Agricultural engineering in development
Basic blacksmithing: a training manual
Preface All jobs used as exercises and the techniques explained and illustrated have been well tried and tested. This material is intended as a guide to assist instructors training blacksmiths and general metal workers who, after training, are likely to practise their skills in rural development areas.
Sizes of material given and sizes of various jobs indicated need not be slavishly followed but rather should serve as guides. Alternative jobs can be undertaken provided that the graduated‐skill content of the jobs is followed. The techniques illustrated are designed to facilitate successful completion of each job and mastery of the skills required. As a trainee gains in experience, quicker methods of achieving the same results will, in some cases, become obvious.
With conscientious effort on the part of the instructor and trainee, all the practical work in this course can be covered in 160 to 200 hours. However, in that period, it is unlikely that all skills will be perfected. Only continued practice will bring out the trainee's full potential. On the other hand, after only one month's training a person is capable of performing many useful tasks with only the minimum of tools and equipment. The techniques shown here should be mastered before more advanced and ambitious techniques are attempted.
With the exception of the first lesson, all exercise jobs have a practical value that is obvious to the trainee. This awareness is very important in maintaining a high degree of motivation. Motivation is further generated and maintained by careful explanation and step‐by‐step demonstrations leading to successful completion of each job.
The instructor must ensure safe working practices and the care and maintenance of tools throughout the course.
All techniques should be practised until the trainee has developed a reasonable speed in the application of each technique. Good fire management and speed of working should be constantly emphasized throughout the training period.
J. B. Stokes
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Equipping a forge THE HEARTH
To work iron and steel successfully, we need to be able to heat the metal rapidly over a temperature range from ambient to 1 300° or 1 500°C. Therefore, our first consideration is the hearth containing the fire.
Many designs of hearth have been developed, each with its own characteristics. A side‐blast hearth with a water‐cooled tuyere (blast pipe) is preferable. Models are available with the blast of air supplied from below, utilizing a cast‐iron fire pot or fire base. Good work can be carried out with either type. The hearth can be made of steel or brick.
To attain the high temperatures required, the air blast increases the rate of oxidation of the fuel and thus the temperature. Air blast can be supplied by hand‐operated bellows, a hand‐operated fan or an electrically powered fan or air compressor. Some form of control is needed to regulate the amount of air fed to the fire. Electrically powered fans may be fitted with a variable‐speed motor and a speed regulator, a simple slide valve, a butterfly valve or a rotating plug cock. Hand‐powered fans or bellows are, of course, controlled by the speed of turning or pumping.
Figure 1 illustrates a bottom‐blast hearth. This type of hearth can be used for light work and, being small, is readily portable. It can be fitted with a hood and chimney if desired. Any of the previously mentioned sources of air blast can be used. Ash and clinker from the combustion of fuel can be emptied by opening the ash vent, which is normally held in place by a counterweight.
FIGURE 1
The chief disadvantages of this type are the difficulty in controlling the size of the fire and the tendency of the cast‐iron fire pot and centre disc to crack under the influence of heat.
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The advantages are that it is cheap to buy or make and simple to operate and service.
To cover the full range of a blacksmith's work and for prolonged periods of work, a more elaborate hearth is desirable (Fig. 2). A side‐blast hearth with a water‐cooled tuyere fills all requirements. Such a hearth can be made of steel or built of common brick. It should be of a height comfortable for the smith, usually about one metre or slightly more from the ground to the top lip of the hearth. A hood and chimney are usually fitted and are highly desirable additions. Air blast is again provided by any of the means previously mentioned, but an electrically powered fan is probably the best. This should be fitted with a speed control or a simple valve (usually a slide valve) to regulate the air fed to the fire.
The blast pipe should be water‐cooled. This is usually accomplished by an open tank allowing water to circulate around the blast pipe. Extremely useful is a water tank for quenching tools and workpieces. The disadvantages of this type of hearth are that it is comparatively expensive, more complex than the bottom‐blast type and requires more regular servicing.
• The advantages are several: • the large fire pan carries a large reserve of fuel; • there is plenty of room for fire tools; • the pan contains ash, which acts as an insulator; • fire size can be controlled by the size of depression in the fire bed; • much heavier sections of metal can be heated; • the water‐cooled tuyere has a long life.
FIGURE 2
THE ANVIL
To work iron and steel a good anvil is essential. It should be as heavy as possible (at least 80 kg) and have a hardened and ground face. Several patterns are available, the more common being the London pattern, the European pattern and the farriers' (horseshoeing) anvil. Good work can be carried out on any of these, but the London pattern is most versatile (Figs 3, 4 and 5).
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A suitable stand can be a large block of wood such as a section of a tree trunk firmly fixed in the ground, one made of heavy angle iron or a commercially made one of cast iron.
The correct working height for an anvil will depend on the height of the blacksmith. The anvil face should be knuckle‐height when the smith stands by its side.
The anvil face should be highly polished and free of tool and hammer marks. It must be kept clean and free of water and metal scale both for safety and for a good finish on the work. Any sharp edges on a new anvil should be removed by filing or light grinding. The edges on each side of the face nearest to the cutting table should be given a distinct radius, about 6 mm for a length of approximately 50 mm. Sharp edges create stress points in the forging and they in turn lead to cracks.
FIGURE 3
FIGURE 4
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FIGURE 5
FLOOR MANDREL
For many jobs a floor mandrel is useful. This is a hollow cast‐iron cone about 1.25 m in height. It is used for rounding up small tyres, rings and hoops (Fig. 6).
SWAGE BLOCK
For heavy swaging, forming, bending and many other similar jobs, a swage block is a useful piece of equipment. It is made of cast iron and can vary in weight from a few kilograms to 200 or more. There are a number of designs, with various swage depressions on the outer edges as well as holes of various shapes and sizes running through the thickness of the block (Fig. 7).
THE VICE
A stout bench with a heavy vice attached completes basic blacksmithing equipment. The vice most suitable to withstand heavy work is the leg vice (Fig. 8). It is made in various sizes, but one with jaws about 150 mm wide is a reasonable size for the average workshop.
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FIGURE 6
FIGURE 7
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FIGURE 8
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Blacksmithing tools Unlike many other craftsmen, blacksmiths are able to make most of their own tools. The principal tools are hand hammers and sledgehammers, a great number and variety of chisels, punches and drifts and a selection of tongs with bits or jaws of various shapes.
Tools that fit into the tool hole of the anvil, usually with their counterpart top tools fitted with a suitable handle, are required for shaping and cutting.
For measuring and marking off, callipers, dividers, a set square and a rule are needed. The callipers, dividers and set square should be heavy and robust enough to withstand use on hot metal under adverse conditions. A brass rule about 600 mm in length is recommended as steel rules rapidly rust when subjected to heat and water.
FIGURE 9
FIGURE 10
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FIGURE 11
HAMMERS
For everyday work most blacksmiths use a ball‐peen hand hammer weighing about 750 to 1 250 g (Fig. 9). A hand hammer should be of a weight that suits the smith. It should have a longer shaft than is usual for other work and be well‐balanced. Often special hammers are used for particular jobs. These the smith usually makes as the need arises. Old car‐axle shafts are suitable material for hammers.
Sledgehammers may be double‐faced, straight‐ or cross‐peen, and usually weigh from 3 to 5 kg (Fig. 10). They have long shafts for use with two hands.
All hammer heads must be firmly fastened to their shafts. Both wooden and metal wedges are used (Fig. 11). The centre lines of the hammer head and its shaft must be at right angles to each other. Hammer faces should be polished and kept free of marks.
CHISELS
The blacksmith needs chisels for cutting both cold and hot metal. For cutting cold metal chisels are comparatively short and thick, while for hot metal they are thinner and longer (Fig. 12A). Chisels can be of many shapes and sizes, special ones often being made to facilitate the work in hand. They are best made from steel containing about 0.8 percent of carbon. Motor‐vehicle coil and leaf springs are a fair substitute if nothing else is available.
Smiths are often called upon to make chisels for other tradesmen. These have to be hardened and tempered to suit particular purposes.
SETS
Like chisels, sets are used for cutting hot and cold metal. Basically, they are chisels with handles or shafts. Wooden shafts are easiest to handle but many smiths use metal‐rod handles. These are cheap and easy to make and fit. As with chisels, sets for cold work are short and thick whereas for hot metal they are longer and thinner. Again, these can be made in a wide range of shapes for various purposes (Fig. 12B).
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HARDY
The hardy is a chisel designed to fit the tool hole in the anvil. It is used with a hand hammer for cutting both hot and cold metal.
FIGURE 12
FIGURE 12 A
TONGS
The blacksmith uses many different types and styles of tongs (Fig. 13). Tongs must hold the workpiece firmly without slipping. They are often made for one specific job or adapted for a particular workpiece and will vary in length, size and weight, as metal sizes also vary. Although smiths make their own tongs, generally from mild steel, it is a good idea to start with at least a few pairs already made.
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PUNCHES FOR HOT WORK
These can be round, square or almost any other shape to suit the job. Punches should be long enough to keep hands away from reflected heat and large ones can be fitted with handles. They are usually designed to remove the minimum amount of metal from the job and to swell the hole to size and shape (Fig. 14).
DRIFTS
Drifts are rather like short punches. Made of carbon‐tool steel, they are of exact size and shape and may be round, hexagonal, octagonal or almost any other shape. They are usually hammered through the work to finish a hole to size and shape while the metal is only at a dull red heat. A little grease can be applied to make the work easier and to give a better finish (Fig.14).
FIGURE 13
FIGURE 14
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FIGURE 14 A
FIGURE 15
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FULLERS
These, like chisels or sets, are made in various sizes and have rounded edges. Small ones may be hand‐held while larger sizes require shafts or handles and are struck with a sledgehammer. Fullers are usually made in pairs. The bottom fuller fits into the tool hole of the anvil. They are used for setting down shoulders in preparation for forging tenons and for drawing or moving metal in one direction (Fig. 15).
SWAGES
These are top and bottom tools between which metal is worked. The most common are semicircular and are used for forming round sections to size after previous forging. The bottom tool fits into the tool hole of the anvil. In some cases top and bottom tools are hinged or fastened together by a spring strap or rod. These can be useful when a smith is working alone. They are also common in power‐hammer work (Fig. 16).
FLATTERS AND SET HAMMERS
These have flat faces with sharp or rounded edges according to requirements and are placed on the work and struck with the sledgehammer. The set hammer is most often used for setting in shoulders, while the flatter is a good finishing tool and should be used only to impart a good finish to flat surfaces (Fig. 17).
FIGURE 16
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FIGURE 17
HAND MANDREL
This tool is cone‐shaped and fitted with a handle. It is used for rounding up small rings or for stretching them to size. It is hand‐held either on the face or over the edge of the anvil (Fig.18).
BOLSTER PLATES
These are steel plates with various holes drilled or punched into them. They are used for forming neat shoulders at change of section in the workpiece. Some types have round and square countersunk holes in them and enable countersunk‐headed bolts to be made as for ploughshares (Fig. 19).
FIGURE 18
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FIGURE 19
The blacksmith's fire FUEL AND TOOLS
Coal, coke or charcoal may be used as fuel. Charcoal is very clean and there is little to contaminate the metal. It is of low density, however, and greater amounts must be burnt to provide enough heat for bigger jobs. Little air blast is required, but it is still a very expensive form of fuel for the smith's work. Good coking coal is usually much cheaper than charcoal. Coal must be in the form of small grains, kept wet on the hearth and gradually drawn toward the fire as work proceeds. During this time the coal changes to coke and may then be fed on to the fire.
Uncoked coal should never be fed to the fire. If this is done, vast volumes of smoke and flame are produced, making working conditions uncomfortable. In addition, there is the danger that the metal will be contaminated with impurities such as sulphur from the coal. Sulphur causes a condition known as hotshort in irons and steels. This is a tendency to fracture at high temperatures. Clean coke is probably the easiest to use as it requires less management than the other fuels. Grains of coke should be small, about 12 to 16 mm.
Tools for managing the fire are a poker, a rake and a small shovel which are usually made by the smith (fig 20).
The forge fire is always changing and must be looked after constantly. It gradually builds up to its best, maintains this level for a while and then deteriorates. Unburnable materials such as earthy impurities melt and sink to the bottom of the fire to form what is called clinker. This must be removed periodically, the length of time depending on the work and quality of the fuel.
When clinker is to be removed, it is best to let the fire cool down for a few minutes, giving the clinker time to solidify so that it can be removed in one piece (fig 21). Clinker must always be removed before welding or at any time when it hampers work. Particles of clinker can be forced up through the fire to impinge on the metal. Fire
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management is probably the most difficult part of the smith's craft to master. Fire tools should be constantly in use.
Figure 20
Figure 21
FIRE HINTS
• Keep the fire as small as possible for any given job. Fire size should suit the job. A large fire for a small job is a waste of fuel. Use only sufficient blast to heat the job in hand.
• Do not allow the fire to burn hollow. There must be sufficient fuel beneath the workpiece to provide the heat and to absorb the oxygen in the blast. Hollow fires and excessive blast will oxidize the metal and may even burn it beyond any possible recovery.
• The fire is lit by hollowing out a depression sufficient for the size of fire required. Any remaining clinker should be removed, even small pieces. Paper and small pieces of wood or wood shavings are placed in the depression and lit. Hot glowing ash will form close to the blast pipe. Turn on a little blast and feed fuel over the hot ash. Gradually build up the quantity of fuel until the fire is of correct size and high temperature. Work can now begin.
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Blacksmithing operations HEATING METAL
Temperatures can be judged by observing the colour of the metal as its temperature rises. This can only be learned by practice. The following guide uses terms typical of a smith's workshop.
• Black heat (about 550‐630°C). No red colour visible except faintly in the dark. • Dull red (about 680‐740°C). Used for easy well‐radiused bends in mild steel and
for forging high‐carbon steels. • Bright red (about 850‐900°C). Used for simple forging operations, such as
bending metal over the anvil, light punching and hot chiselling. • Bright yellow or near‐welding heat (about 1 100‐1200°C). The principal forging
operations are carried out at this temperature, including drawing‐down, upsetting, preparing scarfs for welding and punching heavy sections. High‐speed steel is forged at this temperature but high‐carbon steel must be kept lower.
• Full‐welding heat (about 1 300‐1 500°C). If the blast is correct, the fire clean and compact, a few white bursting sparks will begin to appear. This indicates the correct temperature for welding most grades of mild steel. The surface of the metal appears to "sweat" in the fire.
• Brilliant white heat (about 1 500°C). Used for welding wrought iron only and is much too high a temperature for other steels.
• Note: A temperature of about 740‐850°C is the range for hardening most carbon‐tool steels before tempering.
DRAWING‐DOWN
This is the process of making metal longer and thinner and is usually carried out at near‐welding heat. On heavy work this is more easily carried out either between top and bottom fullers or by using the top fuller only with the job on the anvil face.
UPSETTING OR JUMPING UP
This process makes metal shorter and thicker and is usually carried out at near‐welding temperature. Metal can be either thickened at the ends of bars or swollen in the centre. The job should be carried out in stages keeping control of the heat by cooling with water in the appropriate places.
BENDING
This can sometimes be carried out cold but is preferably done at a bright red heat. Bending can be carried out over the edge of the anvil, over the beak, by using a swage block or forked tools that can be hand‐operated, held in a vice or placed in the tool hole of the anvil. During bending, the metal on the outside of the bend is subjected to a stretching action while that on the inside of the bend is subjected to compression or upsetting.
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PUNCHING AND DRIFTING
Punching is best carried out at near‐welding heat. If the hole is deep, the metal contracts around the punch and it then must be withdrawn and cooled after every two or three blows. The punch itself becomes hot during punching operations. If it is allowed to grow too hot and soften the end of the punch will enlarge, and it will become difficult if not impossible to remove from the work. When deep holes are to be punched, a little coal dust sprinkled into the hole from time to time generates gases that assist in the removal of the punch.
Punching should produce a hole of nearly finished size and shape but leaving work to be completed by drifting. Drifts should be of the correct size and shape required for the finished hole and are driven through the hole at a lower temperature. For very accurate holes, such as those needed for thread‐tapping, the drift is driven through the work while the metal is barely at red heat. This minimizes loss of size owing to contraction of the metal. A little oil or grease applied to a drift will facilitate work and give an improved finish.
HOT‐CUTTING
Hot‐cutting is carried out using chisels or sets designed for the purpose. A bright red heat is usual and the chisel or set is placed in position on the work and struck with either a hand hammer or a sledgehammer. Chisels or sets may be straight‐edged, curved or V‐edged, depending on the work to be done. Cutting should be carried out on the cutting platform of the anvil or on a suitable metal shield placed over the anvil face. Chisel or set edges must not be allowed to impinge on the anvil face or they will damage both the tool and the anvil.
FIRE‐WELDING
This is the procedure where two or more pieces of metal while in a plastic state are joined together by hammering. Much practice is needed before even the simplest weld can be carried out with success. Iron and most grades of mild steel can be welded without the use of a fluxing agent. Where difficulty is experienced and for higher carbon steels, borax or a commercial flux can be used. If these are unavailable, powdered white sand or glass can sometimes be of help. Sprinkled on to the work when it is nearing white heat, the sand or glass melts and forms a protective film on the metal, thus preventing oxidization. This film must be shaken off the metal before hammering the pieces together.
The skill of producing sound welds in various sections of metal is well worth mastering. The ability to join pieces together can frequently obviate the need for a great deal of heavy hammering. In light sections of metal, such as rods and bars, welds can often be carried out more efficiently by a smith than by electric‐arc or oxyacetylene welding.
SPECIAL OPERATIONS
All blacksmithing work is based on the seven techniques described above. However, hardening and tempering must be added. These operations are not really
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blacksmithing operations, but the ability to harden and temper small tools is of great value to smiths. They should be able to harden and temper their own tools, and they will often be called upon to refurbish tools for other tradesmen, work which often includes hardening and tempering.
HARDENING AND TEMPERING
The smith is mostly concerned with plain carbon steels, which with a little knowledge and much practice can be successfully hardened and tempered in the forge. Iron is comparatively soft and ductile. The addition of carbon to iron produces steel. Carbon steel contains between 0.1 and 1.4 percent carbon. Beyond 1.4 percent carbon, steel is moving into the field of cast iron (fig 22).
Iron consists of crystals that are almost pure metal. When carbon is added at low percentages, it chemically combines with the iron and a difference in some of the crystals can be observed under a microscope. This difference is called pearlite. As the percentage of carbon is increased more pearlite is formed, and by the time 0.85 percent carbon is reached the whole matrix is pearlite. Another structure is also beginning to appear along the grain boundaries called cementite. By the time 1.4 percent is reached, considerable amounts of cementite become obvious (fig 23).
Figure 22
Figure 23
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Annealing
With carbon steels, the degree of hardness can be varied by heat treatment. Maximum softness can be obtained by heating above the upper critical limit (about 720°C for a 0.85 percent carbon steel) and then cooling slowly in lime, sand or ash. This is called annealing.
Normalizing
After working steel, it should be reheated and cooled normally in the atmosphere to relieve stresses produced by the working operations. This is called normalizing. To bring out maximum hardness in a normalized steel, it is again heated above its upper critical limit and cooled rapidly in brine, water or oil. In this state the steel is too hard and brittle for any useful purpose and must be tempered.
Tempering
Tempering is the removal of some of the hardness and brittleness by reheating to a lower temperature. By the time 350°C is reached, all the effective and useful hardness has been removed. All tempering is carried out below 350°C. These lower temperatures can be judged quite accurately by observing the oxide colours formed on the polished surface of a steel when heated. They range from a very pale yellow to a dark blue. The darker the colour, the hotter and softer the steel. The more shock that a tool must withstand the softer we must make it, while at the same time leaving it hard enough to serve its intended purpose. For example, a tool for cutting wood can be harder than one for cutting steel by hammering. Students will have to practise and experiment, but with experience they can get good results. Most steels used by the smith for making tools are between 0.7 and 0.8 percent carbon. Maximum hardness is obtained by heating to a dull red (740‐800°C) and quenching. Colour should be observed in the shade, not in bright light.
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Practical work The blacksmith's shop must be laid out so as to minimize the amount of movement needed to work efficiently. The layout will generally be dictated by the smith's preference, but the anvil should be only about one pace from the fire in order to permit rapid positioning and working of the metal. Both bench and vice should be within easy reach and at a comfortable working height. The cooling tank should also be within easy reach. All the tools needed for a particular operation should be ready and close at hand.
The work area should be shaded but well ventilated. For a right‐handed person the beak of the anvil should be to the smith's left and to the right for a left‐handed person.
Safety is a case of common sense, but a few pointers may be in order.
• All hammer and tool heads must be securely fastened and checked at regular intervals.
• All tools struck with hammers must have correctly shaped heads. Tool heads must not be allowed to "mushroom" and create the danger of sharp chips of metal flying off, perhaps with disastrous results.
• The anvil face must be kept clean and free of water. • Sturdy footwear must be worn and trousers should cover the tops of boots or
shoes. • Goggles should be worn when grinding tools and may be used for forging. • Don't touch metal without being sure it is cool. Hot pieces of metal should be
put in a safe place and a warning sign placed nearby. • The workshop floor should be kept clean and clear of odd pieces of metal. • A first‐aid kit should be available to deal with minor cuts and burns and
restocked as needed. • The fire should be put out after the day's work. • A leather apron will prevent burns to clothing from sparks.
The most used tool is the hand hammer. This must be gripped as near to the end of its shaft as is comfortable (Fig. 24). Most hammering is done using a wrist‐and‐elbow action. Shoulder action is needed only for heavy hammering. For accurate work, a "snapping" action of elbow and wrist produces the best results and least fatigue. Sledgehammers are used with both hands and a straight up‐and‐down action is required, not the swinging action used for other work.
All hammering must be positive. Avoid the tendency to "stroke" the work with the hammer. Even light blows must be direct and positive if effort is not to be wasted.
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Figure 24
Useful metals in the small workshop COMMERCIAL MILD STEELS
Used for most blacksmithing jobs: chain links, rivets, bolts, harrow bars and harrow tines, and plough parts except for shares and mould‐boards, etc. Do not attempt to use free‐cutting mild steels designed for machine‐shop use.
CARBON STEELS
Steels with 0.65 to 0.8 percent carbon are used for blacksmithing tools, woodworking tools, etc. For many purposes, motor‐vehicle spring steels, in both flat and round sections, are a reasonable substitute. Plough and harrow discs and ploughshares are invaluable for many jobs in small workshops.
SCRAP RAILWAY LINES
Useful for making hammers and, with the web (the "middle" part) removed, can be used to form a simple plough‐beam.
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SCRAP VEHICLE‐AXLE SHAFTS
Useful for hammers, set hammers and flatters. Not suitable for cutting tools. Can be easily forge‐welded with a little flux. Make very good hooks for chains, strong eye bolts and similar objects.
CAST IRON
Not used for forge work but can be used as a hard‐facing material on low‐carbon steels. The job is brought to a bright yellow heat in the forge and flux and cast iron applied to the surface. Cast iron is smeared on to the work. Remove from the fire and allow to cool to a dull red heat, then quench in water. An extremely hard surface will result. Depending on the job, the finish can be left rough or ground to a better finish.
Where there is a shortage of carbon steel, a mixture of cast iron and mild steel can be used for some purposes. Cast iron is smeared on to the surface of a piece of mild steel, more flux added and a second piece of mild steel placed over the cast‐iron face. The whole is heated until the cast iron is molten and then the whole is squeezed together in a vice with large jaws. Next, bring to a good welding heat with flux and hammer together. The piece can be cut through and rewelded a number of times. The resulting steel can be made into a wide range of woodcutting tools and serves well as ploughshare steel.
1. Forging a flat or chisel point Material. Mild (low‐carbon) steel, round or square section, about 12 mm thick.
Additional tools. No special tools are needed.
METHOD
To forge a flat or chisel point (Fig. 25), metal is heated to near‐welding heat to a length of about 50 mm, placed on the anvil (Fig. 26) and hammered near the end, occasionally repositioning (Fig. 27) to hammer the sides back to the original thickness of the metal. All points are first made as short as possible and then lengthened by subsequent hammering on the shoulders. The object of this practice is to produce a flat point with parallel sides and a flat square end. Bulging on the end can be corrected, as shown in Fig. 28.
Having mastered the flat or chisel point which, with material up to 16 mm thick, should be completed in one heat, take similar‐sized material and forge a square point. This is similar to the flat point, but a quarter turn of the tongs between hammer blows while maintaining the angles between anvil face and hammer will produce a square‐sectioned point (Fig 29 and 30).
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Figure 25
Figure 26
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Figure 27
Next practise forging a square point into a round‐sectioned point. Form a square point first, take off the corners and then round up the work by lightly hammering while rotating the work. All work should have a smooth finish with no tool marks evident in the finished job.
For a beginner, two heats for each point is acceptable. Care should be taken with additional heats to ensure that the thin part of the work is not overheated. Cooling the tip in water from time to time will control this problem.
When reducing sections by forging, remember that in all cases metal is reduced to a square section first, then additional working is used to give the final shape. Failure to follow this practice will produce cracking along the length of the workpiece.
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Figure 28
Figure 29
Figure 30
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2. Cold chisel and centre punch Material. Carbon‐tool steel, round section or hexagonal, or steel from motor‐vehicle spring, 12 to 16 mm in diameter.
Additional tools. Hot set.
METHOD
Having mastered the making of points, this skill can now be used to make a cold chisel and centre punch. Motor‐vehicle spring of round section is the least expensive source of steel suitable for this purpose.
As we are now dealing with steel of a higher carbon content, lower forging temperatures must be used. A bright red heat just verging on yellow is our guide, certainly no brighter.
Take a piece of steel about 120 mm long. This can be done by heating and cutting with a sharp hot set. Heat again along its length and carefully straighten, avoiding leaving hammer marks in the piece. Next, heat about half the length and flatten slightly, leaving two flat sides and two rounded edges (Fig. 31). Then repeat with the other half. Take a short heat on one end and forge an abrupt point (square section) with the corners removed, leaving a flat end (Fig. 32).
Next, take a short heat on the other end and forge a nicely tapered flat chisel point leaving the rounded edges to the sides (Fig. 33). Straighten and true up. Heat the whole job to a brignt red heat. Clean with a wire brush and allow to cool in air. This is called normalizing (see the section "Special operations").
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FIGURE 31
FIGURE 32
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FIGURE 33
FIGURE 34
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Take a second piece of steel about 90 mm long and repeat the above, but this time forge a round point on one end and, again, normalize (Fig. 34). When cool, the edge of the chisel and point of the punch can be filed or ground to the correct angles (Figs 35 and 36). Both chisel and punch are now ready for hardening and tempering to fit them for their purpose.
Hardening and tempering are carried out in the forge using one of two methods: "one heat" or "two heat". Using the one‐heat method for the chisel, proceed as follows. Heat about 25 to 30 mm of the pointed end of the chisel to just above a dull red heat. Immerse the point in water for about half of the heated length, moving the tool up and down in the water a little to prevent a sudden change in structure. Remove from the water and quickly polish the cutting edge by rubbing with an old piece of grindstone or other abrasive. Hold in the light and observe the oxide colours forming at the cutting edge. With average spring steel, when a dark brown is seen, you should quickly quench it in water again (Figs 37,38 and 39). The tool should now be tested on a piece of scrap mild steel.
The punch can be hardened and tempered using the same technique as used for the chisel.
The two‐heat method is a useful alternative. Heat about 20 mm of the punch, including the point, to just above dull red heat and quench the whole tool in water. Next, clean and polish the point of the punch. Heat a heavy piece of steel, about 25 mm square in section, to a bright red heat. Place the punch on to the heated steel with the point overhanging the heated part by about 15 mm (Fig. 40). Heat will be transferred to the punch and will cause oxide colours to form. Watch for the dark brown to appear and then quench the piece quickly. Test on a piece of mild steel.
This two‐heat method is useful when tempering small workpieces such as scribers, drills and knife blades. Heat transfer can be controlled by moving the job about on the hot piece of metal. If steel with a higher carbon content than spring steel is used, it should be tempered at a blue colour. Some experimenting is called for by the beginner. If hardening and tempering need to be repeated on a job, the workpiece must again be normalized
‐ 30 ‐
FIGURE 35
FIGURE 36
‐ 31 ‐
FIGURE 37
FIGURE 38
‐ 32 ‐
FIGURE 39
FIGURE 40
‐ 33 ‐
3. Forging a staple for use in wood Material. Mild steel, 8 mm in diameter, 176 mm long.
Additional tools. No special tools are needed.
METHOD
Make sure that tongs fit well on the metal. Tongs with a small groove in one or both bits are best (Fig. 41).
Take a short near‐welding heat on one end and forge to a square point. Repeat on the other end (Fig. 42). Heat the centre and bend as shown in Figs 43, 44 and 45. When bending the work, care should be taken not to mark or deform the round‐sectioned metal. Blows should land off centre of the beak (Figs 43 and 44). If after bending the sides of the staple are not straight, they can be corrected (Figs 46 and 47).
Figure 41
‐ 34 ‐
Figure 42
Figure 43
‐ 35 ‐
Figure 44
Figure 45
‐ 36 ‐
Figure 46
Figure 47
‐ 37 ‐
4. Forging an S‐link for use as a temporary repair in chain
Material. Mild steel, 8 mm in diameter, 200 mm long.
Additional tools. No special tools are needed.
METHOD
Mark the midpoint of the steel with a light centre‐punch tap. Heat one end to a bright red heat and position on the anvil flat on the anvil face but close to its far edge. Forge a short bevel (chamfer) on the end and then repeat on the other end (Fig. 48). Heat a little over half of the length and form an eye (Fig 49 and fig 50). Repeat with the other end, keeping both eyes equal in size. Eyes should not be closed up but left slightly open to allow for chain links to be inserted. The eyes then can be closed up by hammer blows applied to the ends of the S‐link.
Figure 48
‐ 38 ‐
Figure 49
Figure 50
‐ 39 ‐
Figure 51
5. Forging a barbed gate hook Material. Mild steel, 8 mm in diameter, 250 mm long.
Additional tools. Hot set or hot chisel; 8‐mm bottom swage.
METHOD
Mark off 65 mm from one end and lightly centre‐punch this position. Take a bright red heat over a length of about 90 mm, cool in water from the end to within about 10 mm of the mark and quickly bend over the edge of the anvil to a right angle. Position in the swage with the cooled end uppermost (Fig. 53). Quick light blows on this vertical end will give a neat right‐angle bend in the correct position. If reheating is needed, the end must be cooled as before. If the mark is not in the correct place, a heat may be taken and the opposite end cooled to within a short distance of the mark and that end hammered to drive the corner into the swage.
‐ 40 ‐
FIGURE 52
FIGURE 53
‐ 41 ‐
FIGURE 54
FIGURE 55
The short end is now heated to a bright red heat and bending is started (Fig. 54). Get the end of the metal bent first and gently form the eye over the beak but completing the bending as shown in Fig. 55. Gently adjust with light hammer blows until the eye is
‐ 42 ‐
nicely rounded and lies flat when placed on the anvil face. Mark off about 12 mm from the unbent end and cut halfway through the metal at this point using a hot chisel or hot set. Bend this short end back upon itself (Fig. 52B).
Now we can try our first forge weld. The end bent back upon itself is carefully heated in a clean fire to welding heat. This temperature is judged by the appearance of the metal: it will be a brilliant white with a shiny sweat‐like surface and perhaps a few sparks will be given off. Quickly remove from the fire, position on the anvil (Fig. 56) and with quick light blows hammer the end as shown and at the angle shown. After the first few blows the pieces will be welded into a homogeneous body and the point can be completed as in Job 1 while carefully preserving the barb.
Next, mark off 80 mm from the pointed end. Heat this position to a bright red heat and begin bending, as shown in Fig. 57. Note the use of the ball‐peen hammer. Complete bending over the beak and make any adjustments so that the whole job lies flat on the anvil face. This job can be used with two staples (Job 3) as a gate fastening.
FIGURE 56
‐ 43 ‐
FIGURE 57
‐ 44 ‐
6. Forging a split link for temporary repair in chain
Material. Mild steel, 8 mm in diameter, 220 mm long.
Additional tools. 8‐mm bottom swage; set hammer.
METHOD
Cut off 220 mm of rod and mark as shown in Fig. 58. Heat from the end to beyond the mark to near‐welding heat and place on the anvil as in Fig. 59. Hammer down to half the thickness, leaving a prominent shoulder. The hammer face must overlap the anvil edge during the first few blows.
Turn 90 degrees and reduce the thickness to a little less than the original 8 mm, leaving a rectangular section. Reheat if necessary. Place in the bottom swage with the shoulder uppermost. Place the set hammer with an edge against the shoulder and its face parallel with the face of the swage.
The set hammer is now struck with the sledgehammer, lightly at first to settle the work into position. Hammer blows are continued while the job is drawn through the swage toward the smith. This operation will give a distinct half‐round section to this part of the job. While still hot, this end is bent over the beak to the shape shown in Fig. 58C. Twisting may occur during this bending operation. This should be corrected as soon as it becomes obvious by applying light hammer blows while the flat face of the work is in contact with the face of the anvil, but with the shoulder clear of the anvil edge. Positions of swage, work, set hammer and sledgehammer are shown in Fig. 60.
Figure 58
‐ 45 ‐
Figure 59
Figure 60
The opposite end of the job is now worked in a manner similar to the first, with care being taken to ensure that the shoulders are on opposite sides of the workpiece. When both ends are forged, the centre is heated to a red heat and bent over the block to the shape shown in Fig. 58D. The job can now be heated to a red heat all over and trued up. Open the link by twisting to give the side appearance shown in Fig. 58E
‐ 46 ‐
7. Forging a welded chain link Material. Mild steel, 8 mm in diameter, 200 mm long.
Additional tools. None; tongs must fit the workpiece very well.
METHOD
Take a bright red heat in the centre of the piece and bend over the beak to the shape shown in Fig. 61A, making sure that both ends are in line with each other and both sides are of equal length.
Next, heat both ends to a bright red or yellow heat. Place on the anvil as shown in Fig. 62 and, with the hammer face overlapping the anvil edge, forge out the corner to form a scarf or notch (Fig. 61B). Reverse and repeat the operation on the opposite end.
Next, at a bright red heat, bend to the shape shown in Fig. 61C, making sure that the scarfs are neatly fitted together. Now, take a full welding heat on the scarfs, remove from the fire, place scarfed ends flat on the face of the anvil and with quick, light hammer blows drive the scarfs together, turning the job over after the first two or three blows to hammer on the opposite side. Now quickly put the link over the beak to complete the joint and round up the work. Hammer blows should descend vertically, but this time on the centre line of the beak while the job is moved around the beak with the left hand as in Figs 63 and 64.
These moves must be carried out quickly and smoothly. They should be completed in about ten seconds. True up the work and normalize. Next, slip a second link on to the first after the scarfs are formed but before they are bent into welding position. The first link must be kept out of the way when welding the second. Practise until at least six links can be made without fault. Links may be tested by hammer blows applied to the ends of the link or by sawing through them and studying the cut ends. You should see a sound, homogeneous weld.
‐ 47 ‐
Figure 61
Figure 62
‐ 48 ‐
Figure 63
Figure 64
‐ 49 ‐
8. Forging square and hexagonal bolt heads
Material. Mild steel, 12 mm in diameter, 125 mm long.
Additional tools. 12‐mm top and bottom swages; set hammer; bolster plate; rough file or rasp; hole gauge (Fig. 65).
METHOD
Bolts of all shapes (Fig. 66) can be forged by upsetting and by shaping the heads with hammers and simply made tools, such as bolster plates. Practice is gained here in upsetting and forging to accurate dimensions since these bolts must be a good fit in a standard spanner. Shank sizes must be correct for the cutting of screw threads with hand dies.
Place a 12‐mm bottom swage in the tool hole of the anvil. Heat one end of the metal to a yellow heat, place in the swage and forge an abrupt chamfer with hammer blows at the angle shown in Fig. 67. Quick light blows while rotating the job will produce the desired result (Fig. 66B). This chamfer is to reduce the damage done to that end during the upsetting operation.
The opposite end is now brought to near‐welding heat. Cool in water to leave only about 25 mm of the length hot. Place on the anvil with the cooled chamfered end uppermost. Tongs must hold the job securely in this position (Fig. 68). Quick firm blows are now applied to the chamfered end causing the heated end to increase in diameter (Fig. 66C). The job should be partly rotated during this hammering. Any bending of the work that occurs must be corrected as soon as it becomes obvious. Do not let the job become badly bent because it will be very difficult to correct (Fig. 69). When the job gets down to a red heat, it is time to raise its temperature. Heat must be restricted to the end by cooling.
‐ 50 ‐
FIGURE 65
FIGURE 66
‐ 51 ‐
FIGURE 67
FIGURE 68
Continue upsetting until the end is about 20 mm in diameter. Next, correct any damage to the chamfered end and make sure that it will pass through the bolster plate easily. Place bolster plate so that the hole to be used is over the tool hole of the anvil. Heat the upset end again to a yellow heat, pass the chamfered end through the bolster plate and quickly apply firm hammer blows to the work, driving it into the bolster to
‐ 52 ‐
form a shoulder and to increase the end diameter a little more. Finish with the set hammer held flat on the work (Fig. 70).
After the bolster‐plate stage, the head should be about 8 to 9 mm thick. Do not make it thinner. Reheat the head and carefully forge to a square section using an 18‐ or 19‐mm spanner as a gauge. Keep checking for squareness. The head may be flattened a little more in the bolster plate after forming the square and the corners of the head removed slightly to give a more finished appearance.
The same procedure is followed for a hexagonal bolt head except that the forging of the hexagon is more difficult. For early attempts it is a good idea to place a large nut of hexagonal shape on the anvil face to act as a guide (Fig. 72). Forge two small flats, then turn the job so that one of these flats is in line with one of the flats on the nut, then forge two more flats, line up one of these with the nut and forge the remaining two. After this it is a case of hammering the flats as needed to form a hexagon that is a good fit to the spanner. Again, any unevenness on the top of the head can be corrected by returning to the bolster plate and using the set hammer on top.
FIGURE 69
‐ 53 ‐
FIGURE 70
FIGURE 71
‐ 54 ‐
FIGURE 72
After forging the heads, the shanks must be straightened and made the correct size for threading. This can be done with top and bottom swage and use of a rasp or file while the job is hot. Shanks must be a neat fit into the appropriate hole in the gauge (Fig. 65), which is easily made. With practice this job can be carried out very quickly.
Countersunk bolts can be made in a similar manner using suitably made bolster plates. Some practice will be needed in order to judge the amount of upset needed in various cases. Where bolts with special types of countersunk heads are required, a bolster plate can be made by quickly driving a bolt of the desired form into a suitable hole while the plate is at near‐white heat. This should be done using a set hammer or flatter to form the shape before the bolt being used gets hot and becomes distorted. When the bolster plate cools, upset metal hammered into these forms will take on the shape of the bolster.
‐ 55 ‐
9. Forging a welded bolt head Material. Mild steel, 12 mm in diameter, 175 mm long; mild steel, 8‐mm square section or 10‐mm round section, more than 100 mm long.
Additional tools. 10‐mm top and bottom fullers; sharp hot set or hot chisel; 12‐mm bottom swage; bolster plate.
METHOD
For bolts larger than 16 mm in diameter, it is often quicker and easier to weld on a head rather than upset to the extent needed. This job will give additional welding practice as well as introduce the use of fullers. Heat one end of the 12‐mm rod to a bright red heat and chamfer in the bottom swage as in Job 8. Heat the opposite end to near‐welding heat, cool to restrict heat to within about 30 mm of the end and upset a little as in Job 8. Increase the diameter by only about 2 to 3 mm. One heat should suffice for this. Straighten any bending that occurs.
Reheat to a bright red heat, place on a bottom fuller of about 10 mm, position a top fuller as in Fig. 74. With light sledgehammer blows, make a shallow depression around the upset end as near to the end as possible. The depth of the fullering need only be about 1.5 mm. Take care to ensure that the fullers are exactly opposite each other during this operation. Do any straightening that is needed and place this part of the job near the fire to keep hot. Fig 73A and Fig 73B illustrates this stage of the job.
If 10‐mm round section is to be used, this is now brought to near‐welding heat over a length of about 60 mm and is carefully forged to as big a square section as can be obtained. Next, take the forged square section (or the 8‐mm square section, if available), heat a length of 50 to 60 mm to a bright red heat and bend to form a ring as in Fig 73C and Fig 73D and Fig. 75. This ring should be slightly larger than the upset portion of the job. While it is still hot, trim the end with a hot chisel or set to the angle seen in Fig. 73C. Reverse the metal on the anvil face and cut just over halfway through from that side, leaving a gap of about 5 mm at this stage. Cutting is carried out from opposite sides so that the slope of the cuts will match up.
‐ 56 ‐
FIGURE 73
FIGURE 74
Both pieces of metal are now brought to a bright red heat, the ring is slipped over the larger piece, lightly tapped with the hammer to settle it into position and the excess broken off leaving only the ring in position. The ring is now gently hammered to settle it neatly and firmly into its correct place for welding. Make sure that the ends do not meet. There should be a gap of about 3 mm to allow for stretching when welding takes place.
‐ 57 ‐
A full welding heat is now taken on the ring end of the work. Heat slowly to allow the larger section to reach welding heat without overheating the smaller sectioned ring. If difficulty is experienced, the ring can be cooled carefully in water to control the heating. Both pieces must reach full welding temperature. When it is sufficiently hot, quickly place the work on the anvil face with the gap in such a position that it will form one corner of the bolt head. Quick light blows of the hammer will weld the two parts together. The job should be turned to form the head shape required, either hexagonal or square.
Next, make sure that the work will pass through the bolster plate. Take a second welding heat on the head, drop into the bolster as in Job 8 and flatten the head while welding any surplus material into the head. The second welding heat is easier to obtain than the first since the job is a solid piece at this stage. Finish the head and bolt shank in the same way as in Job 8.
FIGURE 75
‐ 58 ‐
FIGURE 76
‐ 59 ‐
10. Forging a solid hook for chain Material. Mild steel, 16 mm in diameter, 200 mm long.
Additional tools. Round, tapered punch about 12 mm in diameter with flattened end (Fig. 77); bending fork and bending dog (Fig. 77); 30‐mm bottom swage; 16‐mm bottom swage.
METHOD
To begin forging a solid hook for chain (Fig. 78D), heat one end of the 16‐mm rod to near‐welding heat and chamfer in a 16‐mm bottom swage. Cool this end and take a near‐welding heat on the opposite end. Cool to restrict heat to within about 30 mm of the end and begin upsetting in the 30‐mm bottom swage. Straighten as necessary. Continue heating and upsetting in the swage until the upset fills the diameter of the swage and is about 3 mm thicker than the original diameter (Fig. 78A). As upsetting proceeds, some flattening of the sides in the one direction is called for (Fig. 79).
When the end is of correct size and neatly formed, mark the centre of the hole which now has to be punched. It should be on centre across the work but about 2 or 3 mm more from the end. (For example, if the centre of 30 mm equals 15 mm, the distance from the end should be 17 to 18 mm.)
The upset end is again heated to a yellow heat and placed on the anvil face with the mark upwards. The punch is positioned on the mark and struck firmly with the hand hammer. After two or three blows, quickly cool the punch before proceeding. In all punching operations the punches must not be allowed to become too hot and so must be cooled. Hot punches distort in the hole, giving wrong shapes, and they can become firmly fixed in the work. When the punch is removed for cooling, a little coal or coke dust can be sprinkled into the hole. When the punching continues, this dust will generate gases that assist in the removal of the punch. As soon as a dark patch can be seen on the opposite side of the work, indicating that the punch is nearly through, the job is turned over and punching is continued from the now‐top side. A small piece of metal will be removed (Figs 80, 81 and 82).
‐ 60 ‐
Figure 77
Figure 78
The punch can now be driven through from alternate sides until a neat hole of 12 mm in diameter is formed. This can be done by allowing the punch to protrude through the punching (pritchel) hole. Should this hole be too small, a bolster plate must be used. (The anvil tool hole is too large.) The eye is next finished over the beak (Fig. 83). Hammer blows are vertical and on the centre of the beak. Work is held at the angle shown and rotated around the beak as hammering proceeds. This gives a chamfer to
‐ 61 ‐
the inside of the hole, providing better protection from the rubbing of any attachments, such as chain links. Finally, the eye is slightly bent to one side (Fig. 78B). Fix a pair of tongs that are a good fit on to the eye. Take a near‐welding heat on the end opposite to the eye for a length of about 60 mm. Forge a point (Fig. 78C). Start with an abrupt point on the end and elongate as necessary. The final length of the point should be approximately one‐third of the length measuring from beneath the eye. This point should incline in the direction opposite to the bend in the eye.
Figure 79
‐ 62 ‐
Figure 80
Figure 81
Figure 82
The point must be forged to a square section first, corners removed and finally rounded up. Place a bending fork in the tool hole of the anvil and have the bending dog at hand. Heat the centre section of the job to a bright red heat, making sure that
‐ 63 ‐
the temperature is even along its length. Place in the bending fork and with the aid of the bending dog bend to hook shape. The end of the point should reach to the underside of the eye. See Figs 84 and Fig 78D. At this stage the point should not be closer than 30 mm to the eye.
The centre of the hook is again heated to a bright red or yellow heat, placed on the anvil (Fig. 85) and the outer part of the metal thinned to give the section shown in the Fig. 85 inset. The job is now brought to a red heat all over and adjustments made. It should lie flat on the anvil face with no distortion. The end of the point should be about 12 mm from the eye to allow for the insertion of chain. Some designs have the point turned out a little. Simpler hooks can, of course, be made with unwelded eyes, but they are weaker. Solid forged hooks of all sizes can be made in the way shown here.
Figure 83
‐ 64 ‐
Figure 84
Figure 85
‐ 65 ‐
11. Forging a solid D‐shackle Material. Mild steel, 16 mm in diameter, 250 mm long.
Additional tools. 16‐mm drift; bolster plate, 25 mm thick with a 16.5‐mm hole; 30‐mm bottom swage; bending fork and bending dog.
METHOD
Both ends are upset (Fig. 86 A) in a manner similar to the hook eye (Job 10) and to the same size. Both ends are punched in the same way. Eyes are completed by passing the 16‐mm drift through each to give a neat hole (not chamfered as for the hook). The centre section is heated to a bright red heat and bent, using the bending fork and bending dog as for the hook in Job 10. Take care to get the ends in line with each other and the bend an even curve (Fig. 86C). Metal bends most easily at the hottest point.
Reheat the whole job to a good red heat. Place the ends over the bolster plate as shown in Fig. 87. A few blows on the set hammer will settle the ends parallel to each other and the correct distance apart. While the job is still hot, a drift is hammered through the holes and the bolster plate to align the holes. A large nut placed on the anvil will allow the drift to clear both holes (Fig. 88).
Some shackles are upset in the centre to allow for extra wear. If these are made, additional metal is required.
Figure 86
‐ 66 ‐
Figure 87
Figure 88
‐ 67 ‐
12. Forging a pin for a D‐shackle Material. Hand length of 16‐mm round bar (about 1200 mm); 8‐mm square section or 10‐mm round about 200 mm in length or a hand length.
Additional tools. 8‐mm top and bottom fullers; slot punch with end 16 x 3 mm; 16‐mm top and bottom swages; bolster plate; hot set.
METHOD
Slightly upset one end of the 16‐mm bar for a length of about 40 mm (Fig. 89A) and slightly fuller as in Job 9 but about 35 mm from the end (Fig. 89C). Forge a ring as in Job 9 to fit the 16‐mm bar. Position ring in lightly fullered groove and weld into position with light hammer blows all round. If necessary, round the shank back to its original size beneath the ring so that it will fit a 16‐mm hole in the bolster plate. Also, if required, reheat the pin and place it into the bolster plate and square up the shoulder, as in Fie. 90.
Reheat to a yellow heat and fuller a groove on the short end but close to the ring (Fig. 89E). Fuller to a square section first, then fuller the corners to give an octagonal section. This octagonal section should be about 10 mm thick. Take a near‐welding heat on the remaining upset and flatten until about 8 mm thick, allowing the metal to spread sideways (Fig. 91). Reheat the head and round up the flattened end (Fig. 92). Heat again and punch an 8‐mm hole in the centre of this rounded portion. Next finish the eye as for the hook in Job 10.
Mark off from the underside of the collar a length equal to the distance across the eyes of the D shackle plus 3 mm. This will be the end of a slot hole to be punched. From this mark measure 35 mm and cut off with a sharp hot set or hot chisel. Cut all around the job and this will leave a chamfered end. Reheat and place in a 16‐mm bottom swage and punch a slot hole (Fig. 93), punching from both sides and using a little coal dust as
in Job 10. This punching will cause a little swelling of the metal. Correct this by first using the 16‐mm top and bottom swages and then lightly repunching the hole. Any additional swelling can be corrected by either rasping while the pin is hot or filing it when cold. Make sure that the whole job is straight and a good fit in the shackle eyes.
‐ 68 ‐
FIGURE 89
FIGURE 90
‐ 69 ‐
FIGURE 91
FIGURE 92
A simple cotter pin can be made by cutting off a 50‐mm length of 1.5‐mm steel sheet 16 mm wide. This is wrapped around an 8‐mm diameter‐rod, bending carefully at the centre of the flat strip. When bent into a U shape, grip the strip in the vice just below the 8‐mm rod and squeeze in the vice jaws to bring the sides together, leaving a neat eye. Remove the rod and file the cotter if necessary to make it fit. Chamfer the ends
‐ 70 ‐
and spring the ends apart slightly. This cotter will retain the shackle pin in the shackle eye (Fig. 94).
FIGURE 93
FIGURE 94
‐ 71 ‐
13. Forging a hinge pin for use on a wooden gatepost
Material. Mild‐steel square section of 16 mm and 85 mm long; mild‐steel round section of 12 mm and 65 mm long.
Additional tools. 12‐mm bottom swage; 25‐mm bottom swage; bolster plate with 12‐mm hole; punch; hot set.
METHOD
Upset one end of the 16‐mm square section in the 25‐mm bottom swage until the end is 25 mm wide and just over 16 mm thick (Fig. 95A). Heat to a bright red heat and in this end punch a hole fractionally smaller than 16 mm in diameter (Fig. 95B). Chamfer one end of the 12‐mm round section and upset the other end to about 18 mm in diameter to give a mushroom shape (Fig. 95C).
Heat the punched end of the square section to a bright red heat and drive the upset peg into the hole, settling it firmly into position. Place the bolster plate over the tool hole of the anvil having made sure that the 12‐mm round peg will pass easily through the hole.
Take a full welding heat on the upset parts with the peg uppermost in the fire. Heat slowly to give time for the whole thickness of the job to reach welding temperature. At full welding heat remove the job from the fire, quickly pass the peg through the hole in the bolster plate and hammer the upset end of the peg to complete the weld (Fig. 96). After the initial blows a set hammer can be used to flatten the end neatly. Do any straightening needed and make sure that the peg is at right angles to the shank of the job. The width of the point should be the same as that of the metal, i.e. 16 mm. Next, take a bright red heat over this pointed end over a length of about 60 mm and lightly drive a hot set into the edges (Fig. 97). This gives a ragged finish that will firmly fix the hinge peg into a wooden post. Only five or six cuts on each edge are necessary. Finally, true up the work, wire‐brush it and allow it to cool.
Select tongs that fit well on the peg or hinge pin. Take a near‐welding heat on the unwelded end of the job and forge a flat point (Fig. 95E). Note that one side is flat.
‐ 72 ‐
Figure 95
Figure 96
‐ 73 ‐
Figure 97
14. Forging a strap hinge (to suit Job 13)
Material. Mild steel, 25 or 30 x 6 mm in a flat strap.
Additional tools. Round section punch with 8‐mm flat end; 12‐mm round drift; 18‐mm bottom swage; hot set.
METHOD
Heat one end of the strap to a bright red heat and cut off about 6 mm from the end, cutting from one side only. This gives a neatly chamfered end. Reheat to a yellow heat and begin bending the strap close to the end over the rounded edge of the anvil face, with the long side of the chamfer downwards (Fig. 99). Turn the curve uppermost and continue forming (Fig. 100) until a neat eye is made that fits the drift. Reheat if necessary, replace the drift in the eye, place the job in the 18‐mm bottom swage and flatten the back of the strap (Fig. 101). Mark out holes required; the first one should be about 30 mm from the eye and the others more or less equally spaced. Heat the strap and punch the holes. Correct any bending that results. Take a bright red heat on the flat end and trim from one side with a hot set (Fig. 98D). Heat the whole strap to a red heat, wire‐brush it and allow it to cool.
‐ 74 ‐
Figure 98
Figure 99
‐ 75 ‐
Figure 100
Figure 101
‐ 76 ‐
15. Forging a welded ring for use with chain
Material. Mild steel, 16 mm round section 110 mm long.
Additional tools. No special tools needed.
METHOD
This job is similar to a welded chain link except that in this job both ends of the metal are upset to allow additional metal for the welded joint. This is normal forge‐welding practice.
Take a near‐welding heat and upset both ends (Fig. 102A). Take a bright red heat over the centre section of the job and bend over the beak to a U shape. Scarf both ends as for the chain link (Fig. 102B). Heat all over to a bright red heat and form into a ring (Fig. 102C). Take a full welding heat on the scarfed ends and weld up as in the chain link. Weld securely on the face of the anvil, transfer to the beak and forge the joint to a square section at that point. Finally, reheating if needed, forge off the corners of the square section and then forge back to the round section. While it is still hot, round up the ring, wire‐brush it and allow it to cool.
Figure 102
‐ 77 ‐
16. Scarfed butt weld Material. Hand length of 12‐mm round section of mild steel and an odd length of the same about 160 mm long.
Additional tools. No special tools needed.
METHOD
Upset one end of each piece (Fig. 103A). While still hot, but reheating if necessary, the ends should be scarfed (Fig. 103B) by the method shown in Figs 104 and Fig. 105 . Scarfs must fit nicely together while the length of the scarfs should be only slightly more than the thickness of the metal (Fig. 103 C). Most beginners tend to hammer too much and produce long, thin scarfs. This must be avoided.
It is advisable to have a helper for this job although it can be carried out by one person. The anvil must be clean and the hand hammer ready to be picked up without any loss of time. Tongs holding the short length must be a good fit. The fire must be clean.
Figure 103
‐ 78 ‐
Figure 104
Figure 105
‐ 79 ‐
Figure 106
Place both scarfed ends in the fire and bring to a full welding heat, keeping them gently on the move. Both must reach welding heat at the same time. If one is heating more quickly than the other, it can be held back on the edge of the fire while the other is allowed to continue heating. Keep tongs cool during this heating.
When welding heat is near, the smith must make sure that the scarf on the short length is upward and the other is facing down into the fire. The helper takes out the short length in the tongs and places it flat and firmly on the anvil face. At the same time, the smith takes the other piece, steadies it with the hand hammer and positions the scarfs, then quickly begins hammering the joint together. As soon as the metal is felt to stick together the helper releases the tongs, the smith turns the job over and hammers the scarf on the other side.
The weld is forged to a square section first, then the corners are removed and the section is rounded up.
Top and bottom swages can be used to finish the section, but the objective here is to master the welding. All of the foregoing can be completed in one heat. Should a second welding heat be needed, care must be taken to restrict the heat to the area of the joint. Overheating the parts of the work not previously upset will cause thinning of the work. This is a common fault.
See Fig. 106 for positioning the weld on the anvil. It is a good idea to tap the pieces lightly on the anvil just before positioning for welding. This removes some of the surface oxides. This is not always necessary with smaller sizes of metal as these oxides are forced out during hammering. Only low‐carbon steels can be welded this way without the use of a fluxing agent.
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17. Forging blacksmithing tongs Material. Hand length of 25 x 12 mm flat mild steel; two lengths of 10‐mm round section mild steel 360 mm long; 40‐mm length of 8‐ or 10‐mm section mild steel.
Additional tools. 10‐mm bottom swage; round punch for 8‐10‐mm hole; suitable bolster or an old 12‐14‐mm nut; 6‐ or 8‐mm and 25‐mm fuller; bending dog; hot set.
METHOD
Heat one end of each of the 360 x 10‐mm rods in turn and chamfer in the bottom swage. Cool these ends and then heat the other ends to near‐welding heat, upset them to about 12 mm and scarf as in Job 16. Put these two pieces to one side; they will form the reins of the tongs.
Mark out one end of the 25 x 12‐mm flat bar as in Fig. 107A. Take a near‐welding heat on this end for a length of about 160 mm. Quickly fuller with the small fuller as in Fig. 109, allowing the fuller to penetrate a little less than halfway through. Flatten as in Fig. 110 and lightly fuller again if necessary.
FIGURE 107
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FIGURE 108
Turn the work on edge as in Fig. 111 and lightly fuller the corners to give the section shown in Fig. 107B. Straighten and fuller with the 25‐mm fuller from the opposite side as in Fig. 112. Again, the fuller should penetrate a little less than halfway through. Flatten on the sides and lightly fuller again if necessary to give a good finish.
Quickly place in the vice and twist 90 degrees in an anticlockwise direction as in Fig. 113. Place over the rounded edge of the anvil and flatten the twist as in Figs 114 and 115.
Be sure the twisted section is still at 90 degrees to the rest of the job. With a hot set, cut off the worked piece about 12 mm from the edge of the 25‐mm fuller groove. Hold in tongs and forge end to a square section to match the size of the scarfed end of the reins. Then scarf this end, making sure that the scarf is in the position shown in Fig. 108A. Bring the scarfed ends of both the rein and the newly forged bit to full welding heat and hammer together as in Job 16. A flatter may be used to give a nice finish after welding. The welding position is shown in Fig. 117. Reheat eye boss to a bright red or yellow heat and round up as in Figs 118 and 119.
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FIGURE 109
FIGURE 110
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FIGURE 111
FIGURE 112
Reheat to a bright red heat and punch the rivet hole as in Figs 120 and 121. Note that a nut is used to keep the bit end off the anvil during the second stage of punching. This is carried out over the punching or pritchel hole of the anvil. The hole must be opened out for an easy fit on to the 40‐mm length of 10‐mm round section.
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Each operation is repeated in order to make the two halves of the tongs, which should be identical. The 40‐mm length of round section is placed through the holes and lightly hammered to prevent the rivet from falling out into the fire. Tong bits and rivet are now brought to a bright red heat and the ends of the rivet are hammered with the ball‐peen (Fig. 122). Hammer on each side. After riveting, the tongs are partially cooled in water and should be opened and closed while being dipped in and out of the water to loosen the rivet. Tongs are again reheated to a bright red and set to the metal size (Fig. 123). Note the use of a piece of metal to keep the reins apart to suit the blacksmith's hand. Tongs are now cooled completely and the reins smoothed with a file.
This is the simplest method of tong‐making. Stronger tongs are made in a similar manner but with the bits forged by drawing‐down from a 25‐mm or even larger square or round bar. Tongs made by the method shown here are adequate for most forging operations. Tongs as shown can be made in about 20 minutes (or 30 minutes for beginners).
FIGURE 113
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FIGURE 114
FIGURE 115
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FIGURE 116
FIGURE 117
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FIGURE 118
FIGURE 119
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FIGURE 120
FIGURE 121
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FIGURE 122
FIGURE 123
If specially shaped tongs are required, enough metal must be allowed on the bits and the shaping done after
the rivet hole has been punched. Tongs should drop open easily when released. The method mentioned above for making tongs by drawing‐down the bits from heavier
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sections forms the basis for making carpenter's pincers, pliers, sheet‐metal shears and other similar two‐piece tools.
18. Forging a hammer head Material. Metal should be large enough to give 30 x 30‐m square section without too much forging or cut from a hand length (tool steel or spring steel are best, but worn axle shaft from a tractor or car is also satisfactory).
Additional tools. Combined punch and eye drift; two pairs of tongs; fuller about 12 mm; set hammer.
METHOD
Make or adapt a punch as in Fig. 124 to act as both punch and drift. On the workpiece, make a prominent mark (Fig. 125A). Bring steel to a bright red heat and punch as in Fig. 127. Care must be taken to ensure that the punch is exactly in the centre of the width of the metal and that the punch is at right angles to the piece. The mark should be off‐centre on the long axis (as shown) to facilitate the placement of the punch. Punch well through from one side, removing and cooling the punch frequently. A little coal dust in the hole will help in removing the punch from the work. As soon as the position of the punch can be seen from the opposite side start punching from the second side, allowing the end of the punch to enter the tool hole of the anvil as it passes through the work. Punch must be hammered in from both sides until the hole is approximately the size shown in Fig. 124 (section).The hole must taper from both faces to produce a hole that is smaller in the centre than it is on the outside faces.
The punch may be loosened as in Fig. 128A. A few quick blows on both sides of the eye effectively ease the punch in the hole.
The peen end of the hammer head is drawn‐down as in Fig. 129, using a fuller followed by a set hammer. The job is reversed, heated to a good red heat and the corners removed, as in Fig. 130. The face and the peen in turn may now be reheated to a bright red heat and rasped while hot to give a radiused peen and a flat face. The work is now allowed to cool slowly and further finishing can then be carried out with a file. If a grinding machine is available, use it to do this finishing work.
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FIGURE 124
FIGURE 125
Because the quality of steels varies, some experimenting might be needed in the hardening and tempering of this workpiece. If spring steel has been used, heat up the piece slowly to a dull (very dull) red heat and quench in oil. Clean up both the face and the peen until they are bright and shiny. Take a rod or a punch that fits well in the eye. Heat this rod or punch to a yellow heat and place it in the eye of the hammer head.
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Heat will be transferred from the punch to the work and temper colours will eventually be seen on the polished ends. Usually the peen heats up a little more quickly than the face end.
When a dark brown (almost turning blue) is observed, quench the piece in water. If the colour is seen on one end first, cool only that end while allowing the other to continue heating. When both ends are at the correct temperature (colour), remove the punch from the eye and quench the whole job. All that remains is to fit a handle. A good wire‐brushing will improve the appearance of the work.
Hammers of this type are easy to make and are suitable for all normal workshop uses. Lighter and heavier hammers can be made using smaller or larger sections of steel. If a ball‐peen is required, the drawing‐down operation (Fig. 129) is repeated on all sides to give a square but tapered section, corners are removed and the end rounded up with a file or on a grinding machine.
See Fig. 11 for the method of fixing the hammer shaft. The small metal wedge is made in a manner similar to that used for the ragged hinge pin in Fig. 97.
FIGURE 126
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FIGURE 127
FIGURE 128
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FIGURE 129
FIGURE 130
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19. Forging an axe head from low‐ and high‐carbon steels
Material. 280 mm of 50 x 8‐mm flat mild steel; scrap piece of high‐carbon steel about 50 x 50 x 4 mm (old plough disc or ploughshare will do); for welding flux, use borax or a commercial brand for the oxyacetylene welding of cast iron; clean white sand or powdered sandstone will suffice if nothing else is available; two pieces of 6‐mm rod.
Additional tools. Axe eye drift (Fig. 132); bent bar; hot set; set hammer; flatter.
METHOD
In addition to producing an extremely useful tool, this job introduces the combining of high‐ and low‐carbon steels to make a cutting tool. New points for old ploughshares can be made by using this technique, and chisels, plane irons and gouges for woodworkers can be produced. With care, cast‐iron scrap can be used instead of high‐carbon steel. A good flux is required to reduce the oxidation of the high carbon steel during welding. Borax or the cast‐iron welding flux are both active fluxing agents and will help to dissolve any oxides formed. Clean white sand can be used, but this merely forms a molten barrier to the atmosphere and is rather messy.
To begin, the mild‐steel bar is heated to a bright red heat and bent into a U shape and closed around the drift (Fig. 133). The piece of high‐carbon steel scrap is inserted as in Fig. 131B. The whole is heated and then two holes are quickly punched beneath the eye but including the high‐carbon steel. Two small pieces of 6‐mm rod are inserted as rivets (Fig. 134). These will hold the pieces in the correct position while a welding heat is taken. Tongs as used to hold the hammer eye in Job 18 will serve to hold the axe eye. It is important that these tongs not be allowed to become red hot; they must be cooled frequently.
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FIGURE 131
FIGURE 132
The work is positioned well into the fire and a welding heat taken close to the eye. In fact, part of the eye will also reach welding temperature. Heating must be slow to give time for the heat to spread through the work, and frequent turning of the work in the fire is necessary. When the work reaches a good yellow heat, flux is sprinkled on it, particularly along its edges. Heating continues up to welding temperature. The work is
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then positioned on the anvil (Fig. 135) and rapid heavy hammer blows should be applied close under the eye to weld the pieces into a solid mass. This weld can be finished with a set hammer if desired. During this operation the eye will be slightly reduced in size.
A second welding heat is taken on the edge of the work opposite to the eye. Slow heating is again advised and care must be taken to ensure that all unwelded parts are included in this heat. Quick and heavy hammer blows should be applied to the job, taking care to cover the whole piece with hammer blows. Shaping of the axe head can also be started during this heat. A third welding heat will be required to consolidate the metal and to complete the shaping (Fig. 136). The metal should be spread to a larger size than the finished axe head and can be finished with the aid of set hammer and finally a flatter. Next, the eye is again brought to a bright red or yellow heat, the drift inserted as in Fig. 137 and the eye set to the drift and stretched slightly as in Fig. 138. This should be carried out from both sides of the eye, leaving it slightly smaller in the centre than at the openings. Note that the axe eye drift is shaped to leave this restriction in the middle of the eye hole (Fig. 132).
FIGURE 133
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FIGURE 134
FIGURE 135
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FIGURE 136
Reheat and trim the axe head to size and shape using a hot set. True up the job, heat to a good red heat all over and allow to cool slowly. The job can be ground or filed to final shape and its cutting edge formed by filing. Heat the job to a dull red heat (visible in the shade) for a distance of about 30 mm from but including the cutting edge and quench in water. Tempering should not be necessary, but if signs of chipping are noticed on the edge during use the work can be tempered at a dark straw colour. Final sharpening should be carried out using a fine carborundum stone.
The sizes given are for a small axe but larger ones can be made using the same technique.
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FIGURE 137
FIGURE 138
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20. Forging a hoe with spiked tang Material. 5‐mm carbon‐steel plate (old plough or harrow disc is ideal).
Additional tools. Bottom swage, size depending on thickness of metal but about 25 mm; 12‐14‐mm set hammer; hot set.
METHOD
From carbon‐steel plate cut either the pattern shown in Fig. 139 or one of your choice. Cutting can be carried out by heating and using a hot set. Marking the pattern can be done with white chalk, which is visible even at red heat. After cutting, edges can be heated and hammered to give a better finish or, if a grinding machine is available, the edges can be ground before proceeding with the work.
Position the bottom swage in the anvil, have the top fuller at hand, heat the tang end to a good red heat and fuller to a half‐round section, as in Fig 140 and Fig 141. Reheat and carefully forge the tang to a tubular section for about one‐third of its length, with the remainder in more of a U shape. Reheat and carefully forge to a square tapered section. With a little flux, a light welding heat may be taken on the end and forged to give a solid point, which helps when a shaft is fitted (Fig. 142). Reheat the blade around the lower part of the fullering and finish the sides and end of the fullered part, as in Fig. 143. Reheat and true up the work and set the tang and blade to the angle suitable for the person who is to use the tool. Sharpen the working edge with a grinding machine or file.
Usually plough‐disc steel is sufficiently hard for tools for manual work without heat treatment. However, the hoe can be hardened and tempered if necessary. Heat about 50 mm of the blade, from and including the edge, to a dull red heat and quench in oil. Clean the edge with a piece of sandstone or carborundum stone until shiny. Place on top of the fire with the edge clear of the centre of the fire and slowly reheat until a dark brown colour is observed, and quench again.
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FIGURE 139
FIGURE 140
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FIGURE 141
FIGURE 142
Some care is required in heating to ensure that the blade is evenly heated across its width. This can be accomplished by constantly moving the job from side to side in the fire. If temper colours begin to appear in one spot before another, the part showing slight colour must be moved farther away from the centre of the fire. A little practice soon develops the skill needed.
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FIGURE 143
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21. Forging a hoe with eye Material. 5‐mm carbon‐steel plate (old plough or harrow disc is ideal).
Additional tools. Bolster for eye; bursting punch; drift; fuller 12‐14 mm; bottom swage about 25 mm; set hammer.
METHOD
From carbon‐steel plate cut either the pattern shown in Fig. 144 or one of your choice. Cutting can be done by heating and using a sharp hot set. After cutting, edges can be heated and hammered to improve the finish or, if a grinding machine is available, the edges can be ground before proceeding with the work.
Position the eye bolster (Fig. 145) over the tool hole of the anvil and have the bursting punch and drift (Fig. 146) at hand. Heat the upper part of the blade to a bright red heat, position as in Fig. 147 and begin punching. Relatively thin steel cools quickly and two or three heats may be necessary to enable the punch to be driven well into the work. If the metal is allowed to cool too much during punching, cracking will occur. A few quick blows followed by reheating are most effective. The punch should penetrate to 25 or 30 mm. The work is again reheated to a bright red heat and the drift is hammered into the depression and through the workpiece (Fig. 148). Again, take care not to allow the work to cool too much. Reheat as necessary. A small plug will be cut out by the drift, leaving an eye or socket with 4 mm or so of a flange around the eye for additional strength. Any trueing up of the eye or socket can be done around the beak of the anvil.
The work is again reheated to a bright red heat and fullering is started (Fig. 149). In fullering into the groove in the bolster, ensure that this fullering is on the centre line of the blade. Fullering is completed in a bottom swage (Fig. 150).
The eye is again reheated and its shape corrected around the beak. During this operation the remains of the flange around the eye can be stretched slightly to give the eye some taper to help retain the shaft when fitted.
Finally, adjust the angle of the blade to the eye to suit the user and finish as in Job 20.
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FIGURE 144
FIGURE 145
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FIGURE 146
FIGURE 147
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FIGURE 148
FIGURE 149
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FIGURE 150
FIGURE 151
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22. Forging an all‐purpose woodcutting tool
Material. 35 x 40 x 6 mm carbon‐steel bar or spring steel or a piece of ploughshare or disc; small piece of water‐pipe to make a ferrule.
Additional tools. Set hammer; flatter; 25‐mm top fuller; drill for hole in handle.
METHOD
Cut or forge a piece of steel to the size shown in Fig. 152A. Heat one end to a bright red heat and partially forge the tang (Fig. 153). Take care to work from both sides of the metal to keep the tang on the centre line. Reverse the piece and hold the partially made tang in tongs. Heat the other end to a bright red heat and forge (Fig. 154) to the approximate shape shown in Fig. 152C.
Reheat if necessary and partly bend the point over the beak (Fig. 155). Reheat and complete the bend (Fig. 156).
FIGURE 152
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FIGURE 153
FIGURE 154
Hold the point and heat the tang end for a distance of 50 to 60 mm back from the shoulder. Hold the tang and set in the blade to begin the drawing‐down (Fig. 157). The blade and the set should be held at an angle to allow the force of the blows to impinge on what is to be the cutting edge. Reheat about half the length of the blade and draw‐down the edge using a fuller (Fig. 158). This fullering is continued along the length of the blade until the whole length is nearly the correct dimension. Final finishing is
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carried out using set hammer and flatter. Take care not to hammer the edges of these tools into the anvil face when working on the thin edge.
Reheat the tang end to a bright red heat and draw out the tang (Fig. 159) to the dimensions shown in Fig. 152E. Make sure that the last 25 mm or so of the tang is drawn out very thin to simplify the fastening of the handle. A wooden handle can be made to the sizes shown in Fig. 152F. The ferrule (Fig. 152G) is a metal ring girdling the handle to strengthen it and is made from a small piece of steel water‐pipe heated and stretched over a drift. This must be a tight fit on the wood. A 6‐ to 7‐mm hole is next drilled through the wooden handle. The tang is heated to a dull red heat and inserted into the handle to burn its way through. The tang should go easily into the wood to within about 4 mm of the shoulder. Remove the handle from the tang and carry out hardening and tempering.
FIGURE 155
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FIGURE 156
FIGURE 157
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FIGURE 158
Hardening is best carried out in oil. If tempering is difficult, place a metal tray full of sand on top of the fire and put the blade in the sand with its cutting edge uppermost and out of the sand. Heat will be transferred from the sand to the metal slowly, giving plenty of time for the temper colours to be observed. The cutting edge should be ground or filed to a keen edge before hardening and tempering. Final sharpening is done afterwards on a whetstone.
When the handle and blade are complete, heat the end of the tang to a red heat, quickly place the tang into the handle and bend over the end as shown in Fig. 152H. Then quickly cool the handle in water to prevent excessive burning of the wood.
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FIGURE 159
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Glossary Alloy mixture of two or more metals Anneal to heat and then cool to achieve maximum softness Antimony element alloyed with lead and tin to produce soft solder Anvil shaped iron or steel block with hardened face upon which metal is forged Ash residue after fuel has been burnt Ash wood often used for tool handles, particularly in Europe Beak the cone‐shaped end of the anvil Bellows air pump used for supplying air blast to the forge fire Bend angle or curve formed in metal Blast air supplied to the forge fire by bellows or by other means Blast pipe pipe conducting air blast to fire (also called tuyere) Blow to supply fire with air or to hit with a hammer Bolster steel plate with variously shaped holes to aid in the forging of shoulders Bolt tongs specially shaped tongs to hold bolts and rivets Borax chemical used as a fluxing agent when welding Bosh blacksmith's tank that supplies water to cool work or the blast pipe Carburize to heat iron in the presence of a carbon‐rich material with air excluded to increase the surface carbon of the iron Case harden to harden surface of steel by carbonizing Charcoal black residue of wood after smothered burning, used as forge fuel Cleft cut or slot in metal often used as a weld preparation Clinker the residue of burnt fuel in the blacksmith's fire Coal fossil fuel used in blacksmith's fire
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Coke coal processed to remove gas and used as forge fuel Dies shaped blocks of metal between which metal is forged, as well as tools for cutting external screw threads Dog mechanical device for holding or gripping something Drift short metal rod used to size or shape punched holes Eye‐bolt bolt with a looped head Fan mechanical device used to produce air blast Felloe section of a wheel rim Flatter flat‐faced swage Flux chemical agent used to dissolve oxides on metal to be welded Forge (n.) blacksmith's workplace Forge (v.) to shape hot metal by hammering, by hand or machine Former device for bending sheet metal; also template around which an article is formed Fuller shaped bottom tool or shafted top tool used to produce grooves in metal Glow to give off light, i.e. red, yellow or white heat Gouge chisel‐like tool with a curved cutting blade Grind to remove metal with an abrasive such as a grinding wheel Haft shaft or handle of tool Hammer shafted tool for striking metal and tools Hand length length of metal that can be handled without tongs Harden to heat‐treat steel to achieve maximum hardness Hardness ability of one metal to scratch another Hardy cutting tool fitted to tool hole of anvil Heat to make hot or the degree of hotness, i.e. red, yellow or white heat Helper
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blacksmith's assistant Incandescent glowing with heat, giving off light Iron silvery grey metallic element; when mixed with carbon, it changes to steel Mandrel shaft to which work is fixed while being turned Metal metallic elements: iron, copper, tin, etc. or mixtures of such Mild mild steel is that which is soft and malleable Monkey tool block with holes used in forging shoulders Normalize heat‐treat to remove stresses and to bring the metal to its normal condition Notch prominent nick or groove in metal Oxide metal combined with oxygen; it forms rapidly at high temperatures Peen face of hammer other than flat, such as cross‐peen Pintle hinge peg Plastic capable of being moulded or shaped Pritchel punch for opening holes in horseshoes; also describes anvil hole used for punching Punch shaped steel tool for making holes in metal Reins the handles of blacksmith's tongs Rivet (n.) metal pin passing through holes with a head formed on ends Rivet (v.) to fasten parts together with a rivet Scale oxide on surface of metal after heating Scarf (n.) metal notched as a preparation for welding Scarf ( v.) to notch; to unite by a scarf joint Set tool to be hit with a hammer Shaft length of bar or a handle for a tool Shears lever‐operated tool for cutting metal Shoulder
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angle forged in metal resembling human shoulder Snap tool for forming rivet heads Soften to remove hardness by heat treatment Steel combination of iron and carbon Stocks supporting framework Strike to hit with a hammer Swage shaped top or bottom tool, usually with half‐round groove, to form metal Swage block heavy cast‐iron block with shaped holes and grooves Tang projecting point by which a blade is held firm in handle Temper to reduce the degree of hardness by heat treatment Tenon end of bar drawn‐down to a square or rectangular section Tommy‐bar short bar for use with box‐spanner Tongs pincers for holding metal during forging and other operations Tuyere pipe to conduct air blast to fire Upset to make metal shorter and thicker Vernier small movable graduated scale for indicating parts of divisions on a graduated instrument Vice device with two jaws that is fixed to a bench to hold workpieces Weld in blacksmithing, to join metals by heat and pressure or by fusion
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