Data, information and knowledge Data are individual facts which, by themselves,
are not very meaningful e.g. the account was debited by $50
Information is the organisation of one or more pieces of data to answer a complex question e.g. a debit of $50put the account into the red
Knowledge is the use of information to establish useful patterns
e.g. e.g. don’t draw a cheque for more than you have in don’t draw a cheque for more than you have in your accountyour account
Evolution of IS
IS evolution in most organisations has been: IS evolution in most organisations has been:
from automation to augmentation andfrom automation to augmentation and
from bottom to top from bottom to top
from simple to complexfrom simple to complex
from local to globalfrom local to global
from individual to collaborativefrom individual to collaborative
specialisationspecialisation
From automation to augmentation I Many computer applications automate the Many computer applications automate the
handling of routine transactions these are calledhandling of routine transactions these are called
Transaction Processing Systems (TPS) TPS generate huge amounts of data Usually, TPS allow users or managers to query the
system, finding useful information who made the sale at 1.47 on register 3 how many fridges did we sell today
TPS are one of the simplest types of IS IS that collect data from manufacturing or
scientific testing are often quite simple as well
From automation to augmentation II
Originally most organisations wanted to use IS to Originally most organisations wanted to use IS to improve worker efficiency e.g. office automationimprove worker efficiency e.g. office automation The benefits have NOT exceeded the costsThe benefits have NOT exceeded the costs
Many of the benefits of IS have been intangibleMany of the benefits of IS have been intangible higher quality, more professional, worker higher quality, more professional, worker
satisfactionsatisfaction
Many tasks, such as planning and decision Many tasks, such as planning and decision making were not amenable to automation so later making were not amenable to automation so later IS were intend to help or augment planners and IS were intend to help or augment planners and decision makers rather than to take over their roledecision makers rather than to take over their role
From bottom to top
The flow of IS through many organisations was The flow of IS through many organisations was from line workers to managers to executivesfrom line workers to managers to executives
The large number of line workers suggested The large number of line workers suggested potentially large benefits from automationpotentially large benefits from automation
The data collected by TPS etc was needed by The data collected by TPS etc was needed by managers but in a refined form. managers but in a refined form.
This led to Management Information Systems MIS This led to Management Information Systems MIS and Decision Support systems (DSS) for and Decision Support systems (DSS) for modelling decisions and Executive Information modelling decisions and Executive Information Systems (EIS). Systems (EIS).
From simple to complex
The tasks carried out by line workers are often The tasks carried out by line workers are often quite routine while those of managers are more quite routine while those of managers are more complex. The tasks carried out by executives can complex. The tasks carried out by executives can be highly complex and virtually uniquebe highly complex and virtually unique
To support these tasks, individual IS often became To support these tasks, individual IS often became highly specialised - suiting only a few usershighly specialised - suiting only a few users
More complex IS often needed new technologies More complex IS often needed new technologies to be effective e.g. OLAP, visualisation tools. to be effective e.g. OLAP, visualisation tools. Some made use of Expert Systems and many are Some made use of Expert Systems and many are now using intelligent agents to carry out very now using intelligent agents to carry out very complex analyses in conjunction with userscomplex analyses in conjunction with users
From local to global
As IS developed, so did the Internet, becoming As IS developed, so did the Internet, becoming the World Wide Web.the World Wide Web.
The Web offered organisations a “standard The Web offered organisations a “standard interface - the browser - which could be used to interface - the browser - which could be used to provide TPS, MIS, EIS etc to all sorts of users at provide TPS, MIS, EIS etc to all sorts of users at virtually any locationvirtually any location
Many organisations are currently struggling with Many organisations are currently struggling with the process of migrating applications to the Webthe process of migrating applications to the Web
From individual to collaborative More complex IS using the Web allowed more More complex IS using the Web allowed more
than one person to share an application and the than one person to share an application and the data files. This gave rise to the idea of Computer data files. This gave rise to the idea of Computer Supported Supported CollaborativeCollaborative Work (CSCW) Work (CSCW)
CSCW systems often use a “blackboard CSCW systems often use a “blackboard architecture” to allow users to share ideasarchitecture” to allow users to share ideas
This is particularly useful for tasks like This is particularly useful for tasks like collaborative design e.g. engineering equipment, collaborative design e.g. engineering equipment, but also for any other collaborative taskbut also for any other collaborative task
Specialisation
As IS have evolved, developers have found new As IS have evolved, developers have found new places, new niche markets that could be servedplaces, new niche markets that could be served
Geographical Information Systems (GIS) allow Geographical Information Systems (GIS) allow users to carry out complex analyses of data that users to carry out complex analyses of data that has a strong geographical component - mappedhas a strong geographical component - mapped
Many early IS simply stored and retrieved Many early IS simply stored and retrieved information. These Information Retrieval Systems information. These Information Retrieval Systems were often found in libraries were often found in libraries
These have become more specialised such as These have become more specialised such as Medical Information Systems, Legal databases, Medical Information Systems, Legal databases, graphical databases e.g. video librariesgraphical databases e.g. video libraries
Knowledge systems
Technologies, like expert systems and agents do Technologies, like expert systems and agents do more than capture data which they present as more than capture data which they present as meaningful informationmeaningful information
They try to capture what people “know”They try to capture what people “know” how to organise a shipping schedulehow to organise a shipping schedule when to invest in the local share marketwhen to invest in the local share market why a specific medication suits a specific why a specific medication suits a specific
disease disease
These systems capture knowledge and provide These systems capture knowledge and provide “intelligent” assistance to users. They are often “intelligent” assistance to users. They are often called knowledge based systemscalled knowledge based systems
Knowledge management
It is important to capture knowledge in an It is important to capture knowledge in an organisation because organisation because it is very valuableit is very valuable it can be lost otherwiseit can be lost otherwise it makes it easier to find and applyit makes it easier to find and apply it can be applied by lower level employeesit can be applied by lower level employees
home loan applicationshome loan applicationspipeline maintenancepipeline maintenance
Knowledge portals
As more and more organisational data is placed As more and more organisational data is placed on the Web and Intranets, it is becoming more on the Web and Intranets, it is becoming more and more difficult to retrieve that information and more difficult to retrieve that information
Knowledge based systems can be built which:Knowledge based systems can be built which: know what information is relevant to a task, know what information is relevant to a task, who should have access to it and who should have access to it and where that information is keptwhere that information is kept
Web based systems which provide this type of Web based systems which provide this type of assistance are known as knowledge portalsassistance are known as knowledge portals
Diversification All of the trends we have seen, occurred in parallel All of the trends we have seen, occurred in parallel
more intelligent systems for more complex more intelligent systems for more complex tasks by more peopletasks by more people
This has led to the specialisation of IS to many This has led to the specialisation of IS to many tasks. This, in turn, means that specialised IS are tasks. This, in turn, means that specialised IS are found found everywhereeverywhere
airline booking systemsairline booking systems stock exchange systemsstock exchange systems banking and insurance systemsbanking and insurance systems hospital administrationhospital administration defence systemsdefence systems
Analysis and indexing Search, retrieval, linking, navigation Scalability, efficiency, and effectiveness
How “good” is an IS
Despite all the care taken to build them, many IS fail
They may They may not provide the functions that were requirednot provide the functions that were required be too slowbe too slow be too hard to learn and too hard to usebe too hard to learn and too hard to use
To evaluate an IS we use software metrics To evaluate an IS we use software metrics things that we know we can measure to see if the IS things that we know we can measure to see if the IS
is up to standardis up to standard
Speed - throughput IS work in two basic modes - IS work in two basic modes -
batch processing and interactively. batch processing and interactively.
Batch processing was the predominant method, Batch processing was the predominant method, historically, and is still used today.historically, and is still used today.
e.g. on Thursday night, the payroll systeme.g. on Thursday night, the payroll system calculates everyone’s pay and calculates everyone’s pay and deposits it to their bank account or deposits it to their bank account or prints a chequeprints a cheque
In batch mode we are concerned with how many In batch mode we are concerned with how many transactions the IS can process in a given time - this transactions the IS can process in a given time - this is called the is called the throughputthroughput
Speed - response time In interactive mode, a user enters data and the IS In interactive mode, a user enters data and the IS
processes it immediately. The user, particularly when processes it immediately. The user, particularly when working with a customer, expects the system to carry working with a customer, expects the system to carry out EACH transaction quickly. out EACH transaction quickly.
The time it takes to finish a transaction (or part of a The time it takes to finish a transaction (or part of a transaction) is called the response time.transaction) is called the response time.
E.g. the user enters a customer account number and E.g. the user enters a customer account number and presses Enter. The IS finds the customers record and presses Enter. The IS finds the customers record and displays the person’s name and details in 1.3 seconds. displays the person’s name and details in 1.3 seconds. This is the response time.This is the response time.
Many users mean a good throughput is needed, too Many users mean a good throughput is needed, too
Ease of use and navigation
It is difficult to measure ease of useIt is difficult to measure ease of use standard tasks could be timed - benchmarkingstandard tasks could be timed - benchmarking user perception questionnaires can be useduser perception questionnaires can be used
One of the factors affecting ease of use is One of the factors affecting ease of use is navigation. An IS has good navigation when a navigation. An IS has good navigation when a user finds it easy to user finds it easy to carry out the steps in a common task or carry out the steps in a common task or move from one task to another move from one task to another
This is particularly important in Web based This is particularly important in Web based applications and Web sites, where navigation can applications and Web sites, where navigation can be very flexiblebe very flexible
Information retrieval (IR) and search engines
IR systems, like library catalogues, are often used IR systems, like library catalogues, are often used for non-specific searching i.e finding items with a for non-specific searching i.e finding items with a common feature rather than just a specific itemcommon feature rather than just a specific item
A system which finds ALL of the items that are A system which finds ALL of the items that are related to a query has good related to a query has good recallrecall
A system which finds only the MOST relevant A system which finds only the MOST relevant items to a particular query has good items to a particular query has good precisionprecision
These metrics are not widely used in the general These metrics are not widely used in the general IS literature BUT they are quite significant in the IS literature BUT they are quite significant in the field of search engines - particularly Web enginesfield of search engines - particularly Web engines
Information capture and representation I
TPS capture data when line workers enter itTPS capture data when line workers enter it
Higher level systems, like MIS & EIS, can also Higher level systems, like MIS & EIS, can also use data entry operators but it is more efficient to use data entry operators but it is more efficient to share the data between TPS, MIS, EIS etc.share the data between TPS, MIS, EIS etc.
But some MIS/EIS need data from 2 or more TPSBut some MIS/EIS need data from 2 or more TPS This poses some problems - incompatibility of OS This poses some problems - incompatibility of OS
databases, data formats e.g. filed lengths names etcdatabases, data formats e.g. filed lengths names etc This led to the development of databases & EDWThis led to the development of databases & EDW
Information capture and representation II
Some data, like geographical data on maps, are Some data, like geographical data on maps, are more “generic”, so specialists produce this data more “generic”, so specialists produce this data and sell it to IS developers/users e.g. GIS usersand sell it to IS developers/users e.g. GIS users
Other data, like sound graphic and and video data Other data, like sound graphic and and video data cannot be represented the same as text so they cannot be represented the same as text so they need special tools to capture the data and to store need special tools to capture the data and to store it e.g. mp3, wav, jpg, mpg etc. it e.g. mp3, wav, jpg, mpg etc.
Databases needed to be enhanced to store these Databases needed to be enhanced to store these other data formats e.g real estate databasesother data formats e.g real estate databases
Many highly specialised databases e.g. scientific Many highly specialised databases e.g. scientific and statistical dataand statistical data
Information capture and representation III The recent development of Business Intelligence The recent development of Business Intelligence
has led to a need for totally new types of databases has led to a need for totally new types of databases
Multi-dimensional databases (MDDBs) do not Multi-dimensional databases (MDDBs) do not store “records” like relational databases. Instead store “records” like relational databases. Instead they store hypercubes of numerical data that can they store hypercubes of numerical data that can be quickly searched by OLAP and data mining be quickly searched by OLAP and data mining systemssystems
These systems tell managers about unexpected These systems tell managers about unexpected values, problem trends and identify previously values, problem trends and identify previously unknown relationships in a company’s dataunknown relationships in a company’s data
Information privacy, integrity, security and preservation
IS make information widely available to people, IS make information widely available to people, and that is good, but it raises questions about and that is good, but it raises questions about who has access to who has access to mymy information - privacy information - privacy is the information about me correct- integrityis the information about me correct- integrity can the info be lost or tampered with - securitycan the info be lost or tampered with - security who should keep info about me, for how long, who should keep info about me, for how long,
is it properly stored or can it be lostis it properly stored or can it be lost
You will look at these social issues in much You will look at these social issues in much more depth latermore depth later
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