff, 1977; Sabine, 1978; Hartenstein, 1981; Edwards and Niederer, 1988;
Edwards, 1988).
Vermicomposting is defined as a low cost technology system for
processing or treatment of organic waste (Hand et al., 1988). For the better
vermitechnology and production of earthworm, the best vermireactors were
also studied by various authors. Epigeic forms of earth worms can hasten the
composting process to a significant extent (Senapathi, 1988; Kale et al., 1992;
Tomati et al., 1983b) with production of better quality of composts and quality
worms, compared with those prepared through traditional methods (Tripathi
and Bhardwaj, 2004). Corn meal and bread crumbs have been studied possible
foods (Hess, 1937). Cooper (Cooper et al., 1969)) used spent coffee grounds to
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aid in culturing Allolobophora sp. Le Ray and Ford (1937) recommended
Pablum as a satisfactory food for invertebrates, including earthworms. In an
experiments, Purina Lab Rabbit Chow, which has essentially the same
ingredients as Pablum and contains a high proportion of alfalfa leaf, was used.
A mixture of walnut meal, peanut oil and Buss Bedding was used by Cooper et
al., 1970).
3.2 Biology of earthworms in vermiculture
Most of the research on utilization of earthworms in waste management
has focused on the final products, i.e. the vermicompost and worms. The
earthworm species most commonly utilized for the breakdown of organic
wastes are Eisenia foetida and its related species Eisenia andrei. Their
biological requirements have been studied extensively (Hartenstein Bisesi,
1989; Kaplan et al., 1980; Reinecke and Venter, 1987; Venter and Reinecke,
1988; Reinecke and Viljoen, 1990; Gestel et al., 1992).
There are many studies on the earthworm resources of India including of
its north-eastern states (Kale and Bano, 1986). However, information is scanty
regarding the biology and ecology of earthworm species from tropical regions
(Bhattacharjee and Chaudhuri, 2002).
Knowledge of the reproductive strategies of earthworms comes
predominantly from studies on temperate species (Evans and Guild, 1948;
Satchell, 1967; Lavelle, 1971; Reynolds, 1973; Phillipson and Bolton, 1977).
Dominguez (Dominguez et al., 2000) investigated the growth, reproduction and
population dynamics of E. eugeniae in cattle waste. The influence of
temperature and population density on its growth, reproduction, life cycle and
studied its potential for development as a replacement for E. foetida or E.
andrei in organic waste disposal or vermicomposting by Aira (Aira et al.,
2006). It has been observed for some vermicomposting earthworms species that
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different food diets can affect their growth, reproduction or both also (Tiunov
and Scheu, 2004).
Their biology and main environmental requirements have been studied
extensively by various authors (Venter and Reinecke, 1988; Haimi, 1990;
Nagavallemma et al., 2004).
The biology of composting earthworms had been investigated in terms
of their certain fundamental requirements, for instance the temperature (Kaplan
et al., 1980; Lowe and Butt, 2002; Reinecke and Kriel, 1981), pH (Kaplan et
al., 1980), density or stocking rate (Rhee, 1992), substrate (Doube and Brown
1998) and moisture content of the substrate (Hallatt et al., 1992). The effect of
bedding substrate on biological parameters such as biomass production, cocoon
numbers, hatchling success in popular composting earthworms is still
unanswered. Lowe and Butt (Lowe and Butt, 2002) studied the development of
earthworm culture techniques for temperate, soil dwelling (anecic and
endogeic) species: Allolobophora chlorotica, Aporrectodea caliginosa,
Aporrectodea longa and Lumbricus terrestris.
The effect of cow, buffalo, horse, donkey, sheep, goat and camel animal
wastes on growth and reproduction of an epigeic earthworm Eisenia foetida
was studied by Garg (Garg et al., 2005). The effect of various animal agro and
kitchen wastes on the growth and development of an epigeic earthworm Eisenia
foetida was studied under identical laboratory condition by Nath (Nath et al.,
2009a).
Several different culture media containing pulverized newspaper,
pelletted rabbit food, walnut meal, peanut oil, topsoil and coffee grounds were
tested for their effect on weight and viability of earthworms (Lumbricus
terrestris) by Cooper (Cooper et al., 1970). The feasibility of vermicomposting
water hyacinth (Eichhornia crassipes Mart.) mixed with pig manure in different
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proportions was tested using tropical composting earthworm Perionyx
excavatus and studied the worm production and biomass production of
Perionyx excavatus by Zirbes (Zirbes et al., 2011).
Loh (Loh et al., 2003) observed the growth such as biomass and gain,
reproduction as cocoon production of Eisenia foetida in cattle waste and goat
waste. The growth, fecundity and mortality of E. foetida was studied by Gunadi
and Edwards (Gunadi, and Edwards, 2003) in a range of different wastes such as
cattle manure solids, pig manure solids and super market waste for more than
one year and assess the moisture content, pH, electrical conductivity, C/N ratio,
NH4 and NO3 contents of the different cattle solids, different pig solids, fruit
wastes, and vegetable wastes. Vermicomposting of neem (Azadirachta indica)
was studied by Gajalakshmi and Abbasi (Gajalakshmi and Abbasi, 2004) in
high-rate reactors operated at the earthworm E. eugeniae and authors also
studied growth and reproduction of earthworm on the neem-fed vermireactors
and mango leaf litter.
Another study was also conducted by the same other to describe cocoon
morphology and analyse cocoon development, hatching success, dynamics of
cocoon production and fecundity in seven species of Indian earthworms viz.
Perionyx excavatus Perrier, Lampito mauritii (Kinberg), Polypheretima
elongata (Perrier), Pontoscolex corethrurus (Muller), Eutyphoeus gammiei
(Beddard), Dichogaster modiglianii (Rosa) and Drawida nepalensis
(Michaelsen). Such information could then be used to fit these earthworms into
broad categories of reproductive strategies and allow selection of appropriate
species for vermiculture (Bhattacharjee and Chaudhuri, 2002)
Very little is known about their nutrition for mass rearing. However,
among the different variables necessary for raising earthworms, it seems that
the type of feeding material or substrate is focused for vermicomposting and
vermiculture. Edwards (Edwards, 1998) studied the type, quality and quantity
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of the organic wastes on determining the rates of growth of a concerning
nutritional factors. He studied the impact of different earthworm species by
nutritional status for a specific earthworm species (Suthar, 2006b) and a
specific feed mixture (Suthar, 2006b). Recently Singh (Singh et al., 2005)
studied the effect of initial substrate on vermicomposting potential of P.
excavatus (Suthar, 2006a). However, earthworm biomass and cocoon
production rate were studied by Hendrickson (Hendrickson, 1990).
Cegarra (Cegarra et al., 1994) studied the reproduction of E. foetida
species, from compost elaborated with tannery residues (hair, tannery and
backyard waste compost). The growth and reproduction of Eudrilus eugeniae
(Kinberg) in cattle waste solids was studied by (Cooper et al., 1969).
Researchers have utilized the earthworm species Eisenia foetida (Savigny,
1862) and Eisenia andrei Bouche 1972 and the potential of both species as a
source of protein, to be used for animal feed (Sabine, 1978).
The quality and amount of food material influences on population, rate
of growth and cocoon production studied by Garg and Kaushik (Garg and
Kaushik, 2005), Lowe and Butt (Lowe and Butt, 2002) and Suthar (Suthar,
2006b). Evaluation of the influence of feed stocks on life cycle of tropical
earthworms studied by Suthar (Suthar, 2007b).
Dash and Senapati (1980) studied the morphology of cocoons of three
tropical earthworms, Lampito mauritii, Drawida willsi and Octochaetona
surensis and the effect of soil moisture and temperature on the cocoon hatching
process and the emergence pattern of juveniles in the field. Most studies on the
life cycles of tropical earthworms concern the composting species Perionyx
excavatus (Hallatt et al., 1990, 1992). In Perionyx excavatus, Hallatt (Hallatt et
al., 1990) studied the growth rate, rate of maturation, cocoon production, the
hatching success of cocoons, the incubation period and the number of offspring
per cocoon under controlled laboratory conditions at different moisture and
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temperature regions. Nevertheless, for commercial based vermicomposting
practices much of the researches have been focused on Eisenia foetida
(Edwards, 1988; Hartenstein, 1983; Kaushik and Garg, 2003; Loh et al., 2003);
Lumbricus rubellus (Cluzeau and Fayolle, 1989) and Dendrobaena veneta
(Fayolle et al., 1997; Loehr et al., 1985; Lofs-Holmines, 1986).
The growth patterns of the epigeic earthworm Eisenia foetida (Savigny)
in different types of organic wastes have been investigated by various authors
in laboratory studies (Edwards, 1998; Garg and Kaushik, 2005; Kaushik and
Garg, 2003; Kaplan et al., 1980). Animal manures have been used as a main
substrate for E. foetida for cattle (Edwards et al., 1985; Reinecke and Viljoen,
1990) ducks (Edwards et al., 1985), horses (Kaplan et al., 1980), pigs (Reeh,
1992), poultry (Edwards et al., 1985), rabbits and sheep (Edwards et al., 1985).
Urban wastes are very diverse, ranging from sewage bio-solids to food wastes
from restaurants and supermarkets.
There are few studies are available concerning the growth of E. foetida
in urban wastes. E. foetida has been used in substrates such as plant wastes
such as composted grasses, municipal pruning and river weeds (Frederickson et
al., 1997), maple pruning wastes (Akpa and Loquet, 1997), potato wastes,
vegetable wastes, coffee grounds and tea leaf wastes (Shanthi et al., 1993).
Studies concern the growth and fecundity but not the mortality of E.
foetida. The potential of some epigeic earthworm to recycle organic waste
materials into value-added products is studied by various authors (Kale et al.,
1982; Elvira et al., 1998; Garg and Kaushik, 2005).
Potential of some epigeic earthworms: Lumbricus terrestris, Eisenia
foetida, E. andrei, Eudrilus eugeniae and Perionyx excavatus have been to
combat the problems of organic waste disposal on a low-input basis (Kale et
al., 1982; Butt, 1993; Dominguez et al., 2001; Garg and Kaushik, 2005).
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Recently, Suthar (2007a) observed the potential of a new species such as P.
sansibaricus for waste decomposition operations.
Growth, reproduction, life cycle and environmental requirements of
earthworms were studied by Neuhauser (Neuhauser et al., 1988b) using sludge
and horse manure; Loehr (Loehr et al., 1985) using a mixture of animal and
vegetable waste materials, Bano and Kale (1988) and Viljoen and Reinecke
(1992) using cowdung; Elvira (Elvira et al., 1998) using sludges from paper
and pulp industries and agricultural organic waste and Loh (Loh et al., 2003)
using cattle and goat manures. Further, the trends of reproduction, the
characteristics of cocoons, incubation period, hatching success and fecundity
were studied in E.eugeniae and in Indian earthworms Perionyx excavatus,
Lampito mauritii, Polypheretima elongata, Pontoscolex corethrurus,
Eutyphoeus gammiei, Dichogaster modiglianii and Drawida nepalensis
(Bhattacharjee and Chaudhuri, 2002). Furthermore, relative population growth
in time and space (Kale and Bano, 1986); moisture requirement and
reproduction (Hallatt et al., 1992; Dominguez and Edwards, 1997); temperature
relations and their effect on survival growth, maturation and cocoon production
(Viljoen and Reinecke, 1992) were also studied.
However, the waste decomposition efficiency of P. excavatus was
studied and described in literature (Kale et al., 1982; Edwards et al., 1998;
Suthar, 2006a; Suthar, 2007a). The comparison of the composting efficiency
can be performed by using a common substrate for Earthworm species. In most
of the previous studies on P. excavatus, cattle dung and plant-derived wastes
were used as substrate material in vermicomposting experiments (Kale et al.,
1982; Edwards et al., 1998; Manna et al., 2003; Suthar, 2006a; Suthar, 2007b).
Though earthworm biology reared on various organic wastes has been studied
(Edwards and Bohlen, 1996; Elvira et al., 1998; Bhattacharjee and Chaudhuri,
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2002), till-to-date earthworm biology on their natural habitat has been poorly
understood (Parthasarathi, 2007).
Lampito mauritii Tolerance to temperature, soil moisture and various
other physical factors (Kale et al., 1982) with wide choice of habitats and food
preferences has studied by Kale (Kale et al., 1992). The growth patterns of E.
foetida in number of different organic waste resources have been investigated
by various authors in laboratory culture (Edwards, 1998; Garg and Kaushik,
2005; Kaushik and Garg, 2003; Kaplan et al., 1980; Suthar, 2007a). The life
cycle parameters of above tropical species has been investigated in respect to
their environmental requirement like temperature (Viljoen and Reinecke, 1992),
moisture (Hallatt et al., 1992), fecundity and density pressure (Kale and Bano,
1986), pH (Singh et al., 2005) but influence of culture material or substrate
quality on their life cycle parameters is less considered.
Eudrilus eugeniae (Kinberg) and Perionyx excavatus (Perrier) are the
commonly used earthworms for vermicomposting in tropical and sub-tropical
countries (Kale et al., 1982; Reinecke et al., 1992; Giraddi et al., 2002).
Researchers have been conducted on the biology of vermicomposting
earthworms such as E. eugeniae, Eisenia foetida (Savigny) and P. excavatus
(Bano and Kale, 1988; Venter and Reinecke, 1988; Hallatt et al., 1990; Manna
et al., 1997). Duration to sexual maturity, from cocoons to hatch and egg
maturation time and other reproduction and growth parameters were observed
by vermicomposting earthworms’ species by Edwards (Venter and Reinecke,
1988).
Studies on all five common species of composting worms have observed
that the population density, size and maturation per worm; reproduction per
worm and consumption per worm (Reeh, 1992; Dominguez and Edwards,
1997; Frederickson et al., 1997). Dominguez and Edwards (1997) however,
observed that high stocking rates influence and conversion rates (Haimi and
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Huhta, 1986). Hatchlings and juveniles biomass and processing waste by body
weight were studied (Jefferies and Audsley, 1988; Mba, 1989; Viljoen and
Reinecke, 1989b; Reeh, 1992; Elvira et al., 1996b; Edwards et al., 1998).
Haimi (1990) and Dominguez (Dominguez et al., 1997b) observed that the
individual body weight and reproduction of the species E. andrei.
Effect of cocoon production and the viability of worms (Edwards and
Bater, 1992; Edwards et al., 1998), feedstock type (Mba, 1989), availability
(Reinecke and Viljoen, 1990) also studied. Their prolific reproductive capacity
has also been studied (Guererro, 1981). Belewu and Banjo (1999) and Sowande
(Sowande et al., 2002) have studied on various treatments used in converting
sawdust into usable products and its nutritive value. This waste forms the major
constituents of the cellulose substrate used for earthworm culture in this study.
The life-cycle of Dendrobaena veneta was studied to assess the potential
of this species in vermiculture. The development, growth and reproduction
were investigated by rearing worms at 25°C on urine free cattle manure with a
moisture content of 80% over a period of 200 days (Viljoen et al., 1991).
Juvenile specimens of the epigeic earthworm species, Eudrilus eugeniae were
subjected to a range of different constant temperatures in a temperature gradient
trough over a period of 80 days. Other environmental factors and food
availability were maintained at a constant, optimal level. Survival, growth rate,
maturation and cocoon production were monitored regularly (Viljoen and
Reinecke, 1992). Cassia seracea and P. hysterophorus were used to study
growth and reproduction of earthworm and compare it with cattle manure study
(Slocum, 1999).
The life history of earthworm species was studied for the potential of the
earthworm Eudrilus eugeniae as waste processor and protein producer. The
development, growth and reproduction of E. eugeniae were also observed.
Cattle dung was used as substrate with a moisture content of 70-80% and a
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temperature of 25°C. Data were gathered over a period of 300 days. Sheppard
(1988), Slocum (1999), Venter and Reinecke (1988), Reinecke and Viljoen
(1990) studied the role of feeding status on the growth and reproduction of
Eisenia foetida, pre-clitellate specimens were kept for 180 days under
controlled conditions. A control group was regularly provided with freshly
produced cattle manure while the experimental groups were fed only
sporadically and at some stage even starved by removing some of the substrate.
Worm growth, maturation and cocoon production were monitored.
The lifecycle and reproduction of the vermicomposting worm Perionyx
excavatus was studied in cattle manure under controlled moisture and
temperature conditions (76-83% and 25°C resp.) (Reinecke and Viljoen, 1990;
Fayolle et al., 1997). Growth and reproduction of the earthworms Eisenia
andrei and E. foetida were studied under identical circumstances by Haimi,
(1990). The biology of the oriental vermicomposting species, Perionyx
excavatus is poorly understood. Quantitative observations were made at 25°C
in urine-free cattle manure in order to study the growth of this species by
Reinecke and Hallat (1989) and Reeh (1992). The rate of maturation and
cocoon production were studied under conditions of favorable moisture and
nutrition over a period of 250 days.
The life cycle of Perionyx excavatus has been studied and the potential
of this epigeic earthworm species for breaking down and processing organic
wastes is well studied. Understanding of its optimal environmental
requirements is required in order to optimize and accelerate the
vermicomposting process. The rates of growth and reproduction of P.
excavatus, on a variety of organic wastes were evaluated in these experiments.
The time of maturation and the rates of growth of these species under various
populations studied earthworm fecundity in cattle dung and sugarcane bagasse
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mixed in different ratios (Edwards and Bohlen, 1996; Edwards and Lofty,
1977).
The effect of some vegetable bulking agents (straw, pine needles, pine
bark, oak leaves and fern fronds) in mixtures with pig slurry (1:1 dry weight) of
the growth and reproduction of Eisenia andrei, Bouche 1972 in cultures with
either 1 or 8 individuals are prepared. Unlike individual cultures, with no food
limitation and no competition, the cultures with 8 individuals represent a more
real situation, with food competition and mating processes. The maximum
growth and reproduction rates were studied, both in the individual and in the
group cultures, in the mixtures with straw and pine needles (Dominguez and
Edwards, 1997). The effect of yeasts on growth and cocoon production of the
compost earthworm, Eisenia foetida (Savigny) was studied by various authors
(Baker and Barrett, 1994; Baker and Kilpin, 1992; Buckerfield, 1994).
At the Soil Ecology Laboratory of Ohio State University, an experiment
studied a continuous vermicomposting process for different mixtures of pig
manure slurries and agro forestry by-products. The research project analyzed
the effects of earthworm populations on the process and also evaluated the
vermicompost produced at different times (Dominguez et al., 1997a).
Neuhauser (Neuhauser et al,, 1988a) studied to identify the fundamental factors
that affect the performance of the vermistabilisation process and determine
design and management relationships for earthworms in managing the
treatment of sewage sludge. This study utilized five composting worm species:
Eisenia foetida; Dendrobaena veneta; Eudrilus eugeniae; Perionyx excavatus;
Perionyx hawayana. The reproduction and biomass are studied to find
suitability for sludge management through E. foetida (Neuhauser et al., 1988b).
Earthworm growth and reproduction in feedlot cattle manure has been
studied by Mitchell (1997). He also studied the process yielded two products:
residual vermicompost and in earthworm biomass. Earthworm growth and
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reproduction in sewage sludge and cattle manure was studied by Sabine (1978)
and Lotzof (1998). The suitability of cow slurry as a substrate for
vermicomposting by Eisenia foetida was investigated. Particular attention was
given to the effects of the earthworm’s growth and reproduction on the
decomposition and stabilization of the slurry and to the interactions between E.
foetida and the micro flora of the substrate by Hand (Hand et al., 1988). The
potential of different kinds and combinations of wastes were studied on the
biomass of Eisenia foetida capable of processing a given amount of waste in a
period of one month was tested. Mixed miscellaneous wastes and activated
sewage sludge mixed with or embedded in sieved pine bark was capable of
maintaining the required biomass for a long period by (Haimi and Huhta,
1986).
Freshly, shredded green waste (yard waste) was composted for 16
weeks. Samples of the fresh material were also vermicomposted using Eisenia
andrei (Bouche) and rates of growth and reproduction obtained which were
comparable to published rates for other wastes (Frederickson et al., 1997).
Elvira (Elvira et al., 1998) studied vermicomposting with Eisenia andrei of
sludges from a paper mill mixed with cattle manure in a six month pilot scale
experiment. Initially, a small-scale laboratory experiment was carried out to
determine the growth and reproduction rates of earthworms in the different
substrates tested.
Bioconversion of solid paper-pulp mill sludges and primary sewage
sludge for 40 days at a ratio of 3:1 dw.dw was studied in containers with and
without earthworms (Eisenia andrei). Growth and reproduction of the
earthworms in this mixture was also studied by Elvira (Elvira et al., 1997).
Various authors studied the suitability of Eisenia foetida to treat a range of
agricultural wastes and some vegetable wastes. The source of these wastes
include pig, cattle, horse, chicken, duck, turkey, rabbit, mushroom compost,
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processed potato waste, spent brewery yeast and paper pulp. The optimum
environmental conditions for this species were studied and some data on
growth, reproduction and population dynamics was observed. Also study on a
comparison between vermicomposting systems for breeding earthworms by
various authors (Edwards, 1988; Edwards, 1998; Edwards et al., 1985).
All aspects of the worm biology such as feeding habits, reproduction
and biomass production potential were studied by various authors in order to
utilize the earthworms successfully in vermiculture (Prabha et al., 2007).
Buckerfield and Webster (1998) investigate the effects on earthworm numbers
and population recovery before and after potato cropping and harvesting
farming practices. The life cycle parameters of P. excavatus, P. sansibaricus
tropical species have been investigated in respect to their environmental
requirement like temperature (Viljoen and Reinecke 1992), moisture (Hallatt et
al., 1992), fecundity and density pressure (Kale and Bano, 1986).
Information is scanty on the biology and ecology of earthworm species
from tropical regions. Growth, reproduction and life cycle of earthworms were
studied by various authors using different waste as raw materials; Sludge and
horse manure (Neuhauser et al., 1988a), mixture of animal and vegetable waste
materials (Loehr et al., 1985), cow dung (Bano and Kale, 1988; Viljioen and
Reineck, 1992), sludge from paper and pulp industry (Elvira et al., 1998), sugar
industrial wastes, cattle and goat manure (Loh et al., 2003).
The growth and reproduction of Eudrilus eugeniae (Kinberg) in cattle
waste solids was studied by growing groups of 1, 2, 4, 8 or 16 small
earthworms in 100 g of waste in small containers in incubators at 15°, 20°, 25°
and 30°C. Earthworms were weighed weekly and the number of cocoons
produced per week was assessed. Fecundity, growth, maturation and biomass
production were studied (Dominguez et al., 2001). Aira (Aira et al., 2006)
studied the effect of C to N ratio of pig slurry in microbial biomass and activity
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and in the growth and reproduction of the earthworm Eisenia foetida. However
there has been relatively little work on the biology and ecology of Eisenia
foetida species (Viljoen and Reinecke, 1989a).
The growth, fecundity and mortality of the epigeic earthworm Eisenia
foetida, in a range of different wastes were studied for more than one year in
the laboratory. Separated, pre-composted and fresh cattle manure solids, fresh
pig manure solids of different levels of maturity (nursery young, growing-
finish, and sow pigs) and fruit and vegetable wastes from a supermarket were
offered to the earthworms as substrates. The growth, fecundity and mortality of
E. foetida were monitored for 23 weeks until the earthworms stopped producing
cocoons (Gunadi and Clive, 2003).
Sogbesan and Ugwumba (2006) studied, 360 adult earthworms of
weights ranging from 1.8-3.3g (mean 2.65±1.01g) and lengths 15.0cm -30.0cm
(mean 22.5±7.5cm) were cultured in three media; soil substrate (control),
cellulose substrate dry neem leaves and soil substrates in nine wooden boxes
(0.9 m x 0.6 m x 0.3 m) for 84 days. The earthworms were monitored for
weekly growth pattern, nutrient utilization and productivity. The composting
potential of two epigeic earthworms (P. excavatus and P. sansibaricus) was
studied by Suthar and Singh (2008) to breakdown the domestic waste under
laboratory conditions.
Growth (length, biomass and mean growth rate) and reproduction (total
duration, clitellum appearance, clitellum completion, cocoon commencement,
rate of cocoon production, incubation period, hatching success and mean
number of hatching per cocoon) of indigenous Lampito mauritii (Kinberg) in
comparison with exotic Eudrilus eugeniae (Kinberg) cultured on three feed
substrates clay loam soil, cowdung and pressmud (filter cake) have been
studied by Parthasarathi (2007) over a period of 360 days under laboratory
conditions (30 ± 2oC, 60-65% moisture). Bisht (Bisht et al., 2007) studied the
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reproductive potential of Metaphire posthuma grown on field soil, cow manure
and poultry droppings was quantified in laboratory conditions to evaluate its
suitability for vermicomposting and improving soil fertility in crop fields of
Kumaun region. The study revealed that copulation is not a prerequisite for
production of viable cocoons.
Amorim (Amorim et al., 2005) tested with herbicide Phenmedipham on
reproduction, growth and mortality in Enchytraeus albidus and Enchytraeus
luxuriosus. A number of studies have been conducted on the standard worm
Eisenia foetida and Eisenia andrei. Numerous reproductive parameters have
been studied in earthworms exposed to various xenobiotics: cocoon and
hatchling production, viability of the worms produced (Gestel and Dis 1988;
Robidoux et al., 1999; Silva et al., 2009; Neuhauser and Callahan, 1990; Silva
et al., 2010; Robidoux et al., 2000; Maboeta et al., 1999) and sexual maturation
(Venter and Reinecke, 1985).
The impact of organic material quality on biomass production and
reproduction potential of commercial composting earthworm species: Eudrilus
eugeniae, Perionyx excavatus and Perionyx sansibaricus were studied, by using
three different type of culture material namely Jbs: (Jowar straw (Sorghum
vulgare) with bajra straw (Pennisetum typhoides) with sheep manure (1:1:2),
fym (farmyard manure) and Kitchen waste with leaf litter of Magifera indica
(1:1), under laboratory conditions for 150 days. The above substrate or culture
materials have different palatability, particle size and physiochemical
composition (Suthar, 2007a). Studies on comparative reproductive biology of
vermicomposting earthworms were taken up at the Main Agricultural Research
Station, UAS, Dharwad, during 2004-05, to assess the reproductive potential,
across the seasons. Eudrilus eugeniae (Kinberg) was observed to have mean
fecundity during summer and rainy months of E. eugeniae and Perionyx
excavatus (Giraddi et al., 2008).
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A field experiment was conducted during 2005 to study the effect of
earthworm stocking rates on vermicomposting of two crop wastes viz., soybean
waste (Glycine max L.) and millet straw (Panicum milliare Lamk.). With the
increase in earthworm stocking from 100 to 250 worms per 1.0 × 1.0 × 0.5m
vermi bed, population growth and vermicompost production rates were also
studied, in both the substrates by Giraddi (2008). The effect of various animal
agro and kitchen wastes on the growth and development of an epigeic
earthworm Eisenia foetida was studied under identical laboratory condition.
There was observed significant growth and development of earthworm among
different combination of animal agro and kitchen wastes (Nath et al., 2009b).
For each waste such as cow, buffalo, horse, donkey, sheep, goat and
camel, five hatchlings per 100g of waste were inoculated and monitored for
biomass gain, mortality, sexual maturity and cocoons production periodically
for 15 weeks (Garg et al., 2005). Comparative study was performed to evaluate
composting efficiency and biology of three earthworm species such as Eisenia
foetida, Eudrilus eugeniae and Perionyx excavatus by Chauhan (Chauhan et al.,
2010).
Zirbes (Zirbes et al., 2011) studied the impact of Parthenium
hyterophorus on the earthworm Eisenia foetida during vermicomposting.
Various combinations of Parthenium and cow dung as well as long gress were
used. Different parameters earthworm population like increase in population,
population growth rate, biomass and age class were analysed (Maboeta and
Rensburgr, 2003). Studies on earthworm multiplication were also conducted at
ICRISAT using tree leaves and Gliricidia stems mixed with cattle manure as
feed material. Puri (2004) worked on the survivability and reproduction of E.
foetida in human faeces. E. eugeniae was cultured in plastic pots containing
ground Paspalum digitatum (P. dilatatum) grass (Dallis grass). This medium
was transit and was rapid and varied with age, hatchlings, juveniles and adults,
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were studied (Mba, 1983). Mixtures of lettuces-broccoli, lettuces-cauliflowers
and cabbages-cauliflowers media were studied the largest earthworms
populations by Tamayo (Tamayo et al., 1997).
Worms selection and biology were studied and reported by several
authors since (Barley, 1959; Barley and Jennings, 1959; Bhawalkar and
Bhawalkar, 1993; Darwin, 1881; Neilson, 1951; Palanisamy, 1996; Ramesh et
al., 1997; Tomati and Galli, 1995; Tomati et al., 1987; Atiyeh et al., 2002b;
Ismail, 2005; Jensen, 1998; Singh, 1993; Sinha, 1998; Sinha, 2008; Alvarez et
al., 1995; Weltzien, 1989; Atiyeh et al., 2000a; 2000b; 2000c; Bonkowski and
Schaefer, 1997; Hammermeister et al., 2004; Subler et al., 1998). This was
verified by Bhatia (Bhatia, 2000; Bhatia et al., 2000), Sinha and Bharambe
(Sinha and Gokul, 2007).
However relatively little work on the biology and ecology of this species
also studied (Neuhauser et al., 1988a; Viljoen and Reinecke, 1989b; 1992;
Reinecke et al., 1992).
3.3 Nutrition of vermicompost
Vermicompost is one of the byproducts of vermicomposting processes
of waste or organic materials. The quality of vermicompost is depending upon
the composing earthworm species, nature of the substrate and other
environmental factors. There are some works related to the quality of
vermicompost derived from different wastes. But there are very scanty
information related to the quantity of vermicompost production through
different earthworm species on different wastes.
Waste were converted into rich in organic matter was studied and
reported by several authors since (Barley, 1959; Barley and Jennings, 1959;
Bhawalkar and Bhawalkar, 1993; Darwin, 1881; Neilson, 1951; Palanisamy,
1996; Ramesh et al., 1997; Tomati and Galli, 1987; Tomati and Galli, 1995;
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Atiyeh et al., 2002a; Ismail, 2005; Jensen, 1998; Singh, 1993; Sinha, 1998;
Sinha, 2008; Alvarez et al., 1995; Weltzien, 1989; Atiyeh et al., 2000a; 2000b;
2000c; Bonkowski and Schaefer, 1997; Hammermeister et al., 2004; Subler et
al., 1998).
A work was evaluated to study the potential of an epigeic earthworm
Eisenia foetida to convert the different combination of animal wastes (cow,
buffalo, sheep, horse and goat dung) different agro and kitchen wastes in to rich
nutrient vermicompost and pre and post chemical analysis of feed mixtures by
Nath (Nath et al., 2009b). Comparative study was performed to evaluate
composting efficiency such as pH, carbon, nitrogen, P, K, C/N and C/P ratios of
three earthworm species such as Eisenia foetida, Eudrilus eugeniae and
Perionyx excavatus Vegetable waste by Chauhan (Chauhan et al., 2010).
Similarly, industrial wastes such as guar gum industrial waste, paper pulp, and
distillery wastes have been vermicomposted and turned into nutrient rich
manure studied by various authors (Sundaravadivel and Ismail, 1995; Suthar,
2006a; Suthar, 2007a).
Sharma (Sharma et al., 2008) revealed that recycling of two obnoxious
weed plants (Lantana camara L.) and Parthenium (Parthenium hysterophorus
L.) as organic manure through vermicomposting, the nutrient contents in
vermicompost has studied over the substrate used the nutrient content of fresh
Salvinia molesta and Eichhornia crassipes. Seven vermicomposts produced by
the action of worms on sheep manure, dairy manure, poultry manure, mixture
of wastes (underfelt, lawn clippings etc.), kitchen scraps, another mixture
(carboard, wheat, meat etc.) and piggery solids were studied for it nutrition
(Edwards and Burrows, 1988; Edwards and Shipitalo, 1998; Handreck, 1986).
In view of the growing awareness about vermicomposting technology in
recycling a wide range of organic wastes, the behaviour of phosphorus during
mineralization of different organic wastes in the absence and presence of
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epigeic earthworms was studied from different organic wastes (Ghosh et al.,
1999). Waste derived from vegetables such as gourds, cucumbers, beans etc,
were used for different vermicompost and the quality were studied (Acharya,
1997).
In Colombia, more than one million tons of coffee pulp is produced
every year. Its transformation into compost by means of turned piles has led to
a final product with poor physical and chemical characteristics and
vermicomposting has been suggested as an alternative method of transforming
these wastes into a useful organic fertilizer. The ability of the earthworm
Eisenia foetida to transform coffee pulp into valuable compost was studied by
Orozco (Orozco et al., 1996).
Tests have also been conducted combining thermo-composting and
vermicomposting to improve efficiency and compost quality (Manna et al.,
1996; 2003; Nair et al., 2006).
Rabbit manure with 50% of city refuse and 10% of ferric phosphate
were left to transform with and without worms (Eisenia foetida). Ash, carbon,
nitrogen, phosphorus and heavy metal contents along with conductivity and pH
were studied by Cegarra (Cegarra et al., 1994).
Castings of Eisenia foetida from sheep manure alone and mixed with
cotton wastes were analyzed for their properties and chemical composition
every 2 weeks for 3 months and compared with the same manures by Albanell
(Albanell et al., 1988).
The biochemical changes in fresh cow manure caused by the earthworm
Eisenia andrei (Bouche) were measured over a period of four months, under
controlled laboratory conditions by Atiyeh (Atiyeh et al., 2000a). Studies were
undertaken to select the most suitable earthworm species for vermicomposting,
to enrich vermicompost by inoculation with beneficial microbes and neutrinos,
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to standardize an economically feasible method of vermicomposting, to achieve
nutrient economy through vermicompost and to assess the performance of
vermicompost as a bioinoculant in cow-pea, banana, and cassava. Earthworm
species Eudrillus eugeniae, Eisenia foetida, Perionyx sansibaricus, Pontoscolex
corethrurus and Megascolex chinensis were compared for their efficiencies in
biodegrading organic wastes (Prabha et al., 2008).
Agro-industries account for production of large quantity of wastes such
as coir industry waste, paper and dairy industry waste, biscuit industry waste,
fruit pulp industry waste, oil refineries and breweries wastes, stems, leaves,
flowers from aromatic oil extraction units etc. Apart from sugar and alcohol as
primary products, sugar industries and fermentation units also produce many
by-products such as pressmud, bagasse, distillery waste, and boiler ash and
fermentation yeast sludge. All these wastes serve as an excellent source of
nutrients (Bano et al., 1987; Kitturmath et al., 2007).
Bhawalkar and Bhawalkar (1993) investigation was aimed to analyse the
various physicochemical parameters like pH, electrical conductivity, moisture
content, organic carbon and C/N ratio in vermicomposting of leaf litter which
are of importance in quick and efficient degradation of complex organic
material into simple compounds during different intervals of time (15, 30 and
45 days) by Lampito mauritti (Priya and Lakshmi, 2011)
Composting of water hyacinth, mixed with cattle manure, rice husk and
sawdust in four different proportions, was performed in a pilot scale rotary
drum composter. The physico-chemical characteristics such as temperature,
moisture content, pH, electrical conductivity, total organic matter (OM),
nitrogen dynamics and nutrients were evaluated during the 20 days composting
process (Waikhom et al., 2012). Puri (2004) worked of E. foetida in human
faeces physical characteristics.
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Composts obtained from mixtures of lettuces-broccoli, lettuces-
cauliflowers or cabbages-cauliflowers were tested for amounts of organic
matter, N, P, K, Ca, Mg, Fe, Mn, Cu, Zn and B and had pH values were
observed in compost mixtures including lettuces by worms through
vermitechnology (Tamayo et al, 1997).
3.4 Vermicompost on phyto-test
Vermitechnology research extends up to phyto-test and their quality and
quantity on the plants and plant products. Most of these studies aimed that
vermicomposts have beneficial effects on plant growth. Vermicomposts tested
whether as soil additives or as components of horticultural media, seed
germination and seedling growth and development of plants.
There are only few research studies that have examined the responses of
plants to the use or substitution of vermicomposts to soil or greenhouse
container media (Chan and Griffiths, 1988; Edwards and Burrows, 1988;
Wilson and Carlile, 1989; Mba, 1996; Buckerfield and Webster, 1998).
There have been several studies, which worm worked waste and their
excretory products (vermicast) on plant growth (Arancon et al., 2006; Arancon
et al., 2008; Atiyeh et al., 2000a; Atiyeh et al., 2000b; Atiyeh et al., 2000c;
Atiyeh et al., 2002a; Azarmi et al., 2008; Bhatia, 2000; Canellas et al., 2000;
Scheu, 1987).
It has been studied on all yield parameters such as improved seed
germination, enhanced rate of seedling growth, flowering and fruiting of major
crops like wheat, paddy, corn, sugarcane, tomato, potato, brinjal, okra, spinach,
grape and strawberry as well as of flowering plants like petunias, marigolds,
sunflowers, chrysanthemums and poinsettias (Subler et al., 1998; Tiwari et al.,
1989; Lunt and Jacobson, 1994; Nighawan and Kanwar, 1952; Chaoui et al.,
2003; Edwards and Burrows, 1988; Edwards, Dominguez and Arancon, 2004;
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Tomati and Galli, 1995; Bhatia, 2000; Bhatia et al., 2000; Atiyeh et al., 2000b;
Canellas et al., 2000, Alvarez et al., 1995; Weltzien, 1989; Hoitink and Fahy,
1986; Scheuerell and Mahaffee, 2002; Shiralipour et al., 1992; Sinha et al.,
2009; Sinha and Gokul, 2007; Edwards and Fletcher, 1988; Bonkowski and
Schaefer, 1997).
Several scientists working on vermiculture throughout the world the
positive role of earthworms and its metabolic products (vermicast) on crop
growth and development. Important among them are Alam (Alam et al., 2007),
Ansari (Ansari, 2008), Atiyeh (Atiyeh et al., 2000b; Atiyeh et al., 2000c),
Arancon (Arancon et al., 2003; Arancon et al., 2004), Bhat and Khambata
(Bhat and Khambata, 1994), Bhatia (Bhatia, 2000; Bhatia et al., 2000), Baker
and Barrett (Baker and Barrett, 1994), Chauhan (Chauhan, 2009), Canellas
(Canellas et al., 2000), Edwards and Burrows (Edwards and Burrows, 1988)
Ghabbour (Ghabbour, 1996), Garg and Bhardwaj (Garg and Bhardwaj, 2000),
Krishnamoorthy and Vajranabhaiah (Krishnamoorthy and Vajranabhaiah,
1986), Palanisamy (Palanisamy, 1996), Scheu (Scheu, 1987), Tomar (Tomar et
al., 1998) and Wilson and Carlie (Wilson and Carlile, 1989).
Arancon (Arancon et al., 2008) demonstrated the effects of
vermicompost produced from three types of wastes are cattle manure, food
waste and paper waste on growth and flowering of petunias. Atiyeh (Atiyeh et
al., 2001) study the effects of additions of earthworm processed pig manure
vermicompost on the growth and productivity of French marigold plants
(Atiyeh et al., 2001). Arancon (Arancon et al., 2008) produced vermicompost
from food wastes, paper wastes and cattle manure were applied to peppers
(Capsicum annuum) and studied their effects on the growth and yields of
peppers.
Arancon produced vermicomposts commercially from food wastes, were
substituted at a range of different concentrations into a soil-less commercial
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bedding plant container medium, Metro-Mix 360 (MM360), to evaluate their
effects on the growth and yields of peppers (Capsicum annuum) in the
greenhouse. Six-week-old peppers (Capsicum annum L. var. California) were
transplanted into 100%, 80%, 60%, 40%, 20% or 10% MM360 substituted with
0%, 10%, 20%, 40%, 60%, 80% and 100% vermicompost (Arancon et al.,
2004). Tajbakhsh (Tajbakhsh et al., 2008b) evaluated the potential of epigeic
earthworms Eisenia foetida and Eisenia andrei to transform spent mushroom
compost (SMC) into a more useful product (vermicompost). This experiment
was designed to characterize the physical, chemical and microbial properties of
a standard commercial horticultural, greenhouse container and bedding plant
medium (Metro-Mix 360) that had been substituted with a range of increasing
concentrations (0%, 5%, 10%, 25%, 50% and 100% by volume) of pig manure
vermicompost.
In greenhouse trials, the growth of marigold and tomato seedlings were
tested by vermicompost in a commercial horticultural potting medium was
studied by Atiyeh (Atiyeh et al., 2000b).
E. eugeniae used in the composting of coirpith. The resultant bio-
compost was tested as a growth promoter for the medicinal plant Andrographis
paniculata and also for reclamation of barren soil for use in the production of
this plant (Vijaya et al., 2008; Coon and Ernst, 2004). The effects of
earthworm-processed sheep-manure vermicompost on the growth, productivity
and chemical characteristics of soybean straw (Glycine max L. Merril.), wheat
straw (Triticum aestivum L.), maize stover (Zea mays L.), chickpea straw
(Cicer arietinum L.), city garbage (Manna et al., 1996) and greenhouse
tomatoes (Lycopersicum esculentum OTOR) (Federico et al., 2007) has also
been studied.
Over the past three years, a comprehensive research program on
vermicomposting has been developed at the Ohio State University. This has
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included experiments investigating the effects of vermicompost on the
germination, growth, flowering and fruiting of vegetable plants such as bell
peppers and tomatoes as well as on a wide range of flowering plants including
petunias, marigolds, bachelor’s button, chrysanthemums, impatiens,
sunflowers, and poinsettias. Some of the plant growth responses in horticultural
container media, substituted with a range of dilutions of vermicomposts, were
similar to those studies when composts were used (Sinha, 2008).
The small number of field experiments reported in the literature have
shown that amending soils with vermicomposts on the growth and yield of
some crops such as cowpeas (Mba, 1983), cress (Masciandaro et al., 1997),
grapes (Buckerfield and Webster, 1998; Venkatesh et al., 1998), Chichorium
(Vadiraj et al., 1998), bananas (Athani et al., 1999), strawberries (Arancon et
al., 2004) and tomatoes (Arancon et al., 2003). Krishnamoorthy and Vajrabhiah
(1986), Tomati and Galli (1995) Edwards and Burrows (1988) studied the
production of plant growth in the vermicomposts.
Various greenhouse and field studies have examined the effects of a
variety of vermicomposts on a wide range of crops including cereals and
legumes (Chan and Griffiths, 1988), vegetable (Edwards and Burrows, 1988;
Wilson and Carlile, 1989) ornamental and flowering plants (Edwards and
Burrows, 1988; Atiyeh et al., 2000a) and field crops (Mba, 1996; Buckerfield
and Webster, 1998; Arancon et al., 2004).
Whether used as soil additives or as components of horticultural media,
vermicomposts usually study seedling growth and development and
productivity of a wide variety of crops (Edwards and Burrows, 1988; Wilson
and Carlile, 1989; Mba, 1996; Buckerfield and Webster, 1998; Edwards 1998).
Enhancement in plant growth and productivity has been attributed to the
physical and chemical characteristics of the processed materials (Gallardo and
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Nogales, 1987; Bugbee and Frink, 1989; Tyler et al., 1993; Alvarez et al.,
1995; Beeson, 1996).
The studies have revealed that vermicompost may be potential sources
of nutrients for field crops if applied in suitable ratios with synthetic fertilizers
(Krishnamoorthy and Vajranabhaian, 1986; Tomati et al., 1987; Mascolo et al.,
1999). The earlier workers have studied the effect of vermicompost application
on growth and productivity of cereals and legumes (Benik and Bhebaruah,
2004; Suthar, 2006a), ornamental and flowering plants (Kale et al., 1987;
Nethra et al., 1999) and vegetables (Edwards and Burrows; 1988; Atiyeh et al.,
2000b; Atiyeh et al., 2001).
Many people started studying about the role of worms in soil
improvement and crop production. Worms select those parts of the soil which
are rich in organic matter was studied by several authors since (Barley, 1959;
Barley and Jennings, 1959; Bhawalkar and Bhawalkar, 1993; Darwin, 1881;
Neilson, 1951; Palanisamy, 1996; Ramesh et al., 1997; Tomati et al., 1983a;
Tomati et al., 1987; Tomati et al., 1988).
The worms on soil and land, total plant growth and crop productivity
where studied by various authors (Bonkowski and Schaefer, 1997; Clarholm,
1981; Hopp, 1946; Hopp and Slater, 1949; Joshi and Kelkar, 1952; Lavelle and
Martin, 1992; Lee, 1985; Neilson, 1951; Puh, 1941; Russell, 1910).
Studies on vegetable and cereal crops done in India at University of
Rajasthan (1997-2001) and at Bihar Agriculture University (2007-2009) and in
Australia at Griffith University (2007-2009), have also testified. Application of
vermicompost in potted and field crops growth performances in terms of height
of plants, color and texture of leaves, appearance of fruiting structures etc., as
compared to chemical fertilizers and the compost (Sinha, 2009)
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There is a study that vermicompost on growth of plants and favourable
influence on all yield parameters of crops like, wheat, paddy and sugarcane
(Ismail, 1997; Ansari, 2008). To identified the effect of the root formation,
elongation of stem and production of biomass, vegetables, ornamental plants
etc. studied by numerous authors (Grappelli et al., 1985; Kale and Bano, 1986;
Kale et al., 1987; Kale, 1998; Atiyeh et al., 1999; Ghosh et al., 1999).
Total plant growth and crop productivity on different vermicompost
studied by numerous authors (Bonkowski and Schaefer, 1997; Clarholm, 1981;
Devliegher and Verstraete, 1997; Hopp, 1946; Hopp and Slater, 1949; Joshi
and Kelkar, 1952; Lee, 1985; Neilson, 1951; Puh, 1941; Russell, 1910;
Shrikhande and Pathak, 1948; Winding et al., 1997; Bhawalkar and Bhawalkar,
1993; Darwin, 1881; Hoitink and Fahy, 1986; Scheuerell and Mahaffee, 2002;
Thangavel et al., 2003).
Investigations were undertaken by Rani and Srivastava (1997) to assess
the effect of organic wastes alone and in combination with earthworms on plant
growth. Maize and wheat were grown as test crops (Sharma and Madan, 1988).
Vermicompost (produced by earthworms from organic wastes) was tested in
pot experiments for its ability to replace a proportion of the urea fertilizer
applied to rice.
An experiment was conducted on mulberry crop (Morus sp.) to
investigate the effect of vermicompost in comparison with farm yard manure
and fertilizers on the mulberry leaf yield during 1993 - 1994 at Akola, India.
The treatment of full dose NPK fertilizers plus vermicompost and farmyard
manure on the number of branches, height of the plant, number of leaves per
plant and leaf yield per plant was studied by Murarkar (Murarkar et al., 1998).
The possibility of reducing the use of chemical fertilizer by using
vermicompost as organic fertilizer was tested on the summer crop of paddy
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variety HAMSA. The control plot received the recommended dosage of farm
yard manure and the chemical fertilizers. The experimental plot received half
the recommended dosage of chemical fertilizers and the vermicompost. At the
time of seed setting and 2 months after the harvest of the crop, the soil samples
were analysed (Kale et al., 1992).
The effects of earthworms on plant growth (paddy and sugarcane,
vegetables and fruit) were studied by Ismail (1995). The sericulture (silkworm
culture) waste (silkworms ejected feces litter) for composting with other mixed
plant residues and for raising earthworms Eisenia foetida and form
vermicompost during vermicomposting process. Vermicomposted sericulture
litter significantly used to study the growth of mulberry varieties S146, K-2 and
Mandley over other treatments (Sharma et al., 1999).
Vermicomposting of sericultural wastes was studied in the laboratory
during 1995 using Perionyx excavatus, cow dung and sericulture wastes and
also studied the content of mulberry (Morus indica) leaf litter and silkworm
larval litter and also study the K, Mn, Zn and Fe content of the mulberry leaf
litter (Gunathilagaraj and Ravignanam, 1996). Chan and Griffiths (1988) study
the vermicomposting of pre-treated pig manure in Hong Kong using the
earthworm Eisenia foetida and also studied effect of vermicompost on the
growth of Glycine max (soybean).
Vermicomposted coirpith produced by an exotic earthworm, Eudrilus
eugeniae (Kinberg) was amended with alkaline soil from an industrial site and
compared with coirpith composted with effective microorganisms as a growth
medium for the medicinal plant, Andrographis paniculata (Burm.f.) in field
plots (Vijaya et al., 2008).
A study was designed to characterize the physical, chemical and
microbial properties of a standard commercial horticultural, greenhouse
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container, bedding plant medium (Metro-Mix 360), that had been substituted
with a range of increasing concentrations (0%, 5%, 10%, 25%, 50% and 100%
by volume) of pig manure vermicompost and to relate these properties to plant
growth responses. The growth trials used tomatoes (Lycopersicon esculentum
Mill.), grown in the substituted media for 31 days under glasshouse conditions,
with seedling growth recorded in 20 pots for each treatment (Atiyeh et al.,
2001).
A field trial on amaranthus (Amaranthus tricolor L.) with different
levels of vermicompost prepared using ayurvedic pharmaceutical wastes from
Oushadhi Pharmaceuticals, Thrissur, farm yard manure (FYM) and inorganic
fertilizers was conducted by Preetha (Preetha et al., 2005). Parthenium plants
and neem leaves were composted using the epigeic earthworm, Eisenia foetida
and the resulting composts were tested on supporting the growth of plant with
the germination and growth of Vigna radiate seedlings by Sivakumar
(Sivakumar et al., 2009).
Seedlings of Acacia mearnsii, Eucalyptus grandis and Pinus patula
were grown in pure pine bark compost, pure vermicompost (abattoir waste
reduced by worms) and five mixtures of pine bark and vermicompost (Donald
and Visser, 1989).
The efforts were made to study the impact of vermicomposted and
composted farmyard manure (FYM) along with some combination of NPK
fertilizers on field crop of garlic (Allium stivum L.). A total of six experimental
plots were prepared (Surindra, 2009). Azarmi (Azarmi et al., 2008) study, the
effects of vermicompost on soil chemical and physical properties was evaluated
in tomato (Lycopersicum esculentum) field.