1
INTRODUCTION
Environment plays a very significant role in human
civilization. Trees, plants, creepers, water, river, air, etc. and different
kinds of animals play a vital role towards human civilization. The
survival of human being is perhaps impossible, even for a single
moment, without nature or natural environment. The human being
flourish in its lap and at the end take eternal rest therein. Any kind of
intolerance and carelessness towards nature and natural elements may
bring destruction to human civilization. So, the newly emerging
concepts, like the concept of Environmental Awareness has moved
into the mainstream of public life as a major national and
international concern intending to make aware about the role of
nature in human life.
T World Chapter for Nature
declared that is a part of nature and life depends on the
uninterrupted functioning of natural system which ensures the supply
of energy and nutrients; that civilization is rooted in nature, which has
shaped human culture and influenced all artistic and scientific
achievement and living in harmony with nature gives man the best
opportunities for the development of his creativity, leisure and
recrea 1
2
(A) The Meaning of Environmental Awareness:
In common parlance, environment means the surroundings, i.e.
the surroundings where we, the human beings live. Etimologicaly
which one is surrounded. In a bit technological terminology, it means
the complex of climatically adaphic and biotic factors that act upon
an organism or an ecological community and support their survival.
And in a narrower sense, it may mean the aggregate of social and
cultural conditions that influence the life of an individual and
community2. In Sanskrit, the equivalent word for environment is
Paryavarana. This word is constitutes as- pari + a + vr-anat in which
completely
refers to the
environment which entirely surrounds the living creatures, especially
the human beings, whose existence depends upon it.
As per the , the term
circumstances etc. affecting a
3.
The Cambridge International Dictionary of English defines
or work in and the way that they influence how you feel or how
environment (the quality of) the air, water and land in or which
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people, animals and plants live. And the adjective form of it i.e.
- when people claim that a product or activity
is environmentally friendly, they either mean that it will not harm the
land, sea or air, or that it will do less damage than other similar 4.
The Compact Oxford Reference Dictionary gives the
Environment: the surroundings or
conditions in which a person, animal or plant lives or operates; or (ii) 5.
Dictionary of Environmental Science of
Techn environment means-
all, or any, of the following media, namely, the air, water and land;
and the medium of air includes the air within buildings and the air
within other natural or man-made structures above or below 6.
Similarly,
Technology states the meaning
(1) The physical and chemical surroundings of an object, e.g. the
temperature and humidity, the physical structures, the gases. (2) when
applied to human societies, the cultural, aesthetic and any other
factors which contribute to the quality of life, are included in the
defina 7.
4
According to the Stockholm Conference on Human
Environment (1972)
of his own environment situations. This environment provides him all
the opportunities of economic, social and cultural development. Man
has achieved all the abilities to change the environment. Nature and
biotic environment factors contributes in the well-being of human
being 8.
Thus, different dictionaries put the meaning of the term
environment widely differs in its connotation in the micro-scale or in
the macro-scale. For example, the micro environment of man could
constitute his home, the food he takes or the air he breaths from the
immediate surroundings, whereas the macro environment would
mean the climatic conditions he lives in or the general rise in world
temperature conditions that is likely to affect him etc. Environment is
an inseparable whole and is constituted by the interacting system of
physical and biological elements which are interlinked individually as
well as collectively. Both physical elements (air, water, land etc.) and
biological elements (plants, animals and micro-organisms) can play a
large impact on human beings. So, it should be always in balance.
Broadly, environment contains two sets of components
(elements). These are- (a) the biotic or living and (b) the abiotic or the
non-living. The biotic environment contains all the living beings on
this planet broadly classified into plants and animals. The biotic
5
elements contains air, water etc. which are non-living objects of the
world.
Thus, Environmental Awareness means in general, an
nts etc. and
some ethical commitment towards its general health. The current
perception of environment implies a consciousness and awareness
about all the facts of environment and need for their protection and
preservation surfaced only recently in the global scale beginning with
the world conference on Human Environment (Man and Biosphere)
in Stockholm in 1972, under the aegis of the United Nations
Organization, and drawing up therein the Charters as guiding
principles towards this goal9. In the scholarly article entitled
Environmental Conception and Measurement Dunlap and Jones
Environmental concern is defined as the awareness or
insight of individuals that the natural state of the environment is
threatened through resource overuse and pollution by humans 10.
Similarly, in the words of Inglehart environmental awareness is part
of a general change in fundamental values that take place as societies
develop. As societies become more affluent, their members are less
preoccupied with the economic struggle for survival and are free to
pursue what Inglehart termed postmaterialistic goals, such as political
freedom, individual self-fulfillment, and environmental protection.
Inglehart asserted that the shift from materialism to post-materialism
is irreversible as long as material prosperity continues11.
6
similar and must be
oikos (i.e.home)
knowledge of 12. Hence, it denotes the knowledge or study of mutual
interactions between organisms and physical environment on one
hand and interactions among the organisms on the other hand in a
given eco-system. During the discussion of the term Ecology, The
Encyclopedia of Britannica
unit including all the organisms (biological factors) interacting with
the environment (physical factors) so that a flow of energy within a
system leads to a clearly defined trophic (nutrient requiring) structure
to biotic diversity and to an exchange of materials between living and
non-living sectors 13. The knowledge of this eco-system is Ecology.
Ecology implies love, intimacy, order and symbiosis between man
and nature, as also their interdependence and universal brotherhood.
as defined by the
German biologist
the body of knowledge concerning the economy of nature, the
investigation of total relations of the animals both to its inorganic and
to its organic environment, including above all, its friendly and
inimical relation with those animals and plants with which it comes
directly and indirectly into contact 14.
Thus, ecology is a scientific study of mutual relationship of
biotic and abiotic components of whole biosphere or part thereof to
the environmental problems in terms of environmental degradation
and ecological crisis arising out of increased human impacts on
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natural or ecological resources through advanced modern
technologies aimed at accelerate rate of economic development to
meet the demands of ever-increasing population at global and
regional levels. The environment, i.e. surroundings comprises of
various biotic and non-biotic factors which can be classified as
climatic factors (i.e. attitude, direction of mountain-chains etc.)
edaphic (i.e. formation of soil etc.) and biotic factors (i.e. plants and
animals etc.). Thus, human being is considered as an integral part of
environment or nature and there should be harmony and not hostility
between the two.
(B) Environmental Awareness as Revealed in Ancient Indian
Scriptures:
Environment is very rich in Indian tradition. Although the
concept of Environmental Awareness has become a very serious issue
and a matter of a great discussion in the contemporary age, it did
arrest the attention of the ancient Indians since the early stage of
civilization. From the Vedic upto Classical, the intimate relationship
between Nature and Man is being reflected and highlighted in the
pages of Sanskrit literature. So, they tried to make an intimate
relationship between these two aspects.
The Vedic seers visualized the various aspects of nature, its
glamour, regularity, helpfulness, loveliness, virile and unassailable
power and sometimes fear caught up their imagination. They felt it
very well that nature reserves all the immense potentialities to
8
maintain ecological balance which is the boon for good health and
happiness of man. So, in view of Indian sages,
plays with perfect rhythm with life-waves. In
perception of our ancestors, there is a particular order in the universe
and the nature has its own system of manifestation. All natural objects
and natural power move through this rules and regulations, because,
there is an the changeable. The
unchangeable regularity of nature is by the Vedic
thinkers15.
In the famous hymn Bhumisukta, the Atharvaveda also clearly
mentions Rita for clear explanation of the concept of the formation of
the earth and its cosmic order16.
The Rgveda is the earliest monument of the Aryan culture and
civilization where nature plays a prominent role. In the Rgveda alone,
we have several suktas where Rishi propitiates the natural elements as
deities showing the significance of these objects in human life or in
all living beings. As for instance, in the Vayu-sukta of the Rgveda
states that Vayu or the air is the essence of all living beings17. Science
also regards pure air (vayu) as a boon to good health and happiness.
In the Vedic period, the fur-fathered sages established this fact by
their mantras where the Rishi shows his high gratitude towards vayu
by designating it as his father, brother and friend etc. The sages felt
vayu as the store-house of ambrosial. It has medicinal qualities also
i.e.
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vata a vatu bhesajam sambhu mayobhu no hrde prana ayumsi tarisat
uta vata pitasi nah uta bhratota nah sakha / sa no jivata vekrdhi /
yadado vata / tato no dehi jivase // 18.
In the same tone, Artharvaveda states that air is the support of
all beings. We sing the praises of Vayu and Savitr, who protect us and
who surround (i.e. pervade) the whole world. May they free us from
sin.
vayoh savituvidayani manmahe cavatmavad visayau yo ca rakshayah /
yau vidyasya paribhu babhuvayustau nau muccatamhamsah //19
The Taittiriya-upanisad regards vayu as Brahma, the supreme
power of the life for us. i.e.
namaste vayu / tvameva pratyaksam brahmasi /
tvameva pratyaksam brahmavadisam / rtamvadisam /
satyamvadisam / tanmamavit /
tadvaktaramavit / avinmam / avidvaktaram //20
Likewise vayu (air), without water the survival of all living
being is impossible. Sayanacharya, the commentator of the Rgveda
states that the water jalat prasastamam
lokopakarakam kimapi nasti 21 Water is life, it is the vital breath, and
it is the nectar of the nectars-
apo vai pranah / tadsminnetan pranan dadhati /
tathaitajjivameva devanamhavirbhavati / amrtamamrtanam //22
10
Again, the tenth Mandala of the Rgveda states water as the
element of welfare to all living being- yo vah sivatamo rasastasya23.
The Isopanisad states that the God is present in each and every
part of this creation- isa vasyamidam sarvam yatkinca jagatyam
jagat 24. Thus, it includes that one should not dare to disturb the
environment which is nothing but a manifestation of God. Following
the Upanisadic maxims like- sarvam khalu idam brahmah ,
ayamatma brahmasmi , yat pinde tat brahmande etc. also bear the
same moral obligation to all.
Similarly, the Yajurveda states that the molecules, air, fire, sun
etc. are components and are the creation of God, through which he
composes the universe. e.f.
yasmajjatam na puram kimcanaica ya ababhuva bhavanani viswa /
prajapati prajaya sasamrarana strini jyotisksamsi sacate sa sorasi //25
In the Bhumisukta of the Atharvaveda, the seer Atharvan has
presented a beautiful picture of Modern Earth which is the basis of
our sustenance and a symbol of entire environment. This earth or
bhumi means the wide-world, ground, site, soil, clay etc. i.e. the
cosmic elements of solidity.
The earth takes utmost care of all living being, and like a
mother looks after her children. The Atharvan
our mother - mata bhumi putr
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prthivyah 26. Similarly, the Visnupurana also praises the earth as our
mother as she nurse and nourish all existing things saisa dhatri
vidhatri ca dharini prasani tatha / 27 Similar instances are found in
the Ramayana also. c.f.
api svarnamyi lanka na me laksamana ! rosate /
janani janmabhumisca svargadapi gariyasi //28
The plant-ecology has a significant role to keep the
environment in balance. Since the early stage of human development,
the plant world has been recognized as an inseparable part of human
civilization. In the Ramayana, when Sita was abducted by Ravana, at
this mournful situation, the flora and fauna had shown their sympathy
towards Rama and paved his way in their own languages. c.f.
evamukta narendrena te mrgah sahasotthitah /
daksinabhimukhah sarve darsayanto nabhah sthalam //
maithili hliyamano sa disam yamabhyapadyat /
tena margena gacchanto niriksante naradhipam //
darsayanti ksitim caiva daksinam ca disam mrigah /
sadhu gcchavahe deva disametam ca nairrtim //29
Thus, the intimate relationships between man and nature have
been observed in the pages of ancient Indian scriptures since its very
past.
12
The Mahabharata considers the trees as like one own son
and laid emphasis on planting more trees. c.f.
manavam putravat brksah tarayanti paratra ca /
putravatparipalyaste putraste dharmatah smrtah //30
The Matyapurana also suggests taking care and protection of
trees which is highly beneficial for the existence of human beings and
nature. i.e.
padapanam vidhi suta! yathavad vistarad vada /
vidhina kena kartavyam padapodyapanam vudhaih //31
Again,
savausadyukaih siktan vistatakavibhusitan /
vrksan malyairalamkrtya vasobhih parivastayet //32
Considering the significance of such useful trees, the
Mahabharata alerts the people regarding the need of taking care and
protection of trees-
33
It is mentioned in the Sivapurana that one who cuts down trees
will f asipa and he would have to abandon
human society and take recluse in the forest as punishment. i.e.
13
34
The Vrhatsamhita of Brahamihira is an outstanding specimen
of ancient India where we have innumerable utility of plants, the
methods of plant propagation, its care and other valuable
information35 which may play a vital role formulating new way of
investigation by the modern scientists. Some specific tree such as
Neem, Asoka, Kadamva etc. are very useful for purification of air.
Therefore, the Vrhatsamhita suggests broadcasting of these trees
before build own residence:
aristasokapumnagasirisah sapriyangavah /
mangalyah purvamarame ropaniya grhesu va //36
Kautilya, in his Arthasastra, have enough moral lessons in
connection to the care and protection of trees with their practical
value. According to Kautilya, plants are the basis of human
civilization. c.f.
yopajivina 37
Kautilya too, prescribes punishments for cutting of trees. It
includes imposition of fine upto six panas for cutting down tender
sports, flowers and trees providing shade in the park near a city.
When a small branch is cut, the fine is raised upto twelve panas; and
in case big branches it may extend upto twenty four panas38.
14
The conservation of the forest and new plantation are two main
policies of modern scientists with regard to maintenance the plant-
ecology which have been observed in the Arthasastra of Kautilya.
c.f.
evam dravyadvipavana setuvandhamathakaran /
raksetyurvakrtanraja navamscabhipravartayet //39
Kautilya has prescribed the appointment a Sitadhyaksa for
protecting forests-
samaharta durgam rastram khanim setum vanam vajram
vanikyapatham cavekseta /40
Similarly, Manu, known as the first law-giver of India, suggests
punishment to those who cut down useful tress. c.f.
//41
Also,
42
15
43.
Likewise, the animals are also a major part of our environment.
Some animals like cow, horse etc. have been described in the Vedas
emphatically.
annam hi gauh //44 45 etc.
Therefore, the Atharvaveda suggest punishment to those who
become threat to such type of animals for their existence. c.f.
visam gavam yatudhana bharantama brscantamaditaye duresah /
parainan devah savita dadatu para bhagamosadhinam jayantam //46
The killing of co anagohatya vai bhima 47. On
the other hand, those who serves c yah
pranati sa ha devasu gacchati 48 In the Ramayana also, Lord
Valmiki, through his poetic manner states that killing an innocent
animal is a great offence. Anyone exerting violence in nature must be
punished. The following citation is a clear instance regarding this
aspect.
ma nisada ! pratistham tvamagamah sasvatih samah /
yatkauncamithunadekamavadhih kamamohitam //49
16
The ancient Indian law givers prescribe punishment for killing
different kinds of birds and animals by different person of the society.
For example, according to Manu, if a Brahmin kills a snake, she/he
should give a spade of black iron. For killing a boar, one should give
pot clarified butter. For destructing a partridge, one should give a
drone of sea-mum grains; and for killing a parrot. One should give a
calf of two years old. And if anybody kills a crane, she/he should give
a calf of three years old50. Similarly, it is mentioned in the
Manusamhita that a person who kills a Hamsa, Bakula, a heron, a
peacock, a monkey, a falcon or a Bhasa, should give a cow to a
Brahmin. If anybody kills a horse, she/he should give a garment. For
killing an elephant one should give five black bulls. One should give
a draught ox for destroying a goat or a sheep. It has been prescribed
that if anybody kills a donkey, she/he should give a calf of one year
old51.
Thus, the protection of birds, animals and other plants is the
norm of the Indian tradition. The great sage Caraka, the author of
Carakasamhita also suggests to maintaining a cordial relationship
with the animals providing all humanly behaviors as like one own
friend. In the words of Caraka bhutah syat,
kruddhanamanuneta, bhitanamasvasayita, dinanamabhyupapatta,
satyasandhah, samapradhanah, paraparusavacanasahisnuh,
amarsa 52
17
Again,
nanujnatena ca) pravicarata purvam
gurvarthopaharane yathasakti prayatitavyam,
karmasiddhimarthasiddhim yasolabham pretya ca svargamicchata
bhisaja tvaya gobrahmanamadau krtva sarvapranabhrtam sarma
sasitavyamaharaharuttistha copavisata ca sarvatmana
caturanamarogyaya prayatitavyam jivitahetorapi caturebhyo
nabhidrogdhavyam 53
The Hindus believe fourteen avataras (birth) of the God like
Matsya-Kurma-Varaha-Nrsingha etc. which signify the divine forms
in such animals. Accordingly, various gods assume animal form. As
for instance, Lord Ganesha is the elephant god; and Vishnu incarnates
as Varaha etc. The Hindu has been worshiping the different kinds of
animals in assuming forms of gods in their respective religious
activities. The cobra is worshiped on the eve of Nagapanchami and
cows are offered adorations on Balabhadra-puja. Likewise, some
plants like Tulshi, Bilva, Banyan-tree etc. are worshiped by the
Hindus. All these are nothing but the indication of the importance of
such animals and plants, in absence of which the survival of human
being is quite impossible. Therefore, such needed or respectful
objects should be protected or preserved by all means.
In Buddhist culture, also nature is considered most sacred. In
Buddhism, the preservation of animals, birds, small creatures and
plants are pointed out as essential as human beings. Causin pain to a
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defenseless animal is declared unjustified. In the Jatakamala of
Aryasutra, Buddha has been depicted in the form of animals and birds
in many times. Thus, it exhorts that one should follow the path of
non-violence and kindness for the welfare and happiness of all living
beings, keeping in mind a natural and protective environment.
Similarly, our ancient Indian ancestors prescribe some spiritual
and disciplined life-style for the people, which is useful for
preservation of the environment. It has been advised to every house-
holder that they should perform five great sacrifices (Mahayajnas)
regularly. These five Mahayajnas are: brahmayajna; the sacrifice
offered to the Brahmanas (i.e. teaching and studying of the vedas),
pitryajana; the sacrifice offered to the means (i.e. offering to water
and food), devayajna, the sacrifice offered to the Gods (i.e. the burnt
oblations), bhutayajna, the sacrifice offered to men (i.e. hospitable
reception of the guest)54. Hence, these five sacrifices are suggested
with the preservation of environment. The concept of these five
Mahayajnas is a lesson to the people that nobody should disturb the
balance in the creation.
The Bhagavadgita clearly enunciates the theory of
interconnection and interdependence of the whole cosmos in a
definite and scientific form. Accordingly, all life of the whole cosmos
is made of five elements pancamahabhutas-the earth-water-fire-sky
and wind.
19
ksetrajnam capi mam viddhi sarvaksetresu bharata /
ksetraksetrajnayojnanam yatjnanam matam mama //55.
The Mahabharata also proclaims that these elements are the
root of this universe. c.f.
bhumirapastatha jyotirvayurakasameva ca /
gunottarani sarvani tesam vaksami te gunan //
ete pancadasa brahman guna bhutesu pancasu /
vartante sarvabhutesu yesu lokah pratisthita //56
In this context, the Indian philosophy recognizes two types of
aspects i.e. external and internal. According to Indian philosophy, for
a conducive environment both aspects should be well, for which they
refer these five mahabhutas i.e. the earth, water, fire, air, and space,
where the internal aspect includes mainly mind (manas). As to the
nomenclature of the environment, the concept developed by the
ecologists based upon the five gross elements of nature is completely
considered one-sided since no scientist has accepted mind or intellect
as a component of environment, except the components of Sanskrit
literature57. The Bhagavadgita also states that this prakriti of mind is
divided into eight fold thus: earth, water, fire, air, space, mind
intellect and also egoism. i.e.
bhumir lo vayuh kham mano buddhireva ca /
ahamkara itiyam me bhinna prakrtirastadha // 58
20
According to Indian seers, environment is consisting with these
elements. So, these five visible gross elements have a great
significance for an environment, without which the survival of
mankind is quite impossible. Several Indian philosophers are also in
favor of these facts that, God is present in each and every element of
this universe are not so ordinary elements which have been
deified in Sanskrit literature. The significance of deification of these
elements is that, the human beings will be psychologically and
spontaneously eager to develop a sense of respect towards these
elements. The Vajasaneyi Samhita declares that almost all the
elements of nature such as fire, air, the Sun, the Moon, Vayu, and
Rudras etc. are deities59.
The Samkhya philosophy advocates the theory of this
cosmology with the help of two aspects viz. Purusa and Prakriti.
According to this philosophy, Prakriti is the uncaused cause of the
world and all the gross and subtle elements comes from this prakrit60.
Here, Samkhya refers to five natural elements i.e. earth, water, space,
fire and air as well as the human beings as products of this Prakriti61.
So, the divine virtue of Mother Nature is responsible for the creation
of this universe.
In this way, the ancient Indian seers observed nature from
different angles viz. as creator or a creation. As creator, nature or
Prakriti is the ultimate cause of this universe from which innumerable
forms come out. In Samkhya, it is termed as Prakriti, the principle of
creation, whether it is creator or creation, nature stands for
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environment and without nature or natural gifts the survival of
human-being is quite impossible. This has been aptly realized by our
ancient Indian seers. So, for preservation of these natural properties,
they analyzed nature carefully and deified the natural substances.
For a conducive environment, sacrifices have a great
significance. It purifies our environment. Therefore, the Mundaka-
upanisada suggests us to perform yajna with a great respect. c.f.
etesu yascarate bhrajamanesu yathakalam cahutayo hrdadayana /
tam nayanaptyetah su .62.
Similarly, the Bhagavadgita recognizes yajnas as the essence
for all living being63. The offering made to gods reaches the Sun
through fire and again comes down to the earth as rain. Without rain
or water, the survival of living being cannot be imagined.
Thus, Nature as well as environment plays a very significant
role in the whole ancient scriptures. These texts also encourage us to
embrace the ancient Indian way to life and inspire the people to
perform some activities (like plantation) with an attitude of reverence
towards the environment.
In his Nirukta, Yaska gives the definition of manusya as:
matva karmani sivyunti iti 64. It is through such actions that man
realized the truth behind the cosmos. The ancient Indian thinkers
considered the whole world as the creation of God. The entire world
22
is interconnected with both animate and inanimate objects. There is a
deep relationship among plants, animals and human beings.
Therefore, as being the superior to all of these, it is the duty of every
man of this earth to maintain the beauty of nature and not to disturb
its equilibrium. The Vedic ancestors devoted their life for welfare of
the whole universe. For that, they performed some religious activities
(like yajnas) through which they had been teaching human beings to
respect natural objects, peace, purity, sanity and serenity forever.
Hence, they prayed:
// 65
Also,
madu vata rtayate madhu ksaranti sindhavah /
madhvirnah santvosadhih //
madhu naktamutosaso madhumat parthivam rajah /
madhu dyaurastu nah pita //
madhuman no vanaspatirmadhuman astu suryah /
madhvirgavo bhavantu nah //66
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(C) Kalidasa and His Works:
Kalidasa, the prince in Sanskrit literature, occupies an unique
place in the history of the world literature both as an immortal poet
and dramatist. The matchless qualities of his works have been
lavishly praised both by ancient Indian critics and modern scholars.
Kalidasa has been designated as the Kavikulaguru i.e. mentors of the
poets. In spite of the great popularity of his name, it must be admitted
that there are hardly any trustworthy information regarding the
alone stand as a monument of his surpassing poetical excellence.
There are a few information of this world-wide repute from external
sources and a few incidents are found here and there in his works,
which may be supposed to have a distant link to the history of his life.
About the personal life of Kalidasa, Dr. Sarvapalli Radhakrisnan
realm of
reasonable conjecture and nothing more. Kalidasa speaks very little of
himself, and we cannot therefore be sure of his authorship of many
works attributed to him. We hardly have any details of his life.
Numerous legends have gathered round his name, which have no 67. Virtually, no facts are known about his life,
although many colorful legends bear testimony of glorious
life. According to such myth, Kalidasa was a Brahmine by caste and
originally, was a dull child and grew up quite uneducated, but through
the match-making efforts of a scheming minister he married to a
princess who was ashamed of his ignorance and coarseness. Later, he
acquired extra-ordinary intelligence and erudition through the grace
24
of the goddess Kali. It is further narrated in the story that when
Kalidasa returned to his wife after attaining deep learning, his wife
(the learned) asked him: asti kascid vagvisesah (Is there any
excellence in your speech?). In response to this quarry Kalidasa
composed his three famous works starting with these three words-the
Kumarasambhava, opening with the word asti (astyuttarasyam disi
devatatma himalayo..........)68, the Meghaduta, with the word kascit
(kascitkantavirahaguruna svadhikaratpramattah )69 and the
Raghuvamsa, with the word vak (vagarthaviva samprktau
vagarthapratipattaye )70. According to another story,
Kalidasa was murdered by a greedy courtesan when he was, as a
guest of his friend and Ceylonee king Kumaradasa, in Ceylon.
Similarly, many tales are there for the birth place of the great
poet. Some call him native of Ujjayini, some of Kashmir, some of
Bengal and other of Vidarva. A time-honoured tradition supported by
internal and external evidence, associates the name of Kalidasa with
the city Ujjayini. In his lyric Meghaduta, Kalidasa gives a vivid
description of this city. For that, the poet devotes a number of stanzas
and shows his close acquaintance of the geographical region or
objects, in comparison to other places, rivers and hills situated in
central India. From those, scholars assume that the poet spent the best
part of his life in this beautiful city which may be the native place of
Kalidasa.
In this context, some other modern scholars like
Mahamahopadhya Dr. Lachmi Dhar Kalla71 propounded this view
25
that Kalidasa, in his works enthuastically presents the glorious
graphic description of Kashmir with several rivers, and holy places.
and customs that are
prevalent in Kashmir. As for instance, through his all plays, Kalidasa
propogates the doctrine of the Kashmirian Shaiva doctrine of
Prayabhijnana-darsana (the doctrine of the recognition of unity of
divine soul). These indicate that Kalidasa was born and brought up in
Kashmir and later on he migrated to the central India to seek royal
patronage due to disturbed conditions in Kashmir.
To another apocryphal, Bengal was the native place of
Kalidasa. Supporting this, the scholars explain the name Kalidasa as a
devotee of goddess Kali i.e. Kalidasa, the devotee of Kali. On account
of predominance of the worship of Kali in Bengal, scholars assign
that to be the birth-place of the poet. For asserting the birth-place of
Kalidasa, some scholars explain fondles in Vaidarva style of
composition and on the basis of this, they presume that Vidarva was
the place where Kalidasa, the great poet was born. But these two are
very weak arguments, because the internal evidences available from
s do not corroborate the view that he was a devotee of
Kali; and secondly, no argument about the birth place of a writer can
be built on the basis of his style of writing72.
Similarly, it is a topic of great discussion among the scholars
about the date of Kalidasa which still remains debated. On the basis
of various chronological evidences which are directly or indirectly
associate with Kalidasa, scholars assign the date of Kalidasa in
26
various centuries. So, there is a sharp difference of opinion among
scholars with regard to the date of Kalidasa. According to these
most upward date of Kalidasa is stated by French scholar Mr.
Hippolyte Fouce, places Kalidasa in the eight century B.C. on the
assumption that he was contemporary to Agnivarma, the last king of
Raghu-dynasty73. On the other hand, the earliest mention of Kalidasa
by name is in the Aihole inscription of Pulakesin II which proves
Kalidasa as a poet of six century A.D. or before this era.74. Bana, the
court poet of Sriharsa of Kanauj, who reigned from 606 A.D. to 647
A. D. pays rich tribute to Kalidasa75. On the strength of these
evidences, Kalidasa might have flourished during or before the six
century A.D.
Although different scholars put numerous arguments
supporting their own view to assign a definite date of the great poet
but there are some common theories associated Kalidasa with the
period, known as Vikrama era. After the discovery of the Mandasor
inscription, this theory became untenable and remains unshaken.
Similarly, according to some modern European scholars are generally
inclined to hold that Kalidasa must have flourished under one or more
of the Gupta kings. Mr. Vincent A. Smith in his book entitled Early
History of India mentions that Kalidasa must have lived in the
region of the first two, or even in that of the third, of the Gupta kings
i.e. Chandragupta II (357-413 A.D.), Kumaragupta I (413-455 A.D.)
and Skandagupta (455-480 A.D.), where both Chandragupta had
adopted the title of Vikramaditya74. In this regard Mr. Smith
27
comments:
say, while Chandragupta II was on throne; but I am inclined to regard
the reign of Kumaragupta I (413-
later works were composed and it seems possible, that the whole of
his literary career fell within the limits of that region. It is also
possible that he may have continued his writing after the accession of 77. Thus, Mr. Smith states Vikramaditya as the patron of
Kalidasa. But it is vague because more than one king bears the same
title in the history of ancient India. However, from the internal
evidences it proves that a period of peace, prosperity, power, victory
and glory portrayed in the works of Kalidasa especially in the
Raghuvamsa. After many arguments, some scholars believe that
Kalidasa flourished in the Gupta age and was a contemporary of
Chandragupta II or Kumaragupta I, who had assumed the title of
Vikramaditya. Then there is the theory of the nine gems by unknown
in the court of Vikramaditya.
i.e.
dhvanantariksapanakamarasimhasamkuvetalabhattaghatakarparakalidasah /
khyato varahamihiro nrpateh sabhayam ratnani vai vararucirnava vikramasya
Of these nine gems, Amarasingha is said to have lived between
414 A.D. to 642 A.D. Varahamihir is believed to have died in 587
A.D. So, on the basis of this strong ground, Kalidasa is supposed to
be their contemporary.
28
Ghatakapara-Kavya is a khandakavya containing 22 verses is
a poetic contribution by Ghatakarpara, an eminent gem of the court of
Vikramaditya. In this literary credit, like Kalidasa, Ghatakarpara
portrays nature as an integral part of human life and like Kalidasa
sends cloud to his love-lorn heroine as messenger.
Varahamihi Brihatsamhita is one of best contribution
to Indian astrology; represents the social, cultural, and environmental
spheres of his time. A.B. Keith also clearly states that Varahamihir
flourished in the six century A.D. where the date of Ksaparnaka and
Vararuci are unknown. But on the basis of the verse of
Jyotividhyabharana78 most of scholars are in favour of the view that
Vararuci, Ksaparanaka etc. all are contemporary of the poet Kalidasa.
Furthermore, considering similarities of ideas, situations and
descriptions, some scholars advocate the impact of Asvaghosa on
Kalidasa. According to them, Asvaghosa, the Buddhist poet, paved
the ground for Kalidasa for his compositions. In this context, E. B.
Cowell
Buddhacarita remarks doubt
picture was suggested by the rough but vigorous outlines in
Asvaghosa; he was the Buddhist Ennius who gave the first inspiration
to the Hindu v 79. A. B. Keith also observes that Kalidasa
exhibits the influence of increased refinement of style in his dramas
just as in his epics he normally avoids the pedestrian traits which are
easily to be found in the epics of his forerunner Asvaghosa.80. History
also proves Asvaghosa as a court poet of the Kaunsa king Kaniska
29
who ruled in 78 A. D81. Hence, Kalidasa flourished after Asvaghosa.
But there is no consensus among the scholars about the matters.
As like the matter birth-province and date, the
works of Kalidasa is also a matter of great dispute among the
scholars. The poet is silent about himself in his works. Numerous
se
works are interpolated by some anterior or by some later poets
bearing the name of Kalidasa or who has been associated with
Kalidasa directly or indirectily. Rajasekhara, the author of
Kavyamimamsa also states that there were three other poets who bore
the name Kalidasa. c.f.
kenacit /
kimu // 82.
Generally, the following works are associated with regard to
the authorship of Kalidasa: Sakuntala, Vikramorvasiyam,
Malavikagnimitram, Raghuvamsa, Kumarasambhava, Meghaduta,
Kuntesvaradautya, Rtusamhara, Ambastava, Kalyanastava,
Kalastotra, Kavyanatakalamkara, two Gangastakas, Ghatakarpa,
Chandikadandastrotra, Carcastava, Jyotirvidyabharana,
Durghatakavya, Nalodaya, Navaratnamala, Puspabanavilasa,
Makarandastva, two Mangalastakas, Mahapadyastaka, Ratnakosa,
Raksasakavya, Laksmistava, Laghustava, Vidvadvinodakavya,
Vrndavanakavya, Vaidyamanorama, Suddhicandrika,
Srngaratilaka, Srngararasastakavya, Sringararasastaka,
Syamaladandaka, Srutabodha, Saptaslokiramayana and
30
Setubandha Sanskrit Manuscripts
also assigns 34 works to Kalidasa83.
Although these large number of works are attributed as
; but, on the basis of the grounds of common
ideas, expressions and style most of modern scholars come to a view
that only two epics (Mahakavyas) namely, The Raghuvamsa and the
Kumarasmbhava two lyrics (Khandakavyas) named the Rtusamhara
and the Meghaduta and three plays viz. the Malivikagnimitram, the
Vikramorvasiyam and the Abhijnanasakuntalam can be ascribed to
his unique creation. Among these seven works, which are analyzed
from various poetical art, delineation of emotiom sentiments, and the
are sought
to be discovered. A.D. Singh follows the views of Bail Pandey84 as
mentioned here for determining
which stand in the following order- the Rtusamhara-
Malavikagnimitram- Kumarasambhava- Vikramorvasiyam-
Meghaduta- Raghuvamsa and the Abhijnanasakuntalam.
The Ritusamhara is regarded as the first literary credit of the
great genius. It is a lyric containing about 153 verses, where the poet
praises the glory of six Indian seasons like Grisma, Varsa etc. with all
their aspects and the changes brought about in nature by the advent of
each and every season and its impact on the living being, especially
on the love-affected persons. It starts from a passionate address by a
young romantic his beloved. By the description these six
31
seasons, the poet adjoins the human life with nature which reflects
The Malavikagnimitram is considered as the first attempt of
dramatic creation and the second literary achievement of Kalidasa. It
is a five-act play containing the love story between the king
Agnivarma of Vidisa and Malavika as its main theme. Here, Kalidasa
portrays this sensual love along with a description of the frailties,
selfishness and weakness of the queens of the palace-harem bearing
the cultural, social and historical value of past India by its character
and theme.
The Meghaduta, a lyrical poem containing 120 verses, is
another majestic work of Kalidasa. It is divided into two parts viz.
Purvamegha and Uttaramegha respectively. A newly-wedded
Yaksha, who was appointed in the survice of Kuvera, the custodian of
riches, for gross negligence of his duty was exiled by his master from
Aloka to Ramagiri for a year. There he took shelter on that mount,
abounded in trees yi
ablutions85. Seeing a piece of cloud in summer, the love-mudded
Yaksa becomes anxious and desires to send his message of well-being
to his beloved through it. Thus, the whole poem is a message of
longing and hope in which passion in purified and desire is enabled.
The Vikramorvasiyam of Kalidasa is a trotaka class of Rupaka
with five acts, relating the love-story between the terrestrial king
Agnimitra and Celestial Urvasi as its central theme. Therefore, the
32
play is a blending of human and super human elements with earth and
heaven. Both the hero and heroine of this play are well-known
legendary figures who are hallowed by tradition.
The Kumarasambhava
relating how Parvati won the love of Siva in order to bring Kumara
(i.e. Kartikeya), the god of war to destroy the demon Tadaka. At first,
the physical glamour of Uma failed to win the heard of Siva, finally,
the plan was successful and as a result Uma gave birth Kumara who
saved the universe from Tadaka. Although the epic contains
seventeen cantos, from its various poetical aspects, some scholars
considered ;
and remaining positions have been perceived to be added later on by
any unknown poet for a sweetable conclusion of the poem.
Nevertheless, the Kumarasambhava ranks one of the most designed
mahakavya among the five-mahakavyas in Sanskrit literature.
Abhijnanasakuntalam is a full-fledged play in
seven acts which has a world-wide appreciation and is universally
acclaimed as the best creation of the great genius. In this play, the
dramatist portraits the passionate love between the king Dusyanta and
Sakuntala, the daughter of a celestial nymph, Menaka and sage
Viswamitra. So, it represents a blending between earthly and
heavenly elements. Due to perfect delineation, elegance of language
and so on, it is accorded as the best jewel not only in Sanskrit
literature but also in the world literature by the critics.
33
The Raghuvamsa
Kalidasa containing nineteen cantos describing the life of Raghu
together with a record of his ancestors and descendants. It based on
the Ramayana of Valmiki. According to Indian critics, it is the finest
specimen of a Mahakavya which enumerated among the five famous
Mahakavyas of Sanskrit literature.
In the realm of Sanskrit literature, Kalidasa, the immortal poet
and playwright, occupies a unique position whose works have been
lavishly praised by critics all over the world. Among his seven well-
known creations, the Abhijnanasakuntalam is highly praised as his
best paragon.
Not only by the modern scholars, the ancient Indian critics like
Dandin, Bana etc. and the famous prose-writers of Sanskrit literature
also pray rich compliments to Kalidasa. Dandin admires Kalidasa for
his Vaidarbha
charming says are lan 86.
In Sanskrit literature, Kalidasa is known as the master of
upama (simile). It bears the striking feature of the genius which can
easily captive the hearts of sahrdayas. Hence, the saying goes as
upama Kalidasyasya
His upama are clear, complete and beautiful. Prosperity of his use of
simile is so charming that later rhetoricians like Vamana have laid
down certain rules for the use of figures of speech in general and
upama in particular87.
34
In Kalidasa, we find the normal state of prakrti in the later
dramas, Sauraseni for the prose speech and Maharastri for the verses.
His Sanskrit is classical where the deviations from the norm are found
in many cases. His expressions are capable of defense on some rule or
other, while in others we may remember the fact of the epic
tradition88.
Kalidasa is considered as the greatest poet of Sringara-rasa in
classical Sanskrit literature. The Sringara has two kinds- Sambhoga
and Vipralambha type of Srngara, where Kalidasa shows his
Excellence in both. The Meghaduta and the eight canto of the
Kumarasambhava stand as excellent specimens of vipralambha-
srngara and sambhoga-sringara respectively. Similarly, the episode
raiti- as found in the eight canto of the Raghuvamsa and
rati- of the Kumarasambhava are two superb examples of
Karuna-rasa by Kalidasa. Moreover, in his works, Kalidasa shows
his deep acquaintance in the use of eight types of comedies as
mentioned in the Natyasatra of Bharata.
In field of dramatic creation, Kalidasa is ranked at the topmost
of the dramatist of the world by the critics and the Shakespear of
India s. In his plays, the playwright maintains a
harmony with the development of his dramatic art. His dramatic plot,
flight of imagination, unique delineation of human feelings and
characters, elegance and simplicity of expression, fusion of sound and
sense, sympathetic description of Nature, and wonderful blend of
natural and supernatural elements etc. leads to an unique creation not
35
only in Sanskrit literature but also in the world literature. His dramas
are good composition of both earthly and celestial characters where
he depicts various types of characters such as: male, female, kumara,
and inanimate objects, divine, semi-divine and combined mortal-
divine figures, where the human characters have been depicted as the
ideal which is free from all blemishes and have universal virtues.
Similarly, due to his poetical compositions, Kalidasa has been
able to draw rich tribute both from ancient and modern scholars since
his time. Kalidas
unparallel and in
compositions attach greater importance to the employment of similes
and metaphors and to the delineation of natural scenery and human
sentiments than to a simple narration of events. Kalidasa concives
only the beautiful, refined and harmonious aspects of life and nature,
for which he his famous as the Poet of Beauty . Moreover, his
Excellent of poetic art is distinguished by elegators, accomplishment,
and harmony of sound and sense, which delights our mind and
elevates the soul of the sahrdayas.
The poet has an unfailing eye for the wonderful aspects of
nature which lead him to establish himself the poet of Nature
Sanskrit literature. In his minute observation, he includes all the
living and non-living objects of the world with equal impotence. In
the imagination of Kalidasa every river is bound with the sea in
wedlock, and every tree and plant awaits a male. The mountains and
forests are bosom friends of clouds; and the wind and vernal blooms
36
confidence of love. uman nature is inextricably
interlinked with nature89.
Thus, Kalidasa, known as the prince in Sanskrit literature,
occupies the highest position in the field of Sanskrit literature. The
works of Kalidasa bears numerous kinds of poetic excellences. He
adopted most of the arts of learning available at his time whose
richness of creation is beyond words. Virtually, Kalidasa is the highly
laudable person in classical literature that has been able to shake the
hearts of every reader. Numerous legends on him prove the popularity
of Kalidasa. In modern time also, different people from various
countries languages have spread his fame all over the world. Goethe,
the renowned German poet was also so inspired by the German
version of the Abhijnanasakuntalam that it evoked him to compose a
beautiful poem in German language to extol the play. The English
translation of this famous epigram is as follows:
Wouldst thou have the blossoms of youth
and the fruits of maturity,
Wouldst thou have charms and delights,
Wouldst have satisfaction and support,
Wouldst thou grasp the heaven and the earth
with a single name,
I name thee, O Sakuntala!
and thus everything is said 90.
37
Likewise Goethe, the well-known philosopher and traveler Hamboldt
tributes Kalidasa as:
a masterly describer of the influence which nature exercises upon the
minds of lovers. ression of feeling and
richness of creative fancy have assigned to him his lofty place among 91.
Several eminent scalars Shakespear of
brightest star in
firmament 92. Similarly, the most celebrated Bengali
poet Rabindra Nath Tagore shows his great complement to Kalidasa
by writing a long poem in Bengali. The English translation of the last
stanza of this sweetable poem runs thus-
Did you not have joy and sorrow?
Hope and despair, even like ourselves,
O immortal poet? Were not there always
The intrigues of a royal court, the stabbing in back?
Did you never suffer humiliation,
Affront, distrust, injustice,
Want, hard and pitiless? Did you never pass
A sleepless night of poignant agony?
Yet above them all, unconcerned pure,
Has flowered your poem a lotus of beauty
Opening to the sun of joy. Nowhere
Does it show any sign of sorrow, affliction, evil times,
38
Churning the sea of life you drank the poison,
The nectar that arose you gave away!93.
(D) Objectives and Scope of the Study:
Environment and human-being are closely interrelated as the
two sides of the same coin. Environmental imbalance invites
destruction not only to the human life but also to the entire
civilization too. In order to obtain sustainable development of human
life, favorable environment is essential. In the twenty first century,
the era of science of technology, human civilization has achieved
tremendous progress in different fields of society. At the same time, it
is probably an undeniable fact that human being has failed to provide
required attention towards Mother-Nature. The process of
industrialization and technological advancement has created
environmental pollution, which is undoubtedly a threat to both human
society and nature. The overall evil effect of industrialization upon
the harmony between living beings and environment demands serious
Environment and
Development observes
created an environment in which life has became physically and
mentally unhealthy. Polluted air, irritating noise, traffic congestion,
chemical containments, radiation hazards and many other sources of
physical and psychological stress have become part of every-day life
for most of us. These manifold health hazards are not just incidental
by products of technological progress. They are integral features of an
economic system obsessed with growth and expansion, continuing to
intensify its high technology in an attempt to increase productivity 94.
39
In this context, at present, Environmental Science has begun to be
taught as a core subject in schools, colleges and at the university level
also. The Stockholm conference of Human Environment (1972)
acclaimed the efforts, both national and international to establish
programmes of environment education, interdisciplinary in approach,
in school and out of school en-compassing all levels of education and
directed towards the general public in particular the ordinary citizens
living in rural and urban area, youth and adult alike, with a view to
educating him as to simple steps he might take, within his means to
manage and control his environment 95.
It, thus, cannot be denied that a sustainable environment is the
pre-requisite for well-being of the society. In the present era of
science and technology, the main environmental problems are: air
pollution, ozone layer depletion, noise pollution, problems related to
wild-life protection, water pollution, land degradation etc. which
creates hazards for human-beings as well as nature to exist in this
planet. So, various types of environmental laws like the Forest Act,
1927; Forest (Conservation) Act, 1980; Wild-life Protection Act;
1970; Water (Protection and Control of Pollution) Act, 1981;
Environmental (Protection) Act, 1986 have formulated to curve
destraction of nature natural resources, and at the same time to protect
their sustainability. In India and abroad, both central and different
state Govts. have taken numerous significant and effective
programmes and research projects to create environmental awareness
among the people. To understand the crisis of environmental
40
degradation and to create awareness about the same, every year 5th
World Environmental Day
Ancient Indian scriptures, as has already been discussed, have
enough to reveal for protection and maintenance of ecological
balance. Environment includes all parts of nature necessary for health
and happiness of human beings. Nature reserves immense
potentialities to maintain ecological balance. Our ancient Rishis is
adequately realized the importance of natural objects on human life.
Hence, they worshiped these natural objects as deity to protect and
maintain a healthy environment. Ancient Indian scientists inspired
and provided various ways to maintain the most intimate relationship
between nature and human beings. Moreover, they have inspired and
shown ways to the people to maintain a conducive environment in
human society where nature and human beings can exist
harmoniously.
The ancient Indian environmental principles are based on the
idea of unity, interconnectedness, interdependence which are able to
address the environmental problems of bio-diversity, global warming,
water pollution, nuclear proliferation etc. Dr. Biswanarayan Sastri in
his paper entitled Environment in Sanskrit Literature presented
in the World Sanskrit Conference 2001, held in New Delhi has urged
us to follow the teaching of Sanskrit literature to maintain
environmental equilibrium. To quote Dr. Sastri passage of
time and the development of science and technology, trade and
industry, the total economic growth has caused a sea change in the
41
living pattern of the people of today with those of yore. In short, the
economic growth and environment are moving in two directions and
hence science and technology seem to be the enemy of nature and the
question of environment arises. On the other hand in this scientific
age nobody could think of stepping opposite progress of science and
technology. The natural environment is the ideal of humanity, and
that is why the Vedic and Puranic literatures sing the glory of nature
and environment. Today, the situation caused by the man to fulfill his
greed is bent upon to destroy nature in the name of advancement of
material civilization, which eats at its root. The greed surpasses the
need and it becomes a global problem. To maintain the purity of air
and water as remedial measures one may look into the Sanskrit
literature to find an answer for living with nature and may prove that
green is good! Sanskrit has the inherent capacity to find a solution in
the face of aggression by the modern technology to save not only the
human beings but the inanimate beings too, the ecology 96. R.C.
Panda Indian Spiritual Life and Environment
suggests to follow the ancient Indian life style which will inspire
everybody to respect nature and to create a sustainable environment97.
Kalidasa, the prince in Sanskrit Literature, perhaps occupies the
highest position in this field. His works earns world-wide fame
among the heart of the different levels of scholars and scientists. The
works of Kalidasa, the poet of nature, is, infect, a treasure house of
moral lessons which can work as the basis for developing new
environmental ethics in the world. Kalidasa portrays in a very
appreciating manner the universal relationship between Nature and
42
Human beings, which is having much relevance in the present day
world. He is a minute observer of both animate and inanimate objects,
where he not only depicts the beautiful sides of nature, their feelings
and emotions but also their other humanly attitudes too. Therefore, it
is probably highly essential, in this era of science and technology, to
examine the concepts of Environmental Awareness as revealed in the
works of Kalidasa, the great poet dramatist.
The present work is an humble attempt to study and examine
the different aspects of environmental awareness as is revealed in the
works of Kalidasa, and to find out their relevance, if any, for
maintaining a eco-friendly society.
43
Notes and References:
1. EASL, P-XIX
2. GIC, P-20
3. OALD, P-387
4. CIDE,P-463
5. CORD, P-274
6. DEST, P-217
7. WDST,P-307
8. TAEE, P-15
9. EAIST, P-53
10. HES, 2002
11. MPCEPCS, 1997
12. JUJI, Vol.-6, 2001, P-132
13. Ibid, Vol.-6, 2001, pp-132-133
14. GIC, P-52
15. EEE, P-262
16. AV., 12-1.1
17. Rg., 10-186.2
44
18. Rg., 10-86.1-3
19. AV., IV, 5.25.1
20. Tai., Sikhsavalli, XII Anuvaka
21. Rg., Sayanacharya, 1.16.1.9
22. SB, III, 8.2.4
23. Rg., 10.9.2
24. Iso, 1
25. YV, 35
26. AV., 12.1.12
27. VP, 1.32.92
28. Ram, Yuddhakanda,
29. Ibid, Ayanyakanda, 17.19-22
30. Mbh, Anusasanaparva, 8.30
31. MsP,59.1
32. Ibid, 59.3
33. Mbh, Uddyogaparva
34. SvP,5.11.67
35. Vrhat, Vriksayuraveda, 55.6,12
36. Ibid, Viksayurveda,55.3
45
37. Arth, 2.13.18
38. Ibid, 2.13.24
39. Ibid, 2.1.47
40. Ibid, 2.6.1
41. MS, 11.142.113
42. Ibid, 8.2.85
43. Ibid., 12, 58
44. SB, 4.3.1.25
45. Ibid., 13.9.6.3
46. AV., 8.3.16
47. AV., 10.1.29
48. Rg., 1.125.5
49. Ram, Valakanda, 2.15
50. MS, 134-135
51. Ibid, 136-137
52. CS, ch,8
53. Ibid, Nidanasthana, 8.13
54. MS., 3.70
55. BG, 13.2
46
56. Mbh, Vanaparva, 222.3-10
57. JUJI., Vol. 6, 2001, pp-192-193
58. BG, Ch. 3
59. VS, 14. 2
60. Sam,3
61. Ibid. 22
62. MU, 2.5
63. BG., 3.14
64. Niru, 3.6
65. AV., 19.8.14
66. Rg., 1.90.6-8
67. Kl. P-02
68. Ku,1.1
69. Megha, 1
70. Raghu, 1.1
71. Kl, P-3
72. Ibid. 4
73. KCS, P-7
74. SD, P-146
47
75. Kl, P-5
76. Vik, P-18
77. Ibid, P-18
78. Jdv, 20-22
79. Kl, 19
80. Ibid, P-23
81. KCS, P-11
82. Mal, P-III
83. KCS, P-10
84. Ibid, P-11
85. PMegha, 1
86. KHAC, P-1
87. JUJI, Vol. 5, 1996, P-175
88. SD, P-166
89. Kl, P-87
90. KHAC, pp 1-2
91. Mal, P-IV
92. Ibid. P-V
93. KHAC, P-2
48
94. EASL, P-XVIII
95. Ibid, P- XXII
96. Ibid, P-XX
97. JUJI, Vol. 6, 2001, P-70
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