John Carroll’s Model of School Learningin 1963, John Carroll proposed a model to account for school learning. His major premise was that school learning is a function of time. To be more specific, Carroll proposed that
school time spentlearning = f time needed
Allocated time
(amount of time
available for
learning)
Allocated time
(amount of time
available for
learning)
Time spentTime spent
Aptitude the ability to learn
academic material
(IQ)
Aptitude the ability to learn
academic material
(IQ)
TIME ON TASKEngagement
rate(percentage of allocated time students were paying
attention
TIME ON TASKEngagement
rate(percentage of allocated time students were paying
attention
Opportunity-Amount of time
available for learning
Opportunity-Amount of time
available for learning
ff
Perseverance-the extent to which
student take advantage of the
opportunity to learn
Perseverance-the extent to which
student take advantage of the
opportunity to learn
School learningSchool learning
Ability to understand instruction the preparedness of the student for understanding
the specific material to be learned (prerequisite
knowledge)
Ability to understand instruction the preparedness of the student for understanding
the specific material to be learned (prerequisite
knowledge)
Quality of instruction
methods and techniques
Quality of instruction
methods and techniques
ff
ff==Time
neededTime
needed
Learning (output) = f(context, input and classroom processes
Learning (output) = f(context, input and classroom processes
Academic learning time is a measured of the QUALITY as well as QUANTITY of time. It is the amount of time students are successfully covering content thah
will be tested
Academic learning time is a measured of the QUALITY as well as QUANTITY of time. It is the amount of time students are successfully covering content thah
will be tested
A high level of Academic Learning Time means that
1)Student are covering important (tested/evaluated) content
2) Students are “on task” most of the class period and
3) Students are successful on most the assingments they complete
A high level of Academic Learning Time means that
1)Student are covering important (tested/evaluated) content
2) Students are “on task” most of the class period and
3) Students are successful on most the assingments they complete
Time NeededTime Needed
If “time to learn” is held CONSTANT (all students
receive the same amount of time-to-learn regardless of aptitude), then academic, aptitude
is the most important variable related to time
needed.
If “time to learn” is held CONSTANT (all students
receive the same amount of time-to-learn regardless of aptitude), then academic, aptitude
is the most important variable related to time
needed.
If “time to learn” is allowed to VARY
(students receive as much time as they need
to learn important content), then
prerequisite knowledge and quality of
instruction become more important.
If “time to learn” is allowed to VARY
(students receive as much time as they need
to learn important content), then
prerequisite knowledge and quality of
instruction become more important.
Time Needed
If “time to learn” is held CONSTANT (all students
receive the same amount of time-to-learn regardless of aptitude), then academic aptitude is the most important
variable related to time needed.
If “time to learn” is allowed to VARY
(students receive as much time as they need
to learn important content), then
prerequisite knowledge and quality of
instruction become more important.
Pelajar berprestasi tinggi kerana guru itu bagus
Pelajar berprestasi tinggi kerana pelajar itu bagus
Self ConceptHow one views or feels about the self. This concept is learned as you experienced the world through your senses and perception
Formation of the Self-Concept
•Built from information from others• Built from information from ourselves• Once a self-concept is formed, it is difficult to change• How you view yourself and the way others view you can different
Self-Concept ang Self-EsteemSelf-concept is a cognitive appraisal of our social, physical, and academic competence (a measure of such things are our skill in
various subject areas, our assessment of our appearance, and the skill we have in peer relationship).
Academic skillsSocial skills cognitive
physical
Self-Esteem is the affective or emotional reaction to one’s self-concept (reflects a person’s overall confidence and satisfaction with oneself)
Positive and Negative Self-conceptPositive self-concept Negative self-concept
You are motivated to do something because you have often been successful
You lack motivation because, when you have tried new things before, you often did not do very well
You are confident in social situations because you usually get on well with people
You lack confidence, especially when meeting new people, new people make you feel anxious as you fear you will have nothing to say
You are generally happy with life You are unhappy a lot of the time
You have enough self-confidence to cope with new challenges and to view them positively
You often find life difficult and do not enjoy new challenges, as you are afraid of failure
Self-Efficacy
• High self-efficacy-believe can deal effectively with life events-confident in abilities-expect to overcome obstacles effectively
• Low self-efficacy-feel unable to exercise control over life-low confidence, believe all efforts are futile
Recap
Definitions
• SELF-CONCEPT
-the sum total of the ways in which we think about ourselves
• SELF ESTEEM
-how highly we think about our abilities and ourself
• SELF IMAGE
-How we view ourself based on others reaction to us
Influences to Self-Concept
Self-conceptSelf-concept
Sexual orientation
education
appearance
ageLife experiences
Emotional maturity
culturegender
relationships
Improving Children’s Self-Esteem
Encourage and facilitate-competence in area students find
important-improvement of academic skills through the use of professional tutors, parent volunteers, and peer tutors-emotional support and social approval by
parents, friends, and peers-social skills that positive peer relationship-coping skills to face the day to day problem as
they appear
Meneroka motivasi
Motivasi melibatkan proses yang mengekalkan tenaga untuk tingkahlaku berterusan menumpu ke
satu hajat tertentu-4 perspektif-
Motivasi melibatkan proses yang mengekalkan tenaga untuk tingkahlaku berterusan menumpu ke
satu hajat tertentu-4 perspektif-
1. Perspektif tingkahlaku menekankan ganjaran dan dendaan luaran sebagai kunci menentukan motivasi pelajar
1. Perspektif tingkahlaku menekankan ganjaran dan dendaan luaran sebagai kunci menentukan motivasi pelajar
2. Perspektif kognitif fokus kepada motivasi dalaman,
untuk berjaya pelajar percaya yang mereka boleh
mengawal persekitaran mereka.
2. Perspektif kognitif fokus kepada motivasi dalaman,
untuk berjaya pelajar percaya yang mereka boleh
mengawal persekitaran mereka.
3. Perspektif sosial need for affiliation membina dan mengekalkan perhubungan
yang rapat, mesra.
Perspektif Humanistik
Menekankan kemempuan pelajar untuk berkembang dan kebebasan pelajar memilih halatujunya sendiri
Motivasi dan pembelajaran
Motivasi untuk berjayaMotivasi untuk berjaya
Motivasi ekstrinsik dan
interistik
Motivasi ekstrinsik dan
interistik
Lain-lain proses kognitif
Lain-lain proses kognitif
Kerisauan dan pencapaian
Kerisauan dan pencapaian
Jangkaan guruJangkaan guru
Motivasi untuk berjaya
Pelajar dengan motivasi ekstrinsik
• melakukan sesuatu untuk mendapatkan sesuatu yang lain
• terpengaruh dengan ganjaran dan dendaan
Pelajar dengan motivasi ekstrinsik
• melakukan sesuatu untuk mendapatkan sesuatu yang lain
• terpengaruh dengan ganjaran dan dendaan
Pelajar dengan motivasi intrinsik
•Pamerkan self-determination dengan melakukan sesuatu itu kerana ianya.
•Motivation meningkat bila diberi peluang buat pilihan
Pelajar dengan motivasi intrinsik
•Pamerkan self-determination dengan melakukan sesuatu itu kerana ianya.
•Motivation meningkat bila diberi peluang buat pilihan
Motivasi untuk berjaya
Low High
Low APATHY BOREDOM
High ANXIETY FLOW
Flow terjadi:
•Bila mempunyai masteri dan terpaut kepada aktiviti
•Bila pelajar dicabar dan merasakan mereka mempunyai kemahiran yang mencukupi
Student’s perceived level of their own skill
Student’s perceived level of challenge
Motivasi untuk berjaya
Efikasi kendiri
Ajar strategi yang spesifik
Bantu pelajar rancang matlamat jangka
pendek dan jangka panjang
Sediakan sokongan orang dewasa yang positif dan
model rakan sebaya
Pastikan pelajar jangan terlalu risau (penting pelajar ada
kerisauan yang mencukupi)
Motivation to Achieve
Attribution Theory
Attribution theory: In their effort to make sense of their own behavior of performance, individuals are motivated to discover its underlying causes
1)Locus: students who perceive their success as being due to internel factors (i.e., effort) are more likely to have higher self-esteem
2)stability: If a student attributes positive outcome to a stable cause, there is an expectation of future success
3) Controllability: Failure due to external factors causes anger. Failure due to internal factors may cause guilt
Motivation to Achieve
Attribution Theory (Locus-stability-controlbility)Combination of causal
AttributionsReason Student Give For Failure
Internal stable uncontrollable Low aptitude
Internal stable controllable Never study
Internal unstable uncontrollable
Slick the day of the rest
Internal unstable controllable Did not study for this particular test
External stable uncontrollable School has tough requirements
External stable controllable The instructor is biased
External unstable uncontrollable
Bad luck
External unstable controllable Friends failed to help
Motivation to Achieve
Mastery Motivation
Mastery orientation -Student focus is on the task rather than their ability- Generate solution-oriented strategies.(criteria ref based)
Helpless orientation - Students focus on their personal inadequacies
Performance orientation
- Being concerned with the outcome rather than the process. (norm ref based)
Motivation, Teaching
And Learning
Motivation, Relationship, and
Sociocultural contexs
Motivation, Relationship, and
Sociocultural contexs
Social motivesSocial
motivesSocial
relationshipsSocial
relationships
Socioculturalcontexts
Socioculturalcontexts
Motivation, relationships, and socioculture contextssocial relationships
Motivation to AchieveMotivation to Achieve
ParentsShould provide the right amount of challenge in a
positive environment and model achievement
behavior
ParentsShould provide the right amount of challenge in a
positive environment and model achievement
behavior
PeersWith high achievement standarts will support
student achievement in others
PeersWith high achievement standarts will support
student achievement in others
TeachersOptimize achievement
when they provide challenging tasks in a
supportive environment
TeachersOptimize achievement
when they provide challenging tasks in a
supportive environment
Motivation, Relationships, and Sociocultural ContextsSociocultural Contexts
TEACHERS WHO CARE TEACHERS WHO DO NOT CARE
Teaching behaviors Makes an effort to make class interesting, teachers in a special way
Teachers in a boring way, gets off task, teacheers while students aren’t paying attention
Communication style Talks to me, pays attention, asks questions, listens
Ignores interrupts,screams,yells
Is honest and fair, keeps promises, trusts me, tells the truth
Embarrassers, insults
Concern about individuals Asks what’s wrong, talks to me about my problems, acts as a friend, asks when I need help, takes time to make sure I understand, calls on me
Forget name, does nothing when I do something wrong, doesn’t explain things or answer questions, doesn’t to help me
Motivation, Relationships, and Sociocultural ContextsSociocultural Contexts
ethnicity there is DIVERSITY in achievement motivation within ethnic minority groups
socioeconomic status
when ethnicity and socioeconomics status (SES) are investigated in the same study, SES is often the better predictor of achievement
Motivation, relationships, and Sociocultural Contextssociocultural Contexts
Males Females
•Have higher competence beliefs in math and sports
•Have higher competence beliefs in english, reading, and socio activities
•Are more rambunctious •Often experience conflicts between gender roles and achievement
•Receive more teacher attention •Are more complaint, get less teacher attention, by middle school have lower self-esteem
•List more career options
Motivation, Teaching and Learning
Hard-to-reach and Low-Achieving
Students
Hard-to-reach and Low-Achieving
Students
Discouraged students
Discouraged students
Uninterested or Aliented Students
Uninterested or Aliented Students
Hard-to-Reach, Low-Achieving StudentsDiscourage Students
Low Achievers with Low
Expectations•Provide constant
reassurance as long as
student demonstrates
effort
Low Achievers with Low
Expectations•Provide constant
reassurance as long as
student demonstrates
effort
Failure Syndrome•Increase
self-efficacy retraining
and altribution
training
Failure Syndrome•Increase
self-efficacy retraining
and altribution
training
Protection of Self-Worth by
Avoiding Failure
•Includes non-performance,
procrastination and
inappropriate goal setting
Protection of Self-Worth by
Avoiding Failure
•Includes non-performance,
procrastination and
inappropriate goal setting
Hard-to-Reach, Low-Achieving Studentsuninterested or Alienated Students
1. Develop positive teacher- student relationships.
2. Make school more interesting
3. Teach strategies to make learning enjoyable
4. Consider including a mentor
Families of Learning/Cognitive Style
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