Influences of organisational image on applicant attraction in the recruitment process
By
Natalie Emma Rose BBus (Management)
School of Management, Faculty of Business
Queensland University of Technology Master of Business (Research) (BS92)
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ABSTRACT
In the present investigation, factors related to prospective applicants
impressions of an organisation at the pre-interview stage of the recruitment
process, and how these perceptions influence decisions to pursue an
organisation for possible employment were explored. A heightened
understanding of these factors is of relevance to organisations in the
current labour market environment, and is of critical importance when
considering that recruitment in the pre-interview stages remains under-
researched and lacking in a strong theoretical foundation. To address this
weakness in the recruitment research the present investigation will integrate
two disparate areas of literature – recruitment and marketing – within the
theoretical context of Fishbein and Ajzen’s (1975) theory of reasoned action.
The theory of reasoned action is well tested in the social psychology arena
and provides a sound theoretical platform to underpin the relationships
applicable to this investigation. In applying the marketing literature to the
recruitment context, the concept of brand image is specifically utilised.
Additionally, a problem that plagues much of the recruitment research is the
heavy reliance on college and university students as a source of research
data. The present study responds to this issue by sourcing data from a
population of active job seekers submitting applications for advertised job
vacancies at a large, Queensland-based higher education institution. A total
of three hundred and fifty-one survey responses were obtained. The
measures included perceptions of organisational image, attraction, and
application intentions. The results indicated that there is support for the
assertion that positive image perceptions held by applicants towards an
employing organisation will lead to attraction to the organisation and active
pursuit behaviour. Within this framework, it is evident that the ‘impression
management’ capability of organisations in the contemporary business
environment may hold the key to sustained competitive advantage in the
critical search for qualified talent.
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
CHAPTER ONE – INTRODUCTION
Introduction………………………………………………………………………1 Research Issue…………………………………………………………………..1 Research Foci……………………………………………………………………3 Thesis Outline……………………………………………………………………5
CHAPTER TWO – LITERATURE REVIEW
Introduction and Overview……………………………………………………8 Review of Recruitment Literature……………………………………………8
Recruitment Context……………………………………………………...9 Recruitment Sources……………………………………………………12 Recruiters………………………………………………………………...15 Realistic Job Previews………………………………………………….19 Image, Attraction and Pursuit Intentions……………………………….....23 Brand Image and its Application to the Recruitment Domain………25 Employer Branding……….…………………..…………………………27 Theory of Reasoned Action…………………………………………….30
Image and Attraction……………………………………………………36 Attraction and Application………………………………………………50 Summary………………………………………………………………………...66
CHAPTER THREE – METHODOLOGY
Introduction……………………………………………………………………..67 Method…………………………………………………………………………...67 Participants……………………………………………………………….67 Procedure………………………………………………………………...67 Measures…………………………………………………………………69 Image……………………………………………………………..70 Attraction………………………………………………………….72 Application………………………………………………………..73 Summary………………………………………………………………………...75
CHAPTER FOUR – RESULTS
Introduction……………………………………………………………………..76 Preliminary Analyses……………………………………………………….…76 Data Cleaning……………………………………………………………76 Scale Reliability………………………………………………………….79 Demographic Characteristics…………………………………………..79 Results of Hypothesis Testing………………………………………………79
Hypothesis One………………………………………………………….79 Hypothesis Two………………………………………………………….82 Hypothesis Three………………………………………………………..84
Mediated Regression Results..………………………………………………84
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CHAPTER FIVE - DISCUSSION
Introduction……………………………………………………………………..88 Hypotheses and Related Findings………………………………………….88 Hypothesis One………………………………………………………….88 Hypothesis Two………………………………………………………….93 Hypothesis Three………………………………………………………..98 Implications for Theory.............................................................................98 Directions for Future Research……………………………………………101 Implications for Practice…………………………………………………….104 Limitations……………………………………………………………………..108 Conclusion…………………………………………………………………….111 APPENDIX 1……………………………………………………………………116 APPENDIX 2……………………………………………………………………123 APPENDIX 3……………………………………………………………………131 APPENDIX 4……………………………………………………………………132 APPENDIX 5……………………………………………………………………133 APPENDIX 6……………………………………………………………………134 APPENDIX 7……………………………………………………………………135 APPENDIX 8……………………………………………………………………136 APPENDIX 9……………………………………………………………………137 APPENDIX 10………………………………………………………………….138 REFERENCE LIST…………………………………………………………….139
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LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1 Theory of Reasoned Action…………………………………..31
Figure 2 Conceptual Framework………………………………………..35
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LIST OF TABLES
Table 1 Means, standard deviations and correlations..………………78
Table 2 Cronbach’s alpha reliability coefficients………………...…….79
Table 3 Standard multiple regression of attraction to
the organisation………………………………………………….80 Table 4 Standard multiple regression of attraction to the job…………………………………………………………….82
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STATEMENT OF ORIGINAL AUTHORSHIP
The work contained in this thesis has not been previously submitted to meet requirements for an award at this or any other higher education institution. To the best of my knowledge and belief, the thesis contains no material previously published or written by another person except where due reference is made. Signature: __________________________________________________ Date: _____________________________________________________
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Arriving at this point in time is a memorable achievement. In so doing, I
would like to formally acknowledge a number of people who along the way
have either supported me emotionally or psychologically, inspired me to
achieve greater things, or who have provided me with a treasured learning
experience – both on a personal and professional level.
Firstly, to my soulmate, Barron, who so enthusiastically and unfailingly
endured the ‘ups’ and the ‘downs’ of my incredible journey. For this, a
sincere thank you.
Secondly, to my supervisor, Dr Lisa Bradley for her support, patience, and
constructive feedback of my work, particularly her ability to continue to instil
a sense of motivation and will to achieve towards the end of this eventful
experience.
A heartfelt thank you to my mum ‘Maurcie’ who although no longer alive in
body supported me in taking my first steps on the path of this incredible
journey; and whose spirit continued to inspire and drive me to complete the
journey that I had started. To you, mum, I dedicate this achievement.
Lastly, I would like to thank the organisation for allowing me to conduct my
research. Importantly, I would like to thank the anonymous individuals who
completed the survey – for without their responses I could not have arrived
at this point. So, thank you, your support and effort was greatly appreciated.
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CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION Introduction
The purpose of Chapter One is to provide an overview of the present
investigation. Firstly, a rationale for the study will be formulated. This will be
followed by a brief description of the research issues and finally an outline
of the structure of the study will be presented.
Research Issue Over the last 30 years, most industries have benefited from the general
abundance of qualified individuals across various labour markets
(Highhouse, Zickar, Thorsteinson, Stierwalt and Slaughter 1999: 151). In
this environment, human resource planning models have traditionally
assumed that a labour market is a static, unchanging entity, and relies on
the quality and the demographic makeup of the ‘talent pool’ remaining the
same (Martin and Franz 1994: 33). Many industries are currently
experiencing a crumbling of this static labour market assumption in the
wake of significant shifts in the demographic composition of labour markets
and rapid changes in technology (Franz and Martin 1994: 34; Boswell,
Roehling, LePine and Moynihan 2003: 23). These significant changes have
resulted in organisations devoting considerably more resources to activities
oriented towards attracting qualified individuals (Turban 2001: 293). As
recruitment is the primary mechanism used by organisations to attract
quality applicants, this discipline is receiving increased recognition in the
popular and academic press as organisations seek to establish a
competitive advantage over competitors in response to shifts in labour
market conditions (Carlson, Connerley and Mechan 2002: 463).
Taken as a whole, recruitment remains under-researched (Aiman-Smith,
Bauer and Cable 2001: 219). In 1982, Belt and Paolillo observed that
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empirical research on the attraction of individuals to organisations was
‘virtually nonexistent’ (p.105). According to the authors, the ‘lack of
definitive and on-going research in the field results in most practitioners
being forced to rely on personal experience, myth, and intuition’ (Belt and
Paolillo 1982: 106). Some ten years later, Rynes (1991: 400) lamented that
some of the most important questions about applicant attraction remained
‘almost completely unaddressed’ despite a number of conceptual advances
in how recruitment might influence applicant behaviours. While
considerable research has focused on components of the attraction process,
this research has predominantly focused around three core topics:
recruitment sources, realistic job previews, and the impact of recruiter
(interviewer) characteristics on job applicant choices post-interview
resulting in a misrepresentation of the complexity of the recruitment process
(Breaugh and Starke 2000: 406; Collins and Stevens 2002: 1121).
In 1992, Turban and Dougherty postulated that the concentration of
research on recruitment sources, realistic job previews, and the impact of
recruiter characteristics on job applicants post-interview could be largely
attributed to the historical abundance of individuals across labour markets
which in turn focused research attention on components of the recruitment
process for which the organisation’s perception of applicants was a prime
consideration (p. 739). Unfortunately, the practice of concentrating a large
body of research around the three aforementioned topics has prohibited the
adequate investigation of the immediate objective of recruitment – applicant
attraction (Rynes 1991: 403). Thus, there is limited empirical evidence to
guide organisations in attracting applicants at this critical stage of the
recruitment process (Turban 2001: 294). Consequently, research still
remains to be conducted in terms of understanding the influence and
impact of job and organisational attributes on applicant perceptions and job
choice intentions when seeking employment with an organisation in the pre-
interview stages (Thomas and Wise 1999: 376; Breaugh and Starke 2000:
406). Given this identified gap in the recruitment research, the current
investigation proposes to contribute to the literature by broadening the
knowledge base and understanding of factors related to prospective
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applicant impressions of an organisations image as an employer, and how
these perceptions of image influence applicant decisions at the initial (pre-
interview) stage of the recruitment process.
Research Foci
In the context of this paper there are 4 main foci. Firstly, the study will focus
on recruitment as distinct from selection. Whereas recruitment is aimed at
attracting individuals to an organisation, selection is aimed at identifying the
most qualified from among those individuals (Barber 1998: 3). Each of
these processes involves ‘matching’ organisations and individuals, but the
nature of the matching differs. In recruitment, organisational and job
characteristics are matched with individual needs, with the individual
assessing the suitability of the match (Barber 1998: 3). In selection,
however, applicant attributes are matched with organisational needs, and it
is the organisation that determines whether a suitable match exists (Barber
1998: 3).
Secondly, the aim of the study is to investigate factors related to potential
applicant impressions of an organisation’s attractiveness as an employer
prior to interview. Much of the empirical work examining applicant attraction
to organisations has measured attraction after the interview (Turban 2001:
294). However, recent evidence indicates that an applicant’s pre-interview
attraction to an organisation is a much stronger predictor of job choice
decisions, but little is known about factors related to early impressions of an
organisations attractiveness as an employer (Bauer and Aiman-Smith 1996:
447; Turban, 2001: 294).
Thirdly, a problem that plagues much of the organisational image research
is the heavy reliance on college and university students as a source for the
generation of research data (Breaugh 1992: 82; Rynes and Cable 2001: 55).
Although some studies (for example Harris and Fink 1987; Albinger and
Freeman 2000) have surveyed students seeking full-time positions, there is
concern about whether findings based on relatively young student samples
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can be generalised given their potential lack of seriousness in rating
organisational and job attribute attractiveness when considering positions
for possible employment (Breaugh 1992: 82). Alternatively, a genuine job
seeker may carefully consider the value attached to a specific job and/or
organisational attribute in making a job pursuit decision; whereas, a student
may quickly consider job and/or organisational attributes with limited
serious reflection when considering a job for possible employment (Breaugh
1992: 82). This sentiment is reiterated in a recent paper presented by
Ziegert and Ehrhart (2004) and called for ‘the use of non-student samples in
order to advance the understanding of applicant attraction’ (p. C5).
The present study will aim to respond to these calls to extend research on
attraction by sourcing data from a population of active job seekers. This
population is perceived to be in a prime position to comment on the
elements constituting overall organisational image, as it is likely that active
assessments of image are being made on a frequent basis while making
job choice decisions. It is important to note that the approach of this
investigation aims to examine why prospective applicants are attracted to
an organisation from the applicant perspective. The study is not designed to
investigate the organisations evaluation of the applicant. In so doing, the
present investigation will explore attraction to a non-hypothetical
organisation thereby aiming to further contribute to the recruitment research
literature.
Finally, the study will integrate recruitment and marketing literature
(specifically the principles of brand image) in conjunction with Fishbein and
Ajzen’s (1975) theory of reasoned action (TRA) to address criticisms that
recruitment research lacks a clearly articulated theoretical foundation.
Fishbein and Ajzen’s (1975) TRA is a dominant theoretical framework within
the social psychology arena and is well tested within that context
(Highhouse, Lievens and Sinar 2003: 987). On this basis, the present
investigator perceives the TRA to be a credible platform to support and
enhance the understanding of variables applicable to this study. Given the
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theory’s core applicability to the present investigation, an in-depth review is
undertaken in the following Chapter of this paper.
While it is acknowledged that there are a number of aspects of the
marketing literature that may be relevant to recruitment, it is perceived by
the present investigator that the concept of brand image forms a strong
basis with which to support the present study; particularly when exploring
the role of organisational image perceptions in the pre-interview stages of
the recruitment process (Cable and Turban 2001: 120). Within this
framework, it is proposed that an employers role in contemporary
recruitment is that of marketing jobs in a labour market of competing
opportunities, each of which is a ‘product’ differentiated from others based
on organisational and job attributes. It is reasoned that available jobs
constitute products that are ‘consumed’ by job seekers (Maurer, Howe and
Lee 1992: 809). A job seeker’s decision to consume a product is ultimately
based on an individual’s attitude towards the perceived characteristics of
the organisation based on an assessment of communicated attributes.
Conceptually, a job seeker is expected to be attracted to an organisation
that supports their salient identity, with positive perceptions of
organisational image translating into applications for advertised job
opportunities. In integrating the recruitment and marketing literature, it is
acknowledged that the marketing perspective is not the panacea for
understanding applicant attraction to organisations in the recruitment
context. However, the marketing orientation does provide concepts to
contribute to the recruitment domain that have been well tested in the
marketing arena (Martin and Franz 1994: 35).
Thesis Outline To explore the role of organisational image perceptions at the pre-interview
stage of the recruitment process, the present investigation will be structured
as follows:
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Chapter Two provides an extensive literature review examining underlying
concepts and relationships inherent in a job seeker’s pre-interview
perceptions of organisations. Specifically, the Chapter draws together the
two disparate literatures – recruitment and marketing – to illustrate their
applicability to the present study. The study hypotheses are developed and
presented based on the integration of these literatures in combination with
Fishbein and Ajzen’s (1975) TRA. The conceptual framework is also
presented diagrammatically in this Chapter.
Chapter Three reports the design, methodology, and administration of the
investigation. A description of the questionnaire design process is outlined
examining scale development and instrument test procedures. Subject
demographic information is also presented.
Chapter Four presents study results. The results are examined in light of
the stated hypotheses.
Chapter Five provides a discussion and conclusion to the investigation. The
results were discussed in the context of the presented hypotheses and the
wider recruitment and marketing literature. Implications for theory, practice,
and future recruitment research were also identified and discussed. Finally,
the limitations of the study are acknowledged as a means to assist future
recruitment studies in this area.
In summary, the purpose of the present investigation is to contribute to
research in the recruitment domain by enhancing the understanding of
factors related to prospective applicants impressions of an organisation at
the pre-interview stage of the recruitment process, and how these
perceptions of image influence applicant decisions to pursue an
organisation for possible employment. In so doing, the investigation will
integrate the recruitment and marketing literature in conjunction with
Fishbein and Ajzen’s (1975) TRA to address criticisms that the recruitment
literature lacks a clearly articulated theoretical foundation. A heightened
understanding of the image-application relationship is of pertinent relevance
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to organisations in the current labour market environment, and is of critical
importance when considering that recruitment in the pre-interview stages
remains under-researched.
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CHAPTER TWO
LITERATURE REVIEW
Introduction and Overview
This investigation draws together two previously disparate bodies of
literature. The first body of literature relates to recruitment, while the second
body of literature relates to marketing (specifically the concept of brand
image). This appears to be a significant research omission within the
recruitment domain considering the primary objective of recruitment is to
attract a quality ‘pool’ of talented individuals to an organisation. In providing
a framework for the review of these bodies of literature in the recruitment
context, it is appropriate to review previous investigations that have delved
into the combination of these two disciplines relevant to the present
investigation. The study hypotheses are developed and presented based on
the integration of these literatures in unison with Fishbein and Ajzen’s
(1975) TRA.
Review of Recruitment Literature
In commencing a review of the recruitment literature it is first necessary to
clarify what is meant by recruitment. Barber (1998: 5) defines recruitment
as ‘those practices and activities carried out by an organisation with the
primary purpose of identifying and attracting potential employees’. This
definition implies the engagement of a wide range of organisational
activities targeted towards establishing an organisation’s ‘presence’ in an
attempt to attract suitably qualified individuals (Barber 1998: 5). In seeking
the engagement of the ‘best and brightest’ talent, the organisation attempts
to increase the utility of the process by achieving a suitable return on
investment on the recruitment dollar spent (Cable and Turban 2001: 2244).
As outlined by Thomas and Wise (1999: 375), recruitment has three
primary functions: (1) to develop a pool of applicants at minimal cost to the
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organisation, (2) to assist the organisation in ensuring that its workforce is
demographically representative; and (3) to ensure that the applicant pool is
comprised of candidates who have the required attributes to perform the
specified job. Therefore, recruiting effectiveness is a critical competence for
organisations (Thomas and Wise 1999: 376). In the wake of significant
shifts in the makeup of ‘traditional’ labour markets, as outlined earlier,
organisations which are adept at effectively recruiting from diverse applicant
pools will develop a significant competitive advantage (Thomas and Wise
1999: 376). With this foundation and definition, attention will now be drawn
to a review of the recruitment literature to more fully develop the direction of
the present investigation based on its relationship with previous recruitment
research.
In terms of structure, this literature review will first provide an overview of
early recruitment research to provide a contextual grounding. Some of the
earliest research on organisational choice will be reviewed as it is this
research that has laid the foundation for subsequent investigations in the
recruitment arena. Although not strongly linked to the present investigation,
discussion will then focus around the three core topics identified earlier
(recruitment sources, recruiters, and realistic job previews) due to a large
majority of previous recruitment research being concentrated in these
domains. In reviewing these topics it should be noted that each topic has
developed in isolation from the others, with the result that there is little basis
for integration across the various recruitment streams (Rynes 1991: 399).
Recruitment Context
Prior to the 1990’s, the majority of recruitment research produced
inconsistent empirical findings (Rynes and Cable 2001: 55). In addition,
Rynes and Cable (2001: 55) postulated that pre 1990’s recruitment
research was restricted by a narrow range of research questions and
almost exclusive concentration of research data being collected in either
college or university environments. In combination, these phenomena have
left some of the most important recruitment questions unanswered.
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Early recruitment research drew from vocational behaviour literature and
investigated job and organisational choice by using measures of anticipated
job satisfaction (Aiman-Smith et al. 2001: 220). As far as the present
investigator is aware, the earliest research on organisational choice was
conducted by Vroom in 1966. Vroom’s investigation examined
organisational choice as a function of instrumentality perceptions as viewed
by students enrolled in a graduate program who were in the process of
selecting an organisation in which to begin their managerial careers (Vroom
1966: 215). Eight weeks prior to graduation, subjects were instructed to
conduct a survey of the market and to list three organisations in which the
subjects were most interested in obtaining possible employment (based on
individual ratings of fifteen job goals). Subjects then rated each of the fifteen
job goals in terms of the extent to which each individual perceived their
ability to attain the goals within each of the three identified organisations
(Vroom 1966: 216). Four weeks later (when all subjects had received formal
offers of employment with an organisation), each subject completed a
second questionnaire designed to re-measure the variables initially
presented. Vroom discovered that after choice (the point at which a job
offer with one of the three organisations had been accepted by a subject),
there was a high correlation between the ranking of the chosen organisation
and the perceived likely satisfaction of their goals. Alternatively, the
perceived likely satisfaction from the unchosen organisations decreased
(Vroom 1966: 224).
Although Vroom’s research formed the foundation for a number of
subsequent studies (for example, Harris and Fink 1987) particularly with
regards to the wording of survey questions investigating organisational
choice, one major criticism of Vroom’s 1966 investigation was the absence
of a standardised test environment. As such, due to the potential for
immense variance in the number of organisations being ranked by subjects
(Vroom did not clarify the extent to which there were any similarities in the
type of industry or general attributes of the organisations being ranked by
subjects) it is difficult to determine subjects’ reasoning as to why certain
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organisations were selected over others as potential employers. In the
context of the present investigation, the capturing of such information would
have been of immense value in informing the research direction.
Additionally, Vroom’s investigation did not measure the degree of effort
applied by an individual to secure a job with the three identified
organisations, thus, the degree to which a subject was ‘satisfied’ relative to
the final job choice decision was not captured.
Fisher, Ilgen and Hoyer (1979) were the first to assess organisational
attraction using more than a single item measure (Highhouse et al. 2003:
988). Fisher et al.’s investigation examined the impact of the favourability of
information about a job and the source of information upon applicant
perceptions of source credibility and its influence on job offer acceptance as
viewed by university students (Fisher et al. 1979: 95). Subjects were
presented with information about a hypothetical job. This job information
had two levels of information favourability (positive and negative), and four
sources of information (campus interviewer, friend, job incumbent, and
university professor). One paragraph per information source was provided
to subjects to define each source. In being presented with the job
information, subjects were instructed to imagine that they had applied for
the job described and had gathered the presented job information from a
face-to-face discussion with one of the four information sources. The
students then answered questions about the job (presented in both positive
and negative information sets). A number of Likert items followed the
information sets to assess the subjects’ attitudes towards the information
source and the attractiveness of the organisation. Fisher et al. (1979: 100)
discovered that trust in source was a significant main effect for information
favourability, and that there was also a significant main effect for
information favourability such that subjects perceived a source to be
significantly more trustworthy when negative as opposed to positive
information was presented about a job.
In terms of organisational attractiveness, Fisher et al. (1979: 101)
discovered that subjects were substantially less likely to accept the job if
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their source of information about a job was the campus interviewer. Unlike
those results relating to favourability of job information and source credibility,
the authors discovered that subjects were more likely to accept a job with
an organisation if they were presented with positive information about the
organisation.
Although Fisher et al.’s research provided some valuable outcomes to the
recruitment domain, particularly in terms of the need to address applicant
perceptions of campus recruiters as a credible source of job (and
organisational) information, a major criticism of the study is that the
information presented to subjects in the investigation was entirely
hypothetical. On this basis it is questionable as to whether study subjects
provided genuine responses to the items presented; thus, raising questions
as to the validity of some of the research findings. To Fisher et al.’s credit
their investigation did provide the basis for measures in subsequent
organisational choice investigations (for example Honeycutt and Rosen
1997) and was the first investigation of its kind to combine organisational
attractiveness and intention items. As such, the investigation moved beyond
the passivity of organisational choice in previous studies (Highhouse et al.
2003: 989).
In summarising the research of Vroom (1966) and Fisher et al. (1979) in a
broad recruitment context, it becomes evident that an applicant’s attraction
to an organisation is influenced by a variety of variables that exert varying
degrees of influence at the pre and post interview stages of the recruitment
process. Within this framework, there exists a body of recruitment research
that concentrates on investigating the influence of recruitment sources on
applicant attraction to organisations. An overview of this research will now
be presented.
Recruitment Sources
The earliest recruitment source research focussed on how individuals
searched for jobs (Zottoli and Wanous 2000: 354). Starting in the 1960’s,
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the primary research emphasis shifted to on-the-job effectiveness of
individuals who were recruited via different sources. Recruitment sources
that have been historically studied by researchers include referrals (by
friends, relatives, or work colleagues), re-hires, internal job postings, walk-
ins, direct applications, employment agencies, and advertisements (Schwab,
Rynes and Aldag in Ferris and Rowland 1990: 29; Zottoli and Wanous
2000: 354). Although the results of recruitment source studies are not
entirely consistent, studies have frequently found that employee referrals
and direct applications result in lower levels of turnover and higher levels of
job satisfaction than individuals recruited via more formal sources (Breaugh
and Starke 2000: 419). The failure of research to explain source differences
have been largely attributed to two methodological weaknesses: samples
utilised and variable measurement (Breaugh and Starke 2000: 419). For
example, source data has been predominantly collected from new
employees rather than applicants. Thus, the immediate objective of
recruitment – applicant attraction – has not been fully considered in
recruitment source research. Given the historical focus on new employees
rather than applicants as the source of research data it is difficult to draw
solid conclusions in this domain (Breaugh and Starke 2000: 422). Having
said this, one exploratory study by Highhouse, Stierwalt, Bachiochi, Elder
and Fisher (1999) investigated attraction to job advertisements in the pre-
interview stage of the recruitment process – this study will now be
discussed.
Highhouse et al.’s (1999) investigation was designed to gain a better
understanding of job seeker reactions to job advertisement characteristics
by an identified minority group in the United States of America. Of
significant interest was the influence of advertised human resource
practices on job seeker perceptions of the organisation’s attractiveness as a
place to work (Highhouse et al. 1999: 426). Study subjects were
engineering students and employed engineers. The student sample
consisted of 1019 subjects, while the engineer sample consisted of 303
subjects (Highhouse et al. 1999: 431). All subjects were randomly mailed a
hypothetical job advertisement for an engineering consultant position in a
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fictional organisation (the advertisement was adapted from an actual
engineering consultant advertisement) that the researchers had
manipulated on three characteristics: staffing policy (identity blind versus
identity conscious), work structure (individual-based versus team-based),
and compensation system (pay based on individual performance versus
pay based on workgroup performance) (Highhouse et al. 1999: 432). Prior
to completing the questionnaire subjects were instructed to imagine that the
job advertisement was for an actual job in a real organisation.
Research results found that both groups of subjects reported being more
likely to apply for the advertised position when the staffing policy was
identity conscious (affirmative action) than when the information presented
was identity blind (equal employment opportunity). Interestingly, only the
student sample reported being more likely to apply when the advertisement
described team-based work structures instead of individual-based work
structures. Both subject groups reacted negatively to the combination of
individual-based work structures and group-performance based pay
systems (Highhouse et al. 1999: 437 - 438). Although Highhouse et al.’s
(1999) investigation was the first of its kind specifically designed to measure
attraction to an organisation based on impressions of information sourced
from a job advertisement, considering the characteristics of the targeted
minority group (highly educated and professionally oriented) it is possible
that research results can only be generalised to these populations. In
addition, although the investigators were afforded the luxury of a
considerably large subject population, concern is raised that participants
responded to a hypothetical job advertisement. Although it is acknowledged
that the test instrument was adopted from an actual advertisement, concern
is raised as to whether subjects provided genuine responses to the
presented items.
Although Highhouse et al.’s (1999) investigation offered some preliminary
insights into job seeker attraction to job advertisements in the pre-interview
stage of the recruitment process, Zottoli and Wanous (2000: 375) asserted
that there is much to be learned regarding the reasons for differential
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recruitment source effectiveness. Specifically, Zottoli and Wanous (2000)
stated that ‘despite decades of academic research on the inferiority of
newspaper ads compared to referrals, re-hires, and walk-ins, many
practitioners continue to believe that ads are the most effective source of
new recruits at lower/entry level positions’ (p. 379). Within this framework,
the authors asserted that researchers need to be more effective at
disseminating the conclusions of recruitment source research.
An overview of literature pertaining to the influence of recruiters on
applicant attraction to organisations will now be undertaken to illustrate an
alternative avenue of interest to researchers in exploring job seeker
attraction to organisations.
Recruiters
In general, previous recruiter research has focussed considerably less on
organisational recruitment than on selection (Turban and Dougherty 1992:
739; Goltz and Giannantonio 1995: 110). As a result, researchers have
typically focussed on the influence of interviewer’s (or recruiters as they are
commonly referred to) perceptions of applicants; thus leaving a void in
research knowledge relating to pre-interview influences on applicant
attraction to an organisation. With a couple of exceptions, research subjects
have been college or university students interviewing for positions through
campus placement offices (Rynes 1991: 405). Additionally, in terms of
methodology, most research data has been collected immediately following
a campus interview (Rynes 1991: 405; Goldberg 2003: 562). As such,
although research on recruiters has established a link between applicant’s
perceptions of recruiter traits and their perceptions of an organisation
(positive or negative) post-interview, inconsistent findings have forced
recruiter-oriented research to become more methodologically sound
(Breaugh and Starke 2000: 425). For example, early studies of recruiters
(such as Alderfer and McCord 1970) typically only gathered data from
college students immediately following a campus interview. More recently,
recruiter-oriented researchers have collected data both before and after
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interview (such as Turban, Forret and Hendrickson 1998). Due to the
rudimentary nature of early recruiter research a review of Harris and Fink’s
(1987) study will be undertaken due to select item measures utilised in this
study being adapted in the present investigation (specifics outlined in more
detail later). A critique of Turban et al.’s (1998) investigation will then follow
to provide a more contemporary review of recruiter-oriented research.
Harris and Fink’s (1987) investigation adopted a pre-interview and post-
interview design to examine whether recruiter characteristics influenced
perceived job attributes and intentions to accept a job. Study subjects were
students participating in campus interviews at a university placement office.
Seventy-one percent of the sample was male (as was seventy-eight percent
of the recruiters) (Harris and Fink 1987: 770). Prior to interview, subjects
were asked to complete a questionnaire that measured both perceptions of
job attributes and recruiter characteristics. Twenty-five items were
presented to subjects to measure job attribute perceptions, while thirty-
three items were developed to measure recruiter characteristic perceptions.
The job attribute items were structured around four categories: job itself,
compensation/job security, work/company, and minor fringe benefits; with
recruiter characteristics being structured around four categories:
personableness, competence, informativeness, aggressiveness (Harris and
Fink 1987: 771). A single item was used to measure perceptions of the
likelihood of being presented with a job offer; while perceptions of obtaining
alternative employment was measured using three items. As subjects were
being interviewed for full-time, permanent jobs within their chosen career, it
was speculated that questionnaire responses would be more thoroughly
considered than if the sample had been drawn from a younger student
sample (Harris and Fink 1987: 771).
Immediately after completing their interview, students completed a post-
interview questionnaire. In addition to the items presented in the pre-
interview questionnaire, subjects also responded to questions aimed at
gauging prior interview experience to inform the extent to which this
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experience might moderate perceptions of recruiter characteristics (Harris
and Fink 1987: 771).
Research results revealed a significant relationship between recruiter
characteristics and applicant perceptions of available jobs for employment.
Additionally, perceptions of recruiters extended to influence applicant
perceptions of job attributes and intentions to accept a job with an
organisation. As such, of the four categories of recruiter characteristics
measured, ‘personableness’ and ‘informativeness’ were found to be most
influential in terms of perceived regard for the organisation and likelihood of
accepting a job offer. Further, ‘personableness’ was found to be a
significant predictor of a subjects’ expectation of receiving a formal job offer
from an organisation that they had interviewed with.
A potential disadvantage of Harris and Fink’s methodology is that subjects
may have been able to recall their pre-interview responses when
responding to the post-interview questionnaire. Thus, sensitisation could
have been a potential threat to the validity of the results (Harris and Fink
1987: 780). A further perceived limitation of Harris and Fink’s investigation
is the large percentage of males constituting both the student and recruiter
populations. As such, the small number of females represented in the
investigation precludes generalisability of results to this group.
Turban, Forret and Hendrickson’s (1998) investigation extended earlier
recruiter-oriented research by examining the influence of organisational
reputation perceptions, organisational attributes, and recruiter behaviours
on applicant attraction to organisations. Within this framework, Turban et al.
(1998: 27) explicitly investigated whether recruiter behaviours influenced
applicant attraction through perceptions of job and organisational attributes,
and by examining possible recruiter influences on applicant perceptions of
organisational reputation. Similar to Harris and Fink’s (1987) investigation,
Turban et al. (1998) adopted a pre-interview and post-interview research
methodology.
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Study subjects were students participating in campus interviews at a
university placement centre. Interviews with recruiting organisations were
the initial contact between the student and the organisation. Prior to
interview, subjects were approached by research assistants and asked to
complete a survey that measured perceptions of job and organisational
attributes, perceptions of organisational reputation, and attraction to the
organisation.
Immediately after completing their interview, subjects completed a post-
interview survey. Similar to the process in the pre-interview stage, subjects
responded to the same job and organisational attribute items and
organisational attraction items. In addition to these measures, subjects
were presented with twenty-seven statements describing recruiter
behaviours to rate their perceptions of recruiter attributes displayed in the
interview.
Turban et al.’s (1998) research results confirmed the importance of
applicant perceptions of job and organisational attributes in influencing
applicant attraction to organisations; and provided some insight into how
recruiters influence attraction to organisations. The researchers revealed
that subjects’ perceptions of recruiter behaviours did not have a direct
influence on applicant attraction to the organisation, however, did have an
indirect effect through influencing subject perceptions of job and
organisational attributes (Turban et al. 1998: 38). As such, Turban et al.’s
research results suggested that applicants interpret recruiter behaviours as
signals for unknown job and organisational attributes.
A limitation of Turban et al.’s (1998) research should be acknowledged.
Similar to an identified weakness in Harris and Fink’s (1987) investigation, a
potential disadvantage of Turban et al.’s research is that subjects may have
been able to recall their pre-interview responses when responding to the
post-interview questionnaire. Thus, sensitisation could have been a
potential threat to the validity of the results.
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Although Harris and Fink’s (1987) and Turban et al.’s (1998) investigations
offer empirical evidence to support the assertion that recruiters are capable
of influencing applicant perceptions of organisations (and subsequent levels
of attraction), Highhouse and Hoffman (2001: 43) put forward the notion
that recruiters are most likely to influence job seeker perceptions when
limited job or organisational information is available, or when individuals are
making employment decisions based on a limited pool of potential
employers. Further, the authors asserted that it may be the case that
recruiters are effective not so much in creating an impression (positive or
negative) of an organisation, but in maintaining an impression that already
exists. As such, Highhouse and Hoffman (2001: 43) stated that the
relationship between recruiters and organisational/job choice is rarely a
simple one despite organisations continuing to subscribe to the view that
recruiter behaviours are an important determinant of applicant attraction. An overview of literature pertaining to the influence of realistic job previews
(RJP’s) on the recruitment process will now be undertaken as the final
domain of researcher interest in examining job seeker attraction to
organisations.
Realistic Job Previews
RJP’s have attracted substantial research attention over the last thirty years
(Breaugh and Starke 2000: 426). Similar to recruitment source research,
RJP studies have been inconsistent in their findings and have fallen prey to
some pessimistic conclusions. Some confusion in RJP literature can be
attributed to the fact that almost half of the research studies administered
the RJP after an individual had been appointed to an organisation (Breaugh
and Starke 2000: 427). As such, providing a RJP after appointing an
individual to an organisation has the potential to lessen its influence. Within
this framework, RJP’s have been hypothesised to be effective because they
increase self selection, increase perceived employer trustworthiness, and
increase an individual’s commitment to the job choice decision (Hom,
Griffeth, Palich and Bracker 1999: 105; Breaugh and Starke 2000: 427).
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However, when a RJP is administered after an individual has already
accepted a job with an organisation the primary functions of the RJP are
undermined. Another possible reason for the inconsistent RJP research
results could be attributed to the nature of the job previews provided in
respective research investigations. As such, Breaugh and Starke (2000:
427) postulated that applicants desire specific information about a job and
the organisation that they are considering for possible employment; and it
may be possible that the RJP’s administered in many studies did not
appropriately communicate the RJP information, thus resulting in the
generation of varied research outcomes.
Highhouse, Stanton and Reeve (2004: 86) asserted that researchers have
shifted their attention from the effects of realistic information on employee
adjustment upon commencement of employment with an organisation to
shorter term criteria such as applicant attraction and expectations based on
concern over the degree to which realistic information negatively effects an
organisation’s attractiveness as an employer. Highhouse et al. (2004) cited
the research of Saks, Wiesner and Summers (1994) and Wiesner, Saks
and Summers (1991) in this regard. These studies determined that a
traditional (positive) recruitment message led to greater applicant attraction
than a RJP for the same vacancy (Highhouse et al. 2004: 86). However, a
study by Coleman and Irving (1997: 129) found the opposite effect: that
subjects presented with a RJP were more attracted to a job than
participants provided with a traditional recruitment message for the same
job.
In reviewing conflicting research on the influence of realistic information on
organisational attractiveness, Highhouse and Hoffman (2001: 45)
concluded that a problem endemic to RJP research is the issue of ‘radical’
differences in how RJP information is presented. As such, Highhouse and
Hoffman noted that the RJP’s used in research tended to differ significantly
in the amount and type of information presented to prospective applicants.
Thorsteinson, Palmer, Wulff and Anderson (2004: 127) concurred with
Highhouse and Hoffman’s point of view citing that the challenge for
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researchers in the contemporary business environment is to determine how
different job seeking populations (qualified versus less qualified) respond to
negative versus positive recruitment information; and the need to identify
‘credibility’ thresholds accordingly. As such, Thorsteinson et al. (2004: 127)
suggested that future research on prospective applicant reactions to
recruitment messages examine the ‘finer details’ such as how individuals
react to the same attribute when presented in a positive and negative
context.
Highhouse et al. (2004) extended earlier RJP-oriented research by
examining reactions to specific positive and negative information (of a
realistic nature) as presented in a recruitment message. In so doing, the
authors investigated whether individuals discount negative vocational
outcomes more than positive ones. Specifically, the researchers
hypothesised that reactions to negative information in recruitment
messages would be less extreme than reactions to positive information on
the same attribute.
Study subjects were university students. Subjects were presented with a
recruitment message via a specifically designed computer software
package that simulated a job fair on-line. Students were instructed to
imagine that they were seeking employment with two presented
hypothetical organisations. The recruitment message conveyed for each
organisation had been manipulated by the researchers and presented
subjects with four attributes (two positive and two negative). Participants
were further instructed to assume that salaries, benefits, and opportunities
for promotion were equivalent in each organisation. As subjects listened to
and watched the on-line preview of each organisation, participants
responded to a series of items that assessed overall attraction to the
organisation.
Highhouse et al.’s (2004) research results found that negative information
presented to subjects about prospective employing organisations is
discounted more than positive information. As such, the results showed that
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subjects were more likely to actively respond to a recruitment message of a
prospective employer when an attribute was presented in a positive manner
for one organisation than in response to a negative presentation of the
same attribute. These research results contributed to a further extension of
the RJP literature by suggesting that in conveying ‘realistic’ information to
job seekers, organisations need to be conscious of obtaining a balance in
the degree to which ‘positive’ and ‘negative’ information is communicated in
the recruitment messages of organisations – being conscious not to lose
credibility by discounting the communication of negative information entirely
(Highhouse et al. 2004: 94).
As is a weakness in most recruitment research, the utilisation of university
students as the source of research data calls into question the validity of
responses. On this basis, it is recommended that Highhouse et al.’s (2004)
investigation be replicated utilising a population of job professionals to
determine whether an organisation could more effectively manipulate
organisational and/or job attributes to its advantage when advertising
available jobs.
In summary, there is preliminary evidence from the RJP literature that the
projection of an organisation’s image can influence the level of applicant
attraction to a prospective employer.
In providing an overview of early recruitment research on recruitment
sources, recruiters, and RJP’s it can be concluded that although the
predominant focus for these studies is on the post-interview stage of the
recruitment process, researchers have acknowledged that job seekers have
preferences for seeking employment with some organisations over others
based on the perceived attributes of organisations. Within this framework,
Rynes and Cable (2001) stated that the ability of organisations to attract
qualified applicants ‘will be the number one force in business strategy by
the end of the decade and will keep recruitment at the forefront of corporate
strategy’ (p.73).
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Image, Attraction and Pursuit Intentions
Recruitment sources, recruiters, and realistic job previews aside, there
exists a body of recruitment research that asserts that an organisations
image can provide a sustainable source of competitive advantage by
attracting high-calibre applicants (Turban and Cable 2003: 733). Within this
framework, Fombrun and Shanley (1990) stated that ‘just as firms compete
for customers, so also do they vie for reputational status’ (p.234). Borrowing
from Turban and Cable’s (2003: 734) definition of organisational image as
its foundation, the present investigation conceptualises organisational
image as a perceptual representation of an organisations overall appeal as
defined by the job seeker. As such, recruitment scholars (Lievens,
Decaesteker, Coetsier and Geirnaert 2001; Turban and Cable 2003)
recognise that an organisations image is influenced by factors such as size,
media exposure, and type of industry. In the private business sector
advertised financial performance has also been cited as a contributor to the
formulation of applicant image perceptions of organisations (Fombrun and
Shanley 1990: 234). Indeed, Ferris, Arthur, Berkson, Kaplan, Harrell-Cook
and Frink (1998) argued that as organisations seek to establish an
advantage over competitors as competition for qualified labour intensifies,
organisations will become ‘pre-eminently involved with the business of
impression management in relation to factors capable of influencing their
wellbeing’ (p.248). Further, Ferris et al. (1998: 251) postulated that in this
contemporary business environment, organisations should capitalise on
information to actively promote their images to create ‘reputational capital’.
Underlying this conceptualisation of image is the suggestion that a job
seeker must develop a minimal level of attraction to an organisation. If this
minimum level of attraction is not achieved the individual will not become
motivated to process further information about the organisation (Cable and
Turban 2001: 145). Further, Cable and Turban (2001: 145) asserted that
the fundamental importance of attraction during recruitment is the concept
of a ‘consideration set’. In the marketing literature, a consideration set
refers to a group of possible brands available to a consumer that will be
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considered from which to make a purchase decision (Abougomaah,
Schlacter and Gaidis 1987: 67; Hauser and Wernerfelt 1990: 393). Similarly,
recruitment scholars have noted that a potential employer must enter a job
seekers consideration set before it is even considered as an employment
option (Power and Aldag 1985: 51). When an employer is excluded from a
job seekers consideration set it is proposed that there will exist no
motivation on behalf of the individual to process information about that
organisation regardless of how actively an organisation may promote its
corporate image (Power and Aldag 1985: 51; Abougomaah et al. 1987: 67).
However, this particular concept is not a focus of the present investigation.
Prospective applicants early impressions of an organisations image as an
employer has been found to be related to initial attraction to an organisation
and influence behaviours associated with intentions to pursue an
organisation for possible employment. However, as recruitment researchers
have only begun exploring job seeker pre-employment perceptions of
organisations, a problem that plagues image research in the recruitment
context has been the practice of labelling similar concepts by different
names, and labelling different concepts by the same names (Cable and
Turban 2001: 118). For example, the terms “image”, “culture”, “reputation”,
and “familiarity” have been used interchangeably by recruitment
researchers despite significant variance in what these terminologies signify
(Cable and Turban 2001: 118). Due to this lack of consistency in
terminology and concept application in the recruitment literature, it has been
difficult to clearly articulate how, why, and when recruitment influences
prospective applicants in the initial stages of the organisational choice
process (Cable and Turban 2001: 118).
Despite the variance in terminologies applied by recruitment scholars in
previous image studies, there appears to be a consistency of understanding
among these authors in terms of the underlying concepts and relationships
inherent in the term applied in any one particular study. As such, there
appears to be universal recognition that individuals do not enter into a
relationship with a prospective employer as a ‘clean slate’, but rather, that
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individuals have preferences for certain organisational and/or job attributes
and that an individuals’ perceptions as to the availability of these desirable
attributes within an organisation influence ‘purchase’ decisions (Cable and
Turban 2001: 118). Within this context, Cable and Turban (2001: 115)
stated that marketing scholars have long recognised the strategic
importance of brand image.
Brand Image and its Application to the Recruitment Domain
Brand image has been an important concept in the consumer behaviour
domain of the marketing literature since its formal introduction to academia
in the early 1950’s (Dobni and Zinkhan 1990: 110). In this context,
practitioners and academics alike have embraced the concept as the
embodiment of the reality that individuals do not purely purchase products
on the basis of their physical attributes or functions (Dobni and Zinkhan
1990: 110). Indeed, Jamal and Goode (2001) stated that ‘consumers do not
consume products for their material utilities but consume the symbolic
meaning of those products as portrayed in their branding images’ (p. 482).
Within this framework, Kotler (in Keller 1993) defined a brand as: a name,
term, sign, symbol, or design, or combination of them which is intended to
identify the goods and services of one seller or group of sellers, and to
differentiate them from those of competitors (p. 2). Inherent in this definition
is that these individual brand components (name, term, sign, symbol,
design, or combination) act as brand identifiers and, in their totality, create
perceptions of the brand to which individuals attach an affective meaning
(Kotler in Keller 1993: 2). The underlying value of a brand is often the set of
associations or impressions (its image) that is perceived in the ‘hearts and
minds’ of individuals (Duncan 2005: 70). Thus, at the foundation of the
concept of brand image is an understanding of the attributes and functional
consequences individuals associate with a specific entity (Padgett and Allan
1997: 50).
Applying the marketing principles of brand image to the recruitment context,
the present investigation conceptualises the influence of organisational
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image as a process whereby the buyer (the applicant) makes a cognitively
demanding purchase decision to enter into a long-term and dynamic
purchase decision with the seller (the organisation) based on the applicants
individual assessment of the organisations attributes (Maurer et al. 1992:
808). For the purposes of the present investigation, it is theorised that an
individual having a positive affective attitude towards an organisation will
view the organisation as a desirable entity and want to engage in some
relationship with it (Aiman-Smith et al. 2001: 219). Although there are
innumerable ways to categorise specific attributes that collectively
determine an individuals attitude towards an organisations image, a review
of past research suggests that three broad components of organisational
image are important to job seekers: organisational information, job specific
information, and people information (Cable and Turban 2001: 125).
Organisational information. According to Cable and Turban (2001: 126)
organisational information refers to descriptive details of an organisation,
ranging from factual or historical attributes to organisational policies,
procedures, and norms. Within this conceptual boundary, it is
acknowledged that individuals have their own distinct requirements and will
inherently seek to become affiliated with those organisations that best meet
those needs (Aiman-Smith et al. 2001: 221). Further, Aiman-Smith et al.
(2001) stated that ‘inherent in this relationship is the underlying assumption
that a job seeker will be attracted to an organisation when the individual has
a positive attraction to that organisation’s attributes before any action to
initiate a relationship with the organisation is undertaken’ (p. 221).
Job specific information. Cable and Turban (2001: 126) state that job
information relates to the extent to which an individual has knowledge about
the specific attributes of a job at an organisation that they might be
interested in pursuing a relationship with. Cable and Turban (2001: 126)
cite job title and job description (including type of work to be performed) as
specific examples of job information that may be sought by individuals
pursuing positions for possible employment. Given that job advertisements
are often the only source of information available to an individual when
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making a decision about whether or not to pursue a job with an organisation,
it is important that organisations attempt to understand how job seeker
reactions vary as a function of the features of job advertisements (Turban,
Campion and Eyring 1995: 196). Although this course of study will not be a
specific feature of the present investigation, the influence of information
about the job itself will be tested as a component of organisational image in
the current study in recognition of the importance this attribute plays in
informing an individual’s initial perceptions of an organisation as a possible
employer.
People information. Cable and Turban (2001: 126) state that people
information refers to the type of individuals that comprise an organisation,
and who would be potential co-workers to an individual seeking
employment with a particular organisation. Essentially, individuals that
currently reside in an organisation send ‘signals’ to potential applicants
about the organisation’s work environment and culture. The job seeker in
turn processes this information to determine the level of perceived fit with
the organisation (Cable and Turban 2001: 126). Within this framework,
Judge and Cable (1997: 359) state that applicants are most attracted to
organisations that are perceived to be compatible with their personal
characteristics and beliefs. For example, an individual who values work and
family responsibilities as a priority (and perceives that an organisation’s
people do) is more likely to be attracted to an organisation that is perceived
to offer flexible career paths and offers family friendly policies as compared
to an organisation that does not offer (or is not seen to offer) these
opportunities (Honeycutt and Rosen 1997: 274).
Employer Branding
Sutherland, Torricelli and Karg (2002) stated ‘that to remain competitive in
the contemporary business environment companies need to ensure that
they position themselves as an employer of choice’ (p. 13). Sutherland et
al.’s statement was made within the context of a study conducted by The
Conference Board (2001) in the United States that advocated that the
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‘hiring process has become nearly indistinguishable from the marketing
process’ (Cappelli in Sutherland et al. 2002: 13). Linking this phenomena to
the concept of ‘consideration sets’ advocated by Abougomaah et al. (1987)
and Hauser and Wernerfelt (1990) earlier in this Chapter, it is of vital
importance for organisations to position their respective brands into a job
seeker’s evoked consideration set to increase the probability of pursuit
intent. Within this context, Sullivan (in Sutherland et al. 2002) referred to an
employer of choice as ‘a company that because of its status and reputation
is always the first choice (or at least on the short list) of world class
candidates. Employers of choice are those organisations that outperform
their competition to attract people with business-required talent’ (p.14). On
this basis, with an increased insight and understanding of the strategic
potential of brand image as a sustainable source of competitive advantage,
managers within organisations will be better positioned to capitalise on the
intrinsic preferences of preferred job seeker groups by developing
specifically targeted ‘branding’ campaigns tailored to appeal to the identified
audience.
As advocated by Duncan (2005: 70), at the foundation of employer
branding is an understanding of the attributes and functional consequences
individuals associate with a specific entity. Further, Heilman, Bowman and
Wright (2000: 139) postulated that ‘brand’ image is based on the notion that
choices made by consumers (job seekers in the recruitment context) are
driven by two competing forces: the desire to collect information about
alternatives; and an aversion to trying (or engaging) in risky ones. In the
marketing context these forces give rise to three stages of purchasing: first,
an information collection stage that focuses initially on low-risk, big-brand
names; second, a stage in which information collection continues but is
extended to lesser known brands; and third, a stage of information
consolidation leading to brand preferences that provide the greatest utility
for the individual (Heilman et al. 2000: 140).
Weigelt and Camerer (1988: 443) advocated that an organisation’s image
building capability is strategically important in incomplete information
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settings. Within this framework, Turban and Cable (2003: 735) postulated
that as it is difficult for job seekers to acquire substantial and complete
information about an organisation prior to engaging in employment with it, it
is logical to assume that job seekers may use an organisation’s image as a
point of reference to signal information about attributes such as working
conditions. Thus, an organisation perceived to engage in more socially or
environmentally responsible activities has the potential to be perceived
more favourably by a job seeking population (who value those attributes);
as opposed to an organisation engaging in socially or environmentally
irresponsible activities in the absence of additional contextual information
(Turban and Cable 2003: 734). In this environment there is reason to
assume that organisations with positively established brand images will
attract higher-quality pools than those organisations with poorly established
brand images (Weigelt and Camerer 1988: 448). On this basis, the image of
an organisation can play a strategically advantageous role in realising the
leveraging potential of its brand in the absence of holistic information.
Thus, an organisation’s ‘brand image’ can be considered a multi-
dimensional construct in which an individual job seeker will select
themselves into an environment that they perceive will fulfil their personal
values and needs (Cable and Turban 2001: 144). Within this framework, it
is acknowledged that individual job seekers will be interested in pursing
different types of organisations for possible employment based on personal
assessments of an organisation’s perceived attributes; and if a minimum
level of attraction does not develop there will be no motivation exerted on
behalf of the individual to process subsequent information about the
organisation (Cable and Turban 2001: 145). For example, some job
seekers will not consider employment in organisations affiliated with the
military or tobacco industries because such organisations do not represent
the core values of certain individuals; and are thus perceived as possessing
a negative image (Cable and Turban 2001: 145).
Further, from a marketing context, Collins and Stevens (2002: 1124) stated
that the impact of a product’s brand is greatest in a crowded marketplace
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where circumstances make it difficult for consumers to cognitively compare
available products based on key attributes. In this environment, consumers
use their perceptions of brand image to evaluate available brands against
their personal needs and select those that provide the most appropriate
match. Recruitment literature suggests that many parallels exist between
the marketing conceptualisation of brand image and the situation faced by
job seekers in the pre-interview stages of the recruitment process (Collins
and Stevens 2002: 1124). When considering that many industries are
currently experiencing significant shifts in the demographic composition of
labour markets and rapid changes in technology, organisations are likely to
increasingly engage in direct competition for the ‘affections’ of applicants
(Franz and Martin 1994: Boswell et al. 2003: 23). In this context, the
employer branding strategies of organisations becomes a critical
consideration in the contemporary business environment whereby
organisations themselves will represent a potential crowding of markets in
which they will actively compete to attract qualified individuals from limited
‘talent pools’. Within this framework, Sutherland et al. (2002) advocated that
‘employer branding is therefore a new approach in order to gain an edge in
the war for talent’ (p.14).
In applying the fundamentals of brand image to the present investigation,
the principles offer a complimentary platform to the application of Fishbein
and Ajzen’s (1975) TRA. Specifically, brand image can facilitate an
understanding of how measures such as organisational familiarity
influences the cognitive process of job seekers prior to engaging in active
pursuit behaviour.
Theory of Reasoned Action
According to the TRA the best predictor of behaviour is intention to perform
that behaviour (Fishbein and Ajzen 1975: 16). Intention is determined by
two components: attitude and subjective norm. Attitude towards the
behaviour is the extent to which an individual has a favourable or
unfavourable evaluation of the behaviour in question (Fishbein and Ajzen
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1975: 16). Specifically, attitude towards the behaviour is predicted by
beliefs about the outcome of the behaviour based on an estimation of the
likelihood that performing that behaviour will result in a preferred outcome
(Thompson and Vourvachis 1995: 36). Subjective norm is the degree to
which other people influence an individual’s intention to undertake the
behaviour (Fishbein and Ajzen 1975: 16). Similar to attitude formulation, an
individual will comply with the advice of others based upon an assessment
of the ‘weight’ of the referents opinion relative to the behaviour under
consideration (Thompson and Vourvachis 1995: 36). The theory is
specifically concerned with situations where individuals consider the
implications of their actions before deciding on whether or not to act. Thus,
inherent in Fishbein and Ajzen’s (1975) TRA is the assumption that
individuals predominantly take account of available information and
implicitly and explicitly organise the information in some meaningful manner
to inform their actions. The TRA is represented diagrammatically below in
Figure 1:
Figure 1 – Theory of Reasoned Action
Source: Fishbein, M. and Ajzen, I. (1975) Belief, Attitude, Intention and Behavior: An
Introduction to Theory and Research, California: Addison-Wesley Publishing Company,
pp.16
The theory itself has a sound empirical track record and in the opinion of
Hedeker, Flay and Petraitis (1996) ‘not only is TRA elegant, its central
predictions have been widely supported having been applied in studies
ranging from re-enlisting in the National Guard to making a sandwich’ (p.
109 – 110). Applied in the recruitment domain, the present investigator is
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only aware of three studies (Powell and Goulet 1996; Highhouse et al.
2003; Schreurs, Derous, De Witte, Proost, Andriessen and Glabeke 2005)
that have utilised the TRA as a theoretical framework. Highhouse et al.’s
(2003) investigation will not be outlined here as it is reviewed in greater
depth later in this Chapter within the context of the ‘image and attraction’
literature that follows this section of the paper. Although a review of Powell
and Goulet’s (1996) study will be undertaken, it should be noted that the
focus of the author’s research was on the post-interview stage of the
recruitment process as opposed to the pre-interview stage which is the
prime focus of the present investigation. Regardless, the present
investigator is of the view that a review of Powell and Goulet’s (1996) study
is warranted to illustrate the versatility of the theory in the recruitment
context, albeit at the post-interview stage. Schreurs et al.’s (2005)
investigation focused on the pre-interview stages of the recruitment process
thus being directly relevant to the scope of the present study.
Applying the TRA to the recruitment context, Powell and Goulet (1996:
1621) investigated the relationship between individual’s intentions to
engage in the behaviour of pursuing an employment relationship with an
organisation, and subjects actually engaging in the behaviour post-interview.
Further, the authors investigated recruiter intentions to actively pursue an
interviewed individual. Data was gathered from college students
interviewing for positions at a campus placement facility, and recruiters
conducting the interviews. Students were asked to rate the job for which
they were interviewed on 12 attributes, in addition to responding to three
intention items to measure the likelihood of accepting a job offer and
perceived recruiter intentions of offering a follow-up interview. Recruiters
were asked to rate applicants on eight attributes, in addition to two items to
capture intentions to offer an applicant a follow-up interview and one item to
measure the recruiter’s perception of an applicant’s intention to accept a job
offer.
Research results offered general support for the applicability of the TRA to
the recruitment process (Powell and Goulet 1996: 1633). As such,
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applicants’ post-interview intentions to accept a job offer were related to
decisions to accept follow-up interviews and whether to accept actual job
offers. Regardless of how many other job offers an individual had turned
down in the past, was considering at the same time, or expected to receive
in the future, the stronger the post-interview intention to accept a job offer
the more likely a subject was likely to accept a job that was actually offered.
Further, recruiters’ post-interview intentions to invite a student for a follow-
up interview were related to an organisation’s decisions about whether to
extend such invitations (Powell and Goulet 1996: 1633). In conclusion,
post-interview intentions were related to organisation’s decisions about
whether to invite applicants for follow-up interviews and to applicant’s
decisions about whether to accept such invitations and job offers. Thus,
Powell and Goulet’s (1996) study offers empirical support for the
applicability of the TRA in the recruitment context.
Schreurs et al. (2005) investigated potential applicant attraction to the
military. The military context was selected by the researchers due to some
European countries experiencing difficulties in attracting and enlisting new
recruits. Consistent with the TRA, Schreurs et al. (2005: 109) hypothesised
that the relationship between career counsellor characteristics and potential
applicant intentions toward the organisation was mediated by potential
applicant attitudes towards the organisation; and that career counsellor
characteristics had a positive effect on potential applicant decisions to apply
to the military.
Data was collected from 408 individuals who had visited a career office of
the Armed Forces, and who had engaged in a conversation with a
counsellor regarding job opportunities with the military. These identified
individuals were sent a survey and asked to rate: (1) career counsellor
characteristics according to three prescribed attributes (warmth,
informativeness, and competence); (2) attitude towards the organisation; (3)
intentions towards the organisation; and (4) application behaviour.
Application behaviour was verified via a central database that identified
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whether an individual had applied for a position with the Armed Forces
(Schreurs et al. 2005: 111).
Research results found a positive relationship between the counsellor
characteristics of ‘warmth’ and an individual’s attitude towards the
organisation; between ‘warmth’ and intentions towards the organisation;
and between ‘competence’ and application behaviour. Consistent with
Fishbein and Ajzen’s (1975) TRA, Schreurs et al. (2005: 115 – 116) found
that the relationship between the set of career counsellor characteristics
and potential applicant’s intentions towards the organisation was fully
mediated by attitude toward the organisation, and that intentions fully
mediated the relationship between career counsellor characteristics and
application behaviour.
In the context of this study, Fishbein and Ajzen’s (1975) TRA provides a
strong theoretical framework to underpin the relationships of interest (as
outlined diagrammatically in Figure 2). In applying the TRA to the
relationships illustrated in Figure 2 the present investigator proposes the
following: a job seeker assesses the higher education institution’s brand
‘identifiers’ (name, term, corporate logo or combination) to inform their
overall perceptions of the organisation’s image as a prospective employer.
When a job seeker develops a positive perception of the institution’s ‘brand’
image, attitude as prescribed by Fishbein and Ajzen is articulated as
attraction in the present investigation. As such, it is theorised that an
individual having a positive affective attitude towards the institution will view
the organisation as a desirable entity and want to actively engage in an
employment relationship with it. On the basis of this positive attitude
towards the higher education institution, it is proposed that a job seeker will
display an intention (as prescribed by Fishbein and Ajzen) to become an
employee of the organisation by actively pursuing an advertised job
vacancy – thus consolidating an individual’s conscious decision to pursue
the institution as a potential employer. This active pursuit behaviour on
behalf of the job seeker is articulated as application in the present
investigation. In articulating the behaviour quadrant of Fishbein and Ajzen’s
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(1975) model to the current study it should be noted that as all participants
had applied to the higher education institution (all had submitted an actual
application for an advertised job vacancy) this particular quadrant could not
be measured as the behaviour had already been undertaken.
At this point it should be noted that with reference to the influence of
subjective norms as outlined in Fishbein and Ajzen’s model, the present
investigator acknowledges that some individuals may experience a degree
of social pressure relative to the social circles to which they belong in
seeking employment with some organisations over others. However, given
the acutely personal nature of the decision being made (submit a job
application to the institution versus not submitting a job application) in this
study, the present investigator perceives that an individual job seeker’s
personal attitude toward the behaviour would be a more dominant influence
in the context of this study. On this basis, the influence of subjective norms
on job seeker attraction to organisations will not constitute a primary focus
of the investigation. Thus, in summary, of the utilisation of Fishbein and
Ajzen’s (1975) TRA in the current study, the attitude and intention
quadrants (in unison with the principles of brand image) will be actively
applied to inform the exploration of variables of interest to the study as
outlined in Figure 2.
Figure 2 – Conceptual Framework
Using the diagrammatic conceptualisation in Figure 2 as a framework, an
exploration and discussion pertaining to previous recruitment research
Organisational Image Attraction Application
• Job Itself • Work/Organisational
Environment • Compensation/Job
Security
• Interest in organisation • Interest in the job
• Intention to pursue a job with the organisation
• Intention to pursue the job applied for
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conducted in relation to the identified relationships will now occur to
establish support for the proposed linkages.
Image and Attraction
Research (Belt and Paolillo 1982; Turban and Greening 1996; Cable and
Graham 2000; Highhouse, Lievens and Sinar 2003; Lievens and Highhouse
2003; Cable and Turban 2003) has found that an applicant formulating a
positive perception of an organisation’s image will be attracted to that
organisation as a potential employer. Each of the aforementioned research
investigations will now be reviewed in turn in chronological year order to
illustrate how the image-attraction research has developed over time.
Belt and Paolillo (1982) studied reactions of college students to
advertisements for restaurant management positions in the fast food
industry to examine the impact of corporate image perceptions and
qualification specificity on intentions to pursue a job for possible
employment. The researchers utilised the ‘fast food’ industry as the point of
reference for the investigation as it was perceived that, overall, the subjects
would have sufficient knowledge and familiarity of the industry to participate
in the study. Belt and Paolillo (1982) developed their rationale as to the
appropriateness of the industry on the basis of two primary considerations,
that ‘college-age and college-educated individuals are very often the object
of recruitment activities of such organisations; and students often frequent
‘fast food’ establishments’ (p. 107). To measure corporate image
perceptions, subjects were asked to individually rank twenty-five
organisations engaged in the fast food industry in the local area. Based on
the rankings, an index of corporate image was computed for each fast food
organisation.
Recruitment advertisements were then developed by the researchers to
specifically examine the relationship between corporate image perceptions
and qualification specificity on intentions to pursue employment with an
organisation. Applying the names (and associated logos) of the highest
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ranked fast food organisation and the lowest ranked fast food organisation
(as determined from the initial ranking exercise) a series of four
advertisements (two for each organisation) was developed. These
advertisements were manipulated by the researchers in terms of the degree
of qualification specificity communicated (either specific or non specific) for
each of the two organisations. Thus, the four test advertisements illustrated
either: high image organisation/specific qualifications, high image
organisation/non specific qualifications; low image organisation/specific
qualifications, or low image organisation/non specific qualifications (Belt
and Paolillo 1982: 109).
A second independent student sample was then developed. Subjects were
randomly divided into four groups of fifty students; and were presented with
one of the four manipulated advertisements and five neutral advertisements.
The five neutral advertisements had not been manipulated by the
researchers, being sourced from the initial pool of twenty-five fast food
organisations (excluding the highest and lowest ranked organisations).
Subjects were instructed to assume that they were seeking a management
position in the fast food industry; and to indicate on a Likert scale whether
they would seek employment with the six organisations based on the
presented information.
Four months later a retest was conducted. The retest utilised an additional
sample of students. As a result of the re-test outcomes, the ratings of the
five neutral advertisements were dropped and only the four manipulated
advertisements were considered for analysis.
Belt and Paolillo (1982: 111) found that qualification specificity did not
significantly influence the likelihood of responding to an advertisement.
However, slightly more than thirty percent variation in whether subjects
stated they would apply for a job could be attributed to perceptions of
corporate image: the more favourable the image, the more likely that
subjects would apply for jobs (Belt and Paolillo 1982: 111). These research
findings lent support to the popular perception that if applicants were given
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a choice to pursue a job with a positive image organisation or a poor image
organisation, the positive image organisation would be the more attractive
employer, and therefore possess a competitive advantage (Belt and Paolillo
1982: 111).
Belt and Paolillo’s (1982) study has the potential to form a significant basis
for future replication, particularly if investigating the perceptions of job
professionals rather than exploring the preferences of college or university
student populations. A disadvantage of the study is that results could not be
assumed to generalise to applicant populations outside the fast food sector,
nor outside the type of job applied for in the investigation. In this vein, it
would be interesting to replicate Belt and Paolillo’s study across multiple
industries.
Turban and Greening (1996) hypothesised that an organisation’s corporate
social performance (CSP) is related to perceptions of its image and its
subsequent attractiveness as an employer. Turban and Greening (1996)
defined CSP as a ‘construct that emphasises an organisation’s
responsibility to multiple stakeholders (employees and the community at
large) in addition to its traditional responsibilities to economic shareholders’
(p. 658). Within this framework, Turban and Greening (1996: 658)
postulated that identifying certain socially responsible characteristics may
translate to competitive advantage opportunities for organisations. As such,
organisations adopting more socially responsible actions may lead
individuals to develop positive perceptions of that organisation’s image
which yields a competitive advantage by attracting a higher quantity and
quality of individuals applying for available jobs with the organisation
(Turban and Greening 1996: 659).
In Turban and Greening’s (1996: 662) study, CSP data for 189
organisations was obtained from an independent corporate database.
These 189 organisations were then individually rated by college students on
the basis of these subjects’ perceptions of the organisation’s reputation.
Using a different group of students (from the same course of study from
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which the previous subjects were drawn), the subjects followed a similar
procedure as applied previously to rate their perceptions of each of the 189
organisation’s attractiveness as an employer. As Turban and Greening
(1996: 663) concluded that the larger, more profitable, organisations
generally received more publicity and therefore had greater name
recognition, the researchers controlled for organisational size and
profitability.
Turban and Greening’s (1996: 666) research results indicated that
organisations higher in perceived CSP have more positive images and were
perceived to be more attractive as employers than organisations lower in
CSP. As such, results suggested that job seekers possess an awareness of
particular organisation’s CSP and that those organisations perceived by the
individual to have a positive ‘rating’ are more likely to attract that individual.
More broadly, the research extended previous study results by indicating
that an organisation with a positive CSP has the potential to achieve
competitive advantage over other organisations that are not viewed so
positively (Turban and Greening 1996: 666). In terms of gauging the extent
to which an individual’s unfamiliarity with an organisation may influence
perceptions of that organisation’s image and attractiveness as an employer,
Turban and Greening (1996: 666) determined that industry did not predict
unfamiliarity. The degree of unfamiliarity appeared to be correlated with
those organisations that advertised less frequently in newspapers (as
compared with those organisations that advertised frequently), and tended
to have weaker overall linkages with the community.
In considering Turban and Greening’s (1996) research outcomes in the
context of the importance of ‘consideration sets’ as espoused by Cable and
Turban (2001: 145) earlier in this Chapter, the research results provide
evidence that it is of pertinent importance (from an organisation’s
perspective) that a potential employer enter into a job seeker’s
consideration set before it is even considered as a potential employment
option. In the event that an organisation does not achieve this ‘status’, an
organisation may be rendered uncompetitive in the search for qualified
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talent. As such, although Turban and Greening’s (1996) research suggests
that organisations should publicise their CSP in an attempt to attract
applicants for their advertised positions, additional research is required to
investigate the importance of CSP for individuals actively engaged in the
job search process. It should also be noted that the researchers removed
from analysis those organisations that they perceived were unfamiliar to
most subjects, therefore, students rated organisations that were for the
most part familiar to them. As a result, it was not possible to determine how
subjects might have reacted to a sample of largely unfamiliar organisations.
Cable and Graham (2000) applied three different research methodologies:
verbal protocol analysis (VPA), policy capturing, and a field study to
investigate the antecedents of job seeker image perceptions when
assessing organisations for possible employment. Each of the
methodologies offered unique, complementary information about the
antecedents of job seeker image perceptions and, as such, Cable and
Graham (2000) described each methodology as an independent study.
Each of the three independent studies (VPA, policy capturing, and field
study) will now be reviewed in turn.
In an attempt to better understand the holistic role of organisational image
in influencing initial pursuit intentions of job seekers, Cable and Graham’s
(2000) first investigation applied a VPA methodology to study
undergraduate university student reactions to three employing
organisations (one each representing the industries of manufacturing, retail,
and business consultancy) to examine image perceptions. Subjects read an
instruction sheet that directed them to verbalise their thoughts when
evaluating the image of three employing organisations. Verbalised subject
thoughts were tape recorded. To control for job characteristics, subjects
were presented with a job description for a management trainee position
and advised by the researchers that the description was consistent across
the three organisations. Additionally, subjects were handed a recruitment
brochure from the three organisations to assist in considering each
organisation’s image. Each respective brochure was the standard
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recruitment pamphlet produced by each organisation and was not modified
for the purpose of the investigation.
Before identifying and categorising the subjects’ thoughts, the researchers
examined data generated from two pre-test subjects to develop a consistent
procedure. Cable and Graham (2000: 932) independently identified and
isolated statements verbalised by the two subjects. To maximise accuracy,
the unique thoughts were coded into one of twelve categories that the
researchers had formulated based on factors that previous recruitment
research had found to be important to job seekers. These categories were:
industry, opportunities for personal development, organisational culture,
organisational familiarity, historical information, endorsement of
organisation by trustworthy people, size, legitimacy, globalisation,
profitability, diversity, and corporate headquarters. The percentage of time
spent by subjects on each category was also recorded to determine the
relative importance of factors to subjects. As an outcome of the evaluative
process, the majority of subject statements revealed four core antecedents
of organisational image perceptions: industry, opportunity for personal
development, organisational culture, and organisational familiarity. Thus,
the VPA data revealed factors that had not been examined in previous
image research.
To improve confidence in the VPA results, a policy capturing methodology
was employed by the researchers. Cable and Graham (2000: 936) applied
the policy capturing technique on the proviso that the methodology obviates
problems associated with self-insight and social desirability. Undergraduate
university students (from a different university to the first investigation)
constituted the test group. Subjects read a series of scenarios that
described an organisation according to five attributes: industry,
opportunities for personal development, organisational culture, profitability,
and pay level (Cable and Graham 2000: 936). All scenarios contained
information on each of the five attributes, and had been manipulated by the
researchers to illustrate either a positive image or a poor image. After
reading each scenario, subjects completed a survey to evaluate
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perceptions of the organisation’s image. In general, the policy capturing
results supported the VPA results: job seeker image perceptions were
influenced by opportunities for personal development, industry, and
organisational culture. Profitability was also found to have large effects on
job seeker image perceptions.
To redress potential limitations of the VPA and policy capturing research
designs, Cable and Graham (2000: 940) conducted a field investigation. A
total of 112 undergraduate university students completed a survey. None of
the subjects were part of the samples applied in the earlier two
investigations. Subjects reported their familiarity with, and beliefs about, six
organisations in response to six items. Three weeks later, the same
subjects completed a second survey to assess subject perceptions of each
of the same six organisation’s image. The three week interval between
surveys served to mitigate potential survey biases such as mood effects
and self-consistency biases, for example (Cable and Graham 2000: 941).
Consistent with the policy capturing study, pay level was related to job
seeker perceptions of an organisation’s image. Consistent with the VPA
study, an individual’s familiarity with an organisation was significantly
related to perceptions of that organisation’s image. Results also confirmed
the policy capturing results that job seeker image perceptions are related to
the industry in which the organisation operates.
Overall, Cable and Graham’s results lend support for the assertion that an
organisation’s ‘brand image’ is a multi-dimensional construct in which an
individual job seeker will select themselves into an organisational
environment that is perceived to fulfil their personal values and needs.
Specifically, Cable and Graham’s outcomes suggest that individuals do
indeed have a predisposition to formulate and apply collective image
perceptions to organisations operating within specific industries. As such, in
the VPA methodology, Cable and Graham determined that subjects spent
20% of the time discussing industry alone. Although the data provided by
the authors did not outline specific details of subject perceptions of the
prescribed three industries, the results have implications for organisations
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nonetheless. For example, in the case that an entire industry is readily
considered by job seekers to possess a poor image (and the industry wants
to redress that image), it can be asserted that the organisations operating in
that industry would have to collectively invest in an industry-wide public
relations initiative in an attempt to modify job seeker perceptions (Cable and
Graham 2000: 943). Such a scenario has important implications for the
value of brand image particularly when considering Sorrell’s assertion (in
Hart and Murphy 1998) that ‘in future, the real competition in international
markets will be between companies – between company reputations’ (p.
63).
As is a weakness in most recruitment research, the utilisation of university
students as the source of research data calls into question the validity of
responses. As such, a replication of this study utilising subjects with
professional work experience is advisable. Additionally, due to the small
number of organisations used to represent different industries, research
results should be applied with caution and not assumed to be relevant
across all industrial environments.
Highhouse, Lievens and Sinar (2003) studied university student reactions to
examine the dimensionality of organisational attraction. Due to the
researcher’s perceived lack of consistency in the use of dependent
measures in previous recruitment research, the authors examined three
components: attraction, intentions, and prestige to explore the
dimensionality of organisation attraction in the job pursuit process. In
examining the three components, Highhouse et al. applied Fishbein and
Ajzen’s (1975) TRA. In applying this theory to the recruitment context, the
researchers postulated that favourable organisations (as perceived by
subjects) would result in positive pursuit behaviour.
To measure the dimensionality of organisational attraction, university
students were randomly assigned to one of five organisations. A description
of the allocated organisation was provided to subjects based on information
that the researchers had sourced from recruitment materials obtained from
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the university’s career resource centre. Although the organisational
descriptions varied in content, all clearly assumed a recruitment focus and
presented approximately the same amount of information. After reviewing
the relevant organisational description, subjects responded to a series of
questions about the organisation in terms of perceived attractiveness,
intention to pursue a job with the organisation, and perceived prestige of the
organisation (Highhouse et al. 2003: 991). A final section of the
questionnaire invited subjects to provide their name, contact details, and if
they wished to be contacted by the organisation about corporate internships,
co-op programs, and full-time job opportunities (Highhouse et al. 2003: 992).
This section of the questionnaire served as a behavioural indicator of
subjects’ job pursuit intentions in line with the TRA.
The primary implication of Highhouse et al.’s (2003: 992) research results
suggest that the generic ‘organisational attraction’ concept historically
applied in recruitment research may need to be supplanted with a more
multivariate conception of the construct. As such, the researchers
discovered that prestige and attractiveness were individually significant
predictors of organisational pursuit intentions. Additionally, results
suggested that the three components (attraction, intentions, and prestige)
were consistent with the propositions of Fishbein and Ajzen’s (1975) TRA.
As such, within the context of the theory of reasoned action, Highhouse et
al.’s results illustrated that favourable subject perceptions of an organisation
influenced intentions to pursue the organisation for possible employment,
and appeared to mediate the effects of organisational attractiveness and
prestige on organisational choice. Within this framework, prestige
perceptions appeared to possess significant potential as a construct for
future research in terms of its potential strength in influencing pursuit
behaviours.
Overall, Highhouse et al.’s results lend support for the assertion that human
behaviour is the culmination of a rational sequence of cognitions. The
author’s results suggest that a closer match between one’s self-concept
and a proposed behaviour exists within the context of organisational pursuit
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intent. Specifically, through Highhouse et al.’s finding that perceived
organisational prestige appears to motivate job seekers to actively pursue
an organisation for possible employment provides organisations with a
potential platform from which to launch ‘branding’ campaigns. As such, in
applying the TRA within the recruitment domain, Highhouse et al.’s results
suggest that individuals seek to align themselves with organisation’s that
are identified as being congruent with their preferred self-concept. Thus,
there is evidence to suggest that an organisation’s image is potentially more
than a ‘cosmetic’ construct to define an organisation from its competitors
(Fitzmaurice 2005: 925).
Highhouse et al.’s (2003) investigation has a methodological weakness.
Due to the researcher’s presenting subjects with organisational descriptions
that, although similar, did not provide the same scope in terms of
information content, it is possible that some organisations may have
communicated additional organisational attributes relative to other
organisations that led to a strengthened perception of certain organisations
by individuals; thus influencing associated pursuit behaviour and perceived
prestige. Although it is recognised that the purpose of the study was not to
investigate the relative attractiveness of the five organisations, it is still
considered a valid concern due to the ‘playing field’ not being consistent.
Lievens and Highhouse (2003: 77) drew from the marketing literature to
posit that applicant’s initial attraction to an organisation is based on the
symbolic meaning (in terms of inferred traits) that individuals associate with
organisations; and that individuals will apply trait inferences as points of
differentiation among various employing organisations. As such, the authors
postulated that applicant’s ascribe specific traits (for example prestige or
innovativeness) to organisations, and that individuals are attracted to those
organisations perceived to possess the core traits of interest to the
applicant. Further, Lievens and Highhouse hypothesised that the perceived
trait inferences of organisations formulated by applicants would exert a
greater influence on job seeker attraction to an organisation than job and
organisational attributes alone.
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In recognition of the fact that a large percentage of previous image
researchers had prescribed the specific job and/or organisational attributes
that subjects considered when assessing an organisation’s image, Lievens
and Highhouse adopted an inductive strategy for determining the job and/or
organisational attributes to be assessed in the study’s two subjects groups:
final year university students with a primary major of interest to the banking
sector and employees currently employed in the banking industry. To
structure the identification process the university subjects were presented
with pairs of actual banks in a pre-test environment. Students were then
instructed to indicate which of the two presented banks they would prefer to
work for and to list three reasons that motivated their choice of bank. The
same procedure was adopted utilising subjects in the bank employee group.
From these responses, two graduate students independently categorised
the rationales to parsimoniously explain the responses of both groups.
Agreement was reached in 84.6% of cases, and served as the basis for
writing survey items to measure the job and organisational attributes.
To allow for the investigation of trait inferences relevant to the banking
sector, Lievens and Highhouse adopted Aaker’s (1997) 42 item scale to
determine trait adjectives relevant to the evaluation of organisations
conducing business in this sector. As an outcome of this exercise, five core
traits were identified: sincerity, excitement, competence, sophistication, and
ruggedness; and served as the basis for the development of survey items.
275 final year university students and 124 banking industry employees
completed a questionnaire. With regard to the student sample, research
assistants distributed questionnaires to subjects during a job fair. Each
subject was then randomly assigned to one of five banks and completed the
questionnaire in the context of perceptions of that bank. In the employee
sample, research assistants distributed questionnaires to employees who
worked in the corporate headquarters of one of the five banks represented
in the study sample (Lievens and Highhouse 2003: 84). Employees who
agreed to participate in the study were randomly assigned to one of four
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banks, and completed the questionnaire based on their perceptions of this
bank. Only four banks were utilised as subjects were not asked to complete
a questionnaire related to their own place of current employment (Lievens
and Highhouse 2003: 84).
Lievens and Highhouse’s (2003: 95) research results determined that trait
inferences were a stronger predictor of an organisation’s attractiveness as
an employer than was job or organisational attributes. However, the authors
discovered that not all trait inferences played a critical role in influencing
perceptions of an organisation’s attractiveness. As such, in both subject
groups the two trait inferences ‘excitement’ and ‘competence’ were found to
be of most importance in assessing an organisation’s attractiveness.
Overall, Lievens and Highhouse’s results lend further support for the
assertion that an organisation’s image is a multi-dimensional construct.
Within this framework, the authors results contribute to an emerging field of
factors related to a job seeker’s early impressions of organisational image
not traditionally applied in the recruitment research (Lievens and Highhouse
2003: 95). Specifically, the results illustrate a broader and potentially more
integrative framework of the various factors related to the formulations of
organisational image assessments of job seeking populations. On this basis,
it is suggested that Lievens and Highhouse’s (2003) research has the
potential to form a significant basis for future replication, particularly in
broadening conceptualisations of organisational image to further investigate
the symbolic meanings (trait inferences) associated with perceptions of an
organisation; and how these characteristics may be manipulated to provide
competitive advantages for organisations in the recruitment context.
Some limitations should also be acknowledged. Concern is raised that the
items applied to the employee subject group were adapted based on the
perceptions of a demographically different test group. As such, all items
relevant to the employee group may not have been considered for
investigation. Additionally, as the study focussed on the banking industry,
research results could not be automatically generalised outside this industry.
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The study would, therefore, need to be replicated in other industrial
environments to increase generalisability of results.
Cable and Turban (2003: 2244) applied the brand-equity perspective from
the marketing literature to extend the recruitment literature. Within the
brand-equity framework, Cable and Turban (2003: 2246) proposed that a
job seeker’s perception of an organisation’s corporate reputation is a
function of the organisation’s general reputation, recruitment
advertisements, and the job seeker’s familiarity with the organisation. Thus,
the researchers posited that an individual’s reputation perceptions influence
recruitment outcomes on the basis that these perceptions affect the job
seeker’s perceptions of job attributes and the pride that they expect from
organisational membership (Cable and Turban 2003: 2246). Building on the
brand-equity perspective, it is of interest to note that Cable and Turban
(2003: 2246) introduced two new measures of recruitment effectiveness
that had not been tested in previous investigations: minimum salary
required to accept a job; and memory of recruitment material to determine
the influence of an organisation’s perceived ‘brand’ on recruitment
outcomes. As such, researchers suggested that a job seeker may be willing
to pay a premium in the form of a lower salary to work for an organisation
perceived to have a positive reputation; and that these reputation
perceptions may influence the degree to which a job seeker recalls
information presented in the organisation’s recruitment materials.
The researchers gathered data from 368 university students. At random,
subjects viewed one of a possible eight job advertisements representing
four different industries. Two organisations from each of the four industries
were represented: one with a positive reputation and one with a poor
reputation. In terms of familiarity, the selected organisations were perceived
by Cable and Turban to be those that the subjects would have at least
some familiarity with. The relevant job advertisements contained the logo of
the relevant organisation and the content had been manipulated by the
researchers with regards to three features: corporate reputation, reputation
advertising, and salary.
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After studying the allocated job advertisement, subjects completed a
questionnaire. The questionnaire assessed the student’s perceptions of the
organisation’s reputation, familiarity, job attributes, expected pride from
membership, job pursuit intentions, and minimum salary required to accept
the job. Reputation perceptions were measured on four items; familiarity
was assessed on three items; job attributes were assessed on eight items;
job pursuit intentions were measured on four items; and pride of
membership was assessed on three items. For minimum salary, subjects
wrote their required minimum salary to accept a job (Cable and Turban
2003: 2256). One week after subjects had completed the questionnaire,
individuals received an email questionnaire that assessed their recall of
information presented in the organisation’s job advertisement. Memory was
assessed by presenting students with nine items about the job (Cable and
Turban 2003: 2256). Of the 368 students who completed the initial
questionnaire, 339 completed the email questionnaire.
Cable and Turban’s (2003: 2260) research results indicated support for the
brand-equity perspective in that impressions of an organisation’s corporate
reputation and familiarity influenced individual perceptions of that
organisation’s reputation, which in turn influenced perceived job attributes
and expected pride obtained from organisational membership. These
perceptions also influenced job pursuit intentions and the minimum salary
required to accept a job with an organisation. Interestingly, with regards to
minimum salary expectations, results suggested that individuals are willing
to pay premiums (in the form of lower salaries) in organisations that are
perceived to possess a positive reputation. Additionally, Cable and Turban
(2003: 2260) discovered that individuals were more likely to recall
recruitment information for jobs advertised with organisation that were
familiar to the job seeker; and that recruitment advertisements did not
influence perceptions of an organisation’s reputation.
A weakness in the study should be acknowledged. As such, due to the
small number of organisations utilised to represent the four different
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industries rated in the research, results should be applied with caution and
not assumed to be relevant across all industrial environments.
In summary, limitations of the aforementioned literature notwithstanding, it
does appear that an individual’s perceptions of an organisation’s image
does influence the degree to which an individual is attracted to an
organisation at the pre-interview stages of the recruitment process. Thus,
drawing on the concept of brand image, there is evidence in the recruitment
context that individual brand components (such as an organisation’s name,
term, sign, symbol, design, or combination) act as brand identifiers and, in
their totality, create perceptions of a brand to which individuals will attach
an effective meaning. Further, an individual having a positive affective
attitude towards an organisation will view that organisation as a desirable
entity and want to engage in some relationship with it (Aiman-Smith et al.
2001: 219). In considering this conceptualisation in the context of the
variables prescribed in Figure 1, the following hypotheses are presented in
reference to the image-attraction relationship:
Hypothesis 1a. Positive perceptions of an organisation’s image will be
positively related to attraction to the organisation.
Hypothesis 1b. Positive perceptions of an organisation’s image will be
positively related to attraction to the job.
Following from the above, it is believed that the more attractive the
organisation to the individual, the more likely the individual will actively
pursue employment intentions with the organisation.
Attraction and Application
Research (Gatewood, Gowan and Lautenschlager 1993; Bauer and Aiman-
Smith 1996; Honeycutt and Rosen 1997; Highhouse, Zickar, Thorsteinson,
Stierwalt and Slaughter 1999; Albinger and Freeman 2000; and Aiman-
Smith, Bauer and Cable 2000) has found that when job seekers are
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attracted to an organisation, these positive perceptions are highly correlated
with intentions to actively pursue the organisation as a potential employer.
Each of the aforementioned research investigations will now be reviewed in
turn. Consistent with the presentation of literature in the preceding section
of this paper, the research will be presented in chronological date order.
Gatewood, Gowan and Lautenschlager (1993) studied college student
reactions to examine the impact of corporate image perceptions on
intentions to pursue employment with an organisation. In an attempt to
better understand the holistic role of corporate image perceptions in
influencing initial job choice decisions, two separate image constructs were
considered by the researchers. These constructs were: general corporate
image and recruitment image. With regards to general corporate image
perceptions, Gatewood et al. were interested in the degree of perception
consistency among subjects. Consistent perceptions would suggest a
universal image; while inconsistent perceptions would suggest that
significant alternative impressions exist (Gatewood et al. 1993: 416). In
terms of recruitment image, the researchers were interested in the degree
to which perceptions developed as a result of viewing recruitment
information.
A total of five groups (totalling 470 subjects) were formed to collect
research data. Data collected involved four sets of measures. The four
types of measures included: three forms of general corporate image to test
perception consistency; one form of recruitment image to test consistency
between corporate and recruitment image perceptions; two sets of
correlates of image to understand the basis for image perceptions; and two
forms of probability of continuing the application process (Gatewood et al.
1993: 417). In formulating perceptions of general corporate image and
recruitment image to inform overall corporate image impressions, subjects
evaluated a total of 39 organisations. In presenting information to subjects
about these organisations, it should be noted that only the names of the
respective companies were presented - no associated logos or bi-lines
were communicated at any stage of the investigation.
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Gatewood et al. (1993: 423) discovered that perceptions of general
corporate image and recruitment image were significantly correlated with
intentions to pursue a job with an organisation. Within this framework,
recruitment image was a slightly stronger predictor than general corporate
image indicating that exposure to an organisation’s recruitment information
has the potential to exert significant influence on an individual’s perceptions
of corporate image. Within this framework, it should be noted that
recruitment information presented to subjects communicated positive
organisational characteristics. When considering this research finding in the
context of Highhouse et al.’s (2004) investigation, had Gatewood et al.
presented more ‘balanced’ information to subjects in terms of its content
(contained positive and negative organisational characteristics) research
results may have indicated a stronger correlation between perceptions of
general corporate image alone and associated intention behaviour.
Gatewood et al.’s investigation has a methodological weakness. In terms of
generalisability of results, as organisations presented to subjects were not
identified in terms of industry representation or type of job advertised it is
difficult to determine if these results can be appropriately applied across a
variety of industrial environments or specific category of job. This weakness
considered, Gatewood et al.’s (1993) study does highlight the importance of
image perceptions in influencing a job seeker’s initial organisational pursuit
intentions.
As such, Gatewood et al.’s investigation contributed to a broadening of the
recruitment literature by determining that (from an applicant’s perspective)
key distinctions exist in terms of the influence of recruitment image (the
information conveyed to applicants via recruitment information) and
corporate image (based on an organisations’ name alone) on formulating
perceptions of an organisation as an employer. Further, from a ‘branding’
perspective the research provides evidence that an organisation’s name
alone can influence job seeker perceptions of potential employers.
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Bauer and Aiman-Smith (1996) studied reactions of university students to
examine the impact of a pro-environmental stance on perceptions of
organisational image and intentions to pursue employment with an
organisation. The researchers utilised corporate environment policy as the
point of reference for the investigation on the basis that ‘environmental
concerns have triggered the biggest change in consumer behaviour since
the oil price explosion of the early seventies’ (Peattie and Ratnayaka in
Bauer and Aiman-Smith 1996: 446). Within this framework, Bauer and
Aiman-Smith (1996: 449) postulated that all other considerations being
equal, organisations displaying environmentally responsible characteristics
would be more attractive to job seeking populations than organisations
possessing poorly perceived environmental policies.
The researchers gathered data from 161 university students. In
acknowledgement of the diverse range of policies, standards, and public
opinions towards the importance of environmentally responsible actions of
organisations in the United States, Bauer and Aiman-Smith (1996) gathered
data from diverse regions of the United States in the event that geography
influenced research results. As such, data was collected from a large mid-
western university and a large west coast university. The west coast
university was located in a state ranked high on environmental policy; the
mid-west university in a state ranked low on environmental policy (Bauer
and Aiman-Smith 1996: 450). At both experimental locations subjects were
randomly presented with a package of materials that the researchers had
prepared. The package contained instructions, a recruitment brochure of a
fictitious organisation, and a questionnaire. The content of the recruitment
brochure had been manipulated by the researchers on the basis of
describing the environmental stance of a fictitious organisation under two
conditions: experimental and control. The experimental brochure contained
environmental information about the organisation; while environmental
information was excluded from the control brochure. Just over half of the
subjects received packages containing the experimental brochure.
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After reading the recruitment brochure, subjects completed a questionnaire
to assess perceptions of the organisation’s image, intentions to pursue
employment opportunities with the organisation, and the likelihood of
accepting a job if offered one by the organisation. A second questionnaire
was then distributed to subjects to assess personal environmental stance.
In the west coast sample, a questionnaire to measure social desirability in
responding was also distributed to subjects as the researchers perceived
that the issues of ‘political correctness’ could influence subjects to respond
in a socially desirable manner (Bauer and Aiman-Smith 1996: 453).
Bauer and Aiman-Smith’s (1996: 454) research results determined that an
environmentally oriented organisation is a more attractive employer than an
organisation offering no environmental statement. Further, subjects were
more likely to actively pursue employment opportunities and accept a job
offer with an environmentally concerned organisation. Of note, the
researchers found no support for the idea that the higher an individual’s
environmental rating, the more attractive an environmentally-oriented
organisation would be rated, suggesting that social desirability did not
significantly predict subject responses. Thus indicating that subjects were
not simply answering in socially desirable ways. From a practical
perspective, Bauer and Aiman-Smith’s (1996: 456) research suggests that
organisation’s that are proactive in preserving and protecting the
environment may reap positive benefits from communicating those values
to job seekers in the early stages of the recruitment process. As such, an
environmentally conscious organisation adopting a recruitment strategy
emphasising its ‘greenness’ could prove to be a source of competitive
advantage in attracting qualified applicants to consider available positions.
Some limitations should also be acknowledged. Concern is raised that the
study did not address the influence of a negative environmental stance on
perceptions of organisational image. As such, although this study found that
social desirability did not serve as a significant predictor of subject
responses, in order to achieve a holistic representation of scenarios it is
recommended that future research address this issue. Further, as subjects
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responded to items based on assessments of a fictitious organisation,
concern is raised as to whether subjects provided genuine responses to the
presented items.
Honeycutt and Rosen (1997) studied reactions of Executive MBA and MBA
alumni to investigate the influence of family friendly policies, salary levels,
and salient identity on organisational attraction and intentions to pursue a
job. Within this framework, Honeycutt and Rosen (1997: 271) proposed that
as the composition of the workforce changed to include increasing numbers
of working women, couples, and parents, career paths and policies that
supported the family would become increasingly attractive to the job seeker.
Thus, the researchers posited that individuals with salient family and
balance identities would be attracted to organisations with flexible and dual
career paths and policies; whereas individuals with salient career identities
would be most attracted to organisations with traditional career paths and
policies. As such, the researchers defined the three career paths and policy
levels as follows: traditional career paths and policies required employees
to put their careers first and to keep family from interfering with their work;
dual career paths and policies proposed two career choices (one for
employees who chose to put their career first; and one for employees who
chose to balance work and family responsibilities); and flexible career paths
and policies proposed that all employees were afforded flexibility to balance
work and non-work regardless of family responsibility (Honeycutt and
Rosen 1997: 277).
To determine validity and reliability of the experimental instruments a pre-
test was conducted. On the basis of the pre-test results items were refined
based on feedback received from 120 MBA students. A total of 263
subjects constituted the study sample. At random, subjects were assigned
to one of three groups and presented with a job advertisement that had
been manipulated by the researchers in terms of type of career path and
policy (traditional, dual, and flexible) and salary level to ascertain interest in
the job.
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After reading the presented job advertisement, subjects completed a
questionnaire that measured participant’s attraction to the organisation and
intentions to pursue the job. Additionally, subjects were instructed to
consider roles personally undertaken at work and within their family to
indicate a salient identity. Analysis of the responses indicated three
predominant levels of salient identity: family salient, career salient, and
balance salient.
Honeycutt and Rosen’s (1997: 279) research results indicated that
organisational attraction lead to intentions to pursue an organisation for
possible employment. As such, an organisation that offered flexible career
paths and policies was significantly more attractive than an organisation
that offered dual career paths and policies, or traditional career paths and
policies. Further, the researchers found a significant interaction effect
between reported salient identity and career path and policy on intentions to
pursue a job for possible employment. As hypothesised, family salient and
balance salient subjects were most attracted to the organisation offering a
flexible career path and policy. However, contrary to the hypothesis, career
salient subjects were also found to be most attracted to the organisation
offering a flexible career path and policy. Further, contrary to the authors
expectations salary was not found to be significantly related to attraction;
thus suggesting that individuals may be willing to trade-off salary in
preference for organisations valuing the flexibility needs of employees. It is
also interesting to note that gender did not predict salient identity; thus
suggesting that there may be a fundamental shift occurring in the value set
of job seekers towards a preference for workforce flexibility over and above
the immediate remuneration level of jobs (Honeycutt and Rosen 1997: 280).
Honeycutt and Rosen’s (1997) investigation has some methodological
weaknesses. As a limitation, results are only generalisable for the specific
career paths and policies presented in the study. Clearly policies vary
across organisations with the potential for a vast array of hybridisations
across industries. Thus, for organisations considering communicating
corporate career paths and policies to job seekers in an attempt to attract
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qualified individuals, the research results should be applied with caution.
Although it is acknowledged that the researchers utilised subjects with
substantial work experience (11 - 15 years) concern is raised that due to
subjects being presented with a manipulated, fictitious job advertisement,
participants may not have treated the study seriously.
Limitations aside, Honeycutt and Rosen’s investigation did contribute to a
broadening of the recruitment literature by ascertaining that salary was not
the prime motivator of organisational pursuit intentions for a large cross
section of job seekers representing different groups of potential applicants.
Specifically, contrary to the findings of previous studies investigating the
impact of salary on organisational choice, Honeycutt and Rosen’s research
contributes further evidence for the assertion that work-life balance
considerations are becoming key job seeker considerations in the
contemporary business environment (Vansteenkiste, Lens, De Witte, De
Witte and Deci 2004: 347). Thus, Honeycutt and Rosen’s results suggest
that organisations may benefit (in terms of the utility of recruitment
initiatives) from building flexibility provisions into career pathways and
policies; and communicating this commitment to job seekers via recruitment
information.
Highhouse, Zickar, Thorsteinson, Stierwalt and Slaughter (1999) studied
high school student and retiree reactions to examine the influence of
company employment image (CEI) perceptions on intentions to pursue a
job for possible employment in the fast food industry. The researchers
sourced data from populations of high school students and retirees as it
was perceived that these populations were more frequently targeted by fast
food organisations in the U.S.; and thus subjects would be in a position to
adequately identify with organisations in the study. Additionally, the
researchers considered that the two populations combined were estimated
to comprise approximately seventy-five percent of employees working in the
industry (Highhouse et al. 1999: 154). In recognition of the fact that
previous image research had not specifically aimed to identify CEI
dimensions in a specific industry (to in turn allow for the examination of
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specific dimensions that explain most variance between organisations), the
authors first focussed attention on identifying CEI dimensions to inform the
investigation.
To structure the identification process, undergraduate university students
were presented with pairs of actual fast food establishments. This
procedure focussed the subjects on considering the differences between
the two organisations (Highhouse et al. 1999: 154). Within this framework,
subjects were instructed to indicate which of the two presented fast food
establishments they would prefer to work in and why. From these
responses, Highhouse and Zickar independently identified dimensions that
appeared to reasonably and parsimoniously explain student responses. The
remaining co-authors then coded the student rationales for their choices
into one of fourteen dimensions. These dimensions were: advertising,
atmosphere, chain size, customers, location, pay, product image, related
experience, hearsay, respectability, task demands, co-workers, work hours,
and work variety (Highhouse et al. 1999: 155). In addition, the researchers
included the dimension ‘advancement’ due to this dimension emerging as a
common theme in fast food recruitment. A questionnaire was then
developed using the fifteen identified dimensions.
336 high school students and 102 retirees completed the questionnaire.
Each subject was randomly assigned to one of eight well known fast food
organisations. To make the image of the allocated organisation salient for
the subjects, the organisation’s logo was placed on the first page of the
questionnaire. After providing responses to the fifteen dimensions, subjects
were instructed to indicate their agreement with five items designed to
measure intentions to pursue a job with the organisation.
Highhouse et al.’s (1999: 169) research determined that all 15 dimensions
were positively correlated with CEI perceptions across both subject groups,
with all but three (work hours, location, and chain size) being statistically
important in the retiree sample. In terms of mean differences between the
high school student and retiree groups’ perceptions of dimensions, two
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dimensions (related experience and task demands) were found to be
significantly different. It should be noted, however, that although mean
differences existed between the groups on their perception of dimensions
there were few differences in the way these dimensions related to CEI
perceptions of organisations (Highhouse et al. 1999: 169).
Some limitations should also be acknowledged. Concern is raised that the
fifteen identified dimensions may not have been entirely relevant to the
sample populations due to the initial data being derived from a sample not
representative of the populations from which the research data was
ultimately drawn. As such, as the dimensions were derived from a
population of university students (with minimum work experience) it could
be assumed that their assessments of organisations were more aligned
with those of the high school students than the retiree sample who
collectively had significant prior work experience. On this basis, it is
asserted that some of the image dimensions applied in the study may not
have been as acutely relevant to both groups. Further, some dimensions of
importance to the retiree sample may have been excluded all together.
Additionally, as subjects identified factors relevant to only a select few
organisations within the fast food industry (mostly those who were market
leaders in their respective specialisations) it is difficult to generalise
research results to the entire sector as lower image organisations were not
fully considered within the scope of the investigation. Within this framework,
it would have been interesting to consider differences in image perceptions
for each of the eight fast food organisations across sample groups had
qualitative data been collected. Had this data been collected, the
researchers may have developed a greater understanding of the underlying
components of each organisation’s image that may have influenced subject
responses.
In considering Highhouse et al.’s research outcomes in the context of Jamal
and Goode’s (2001: 482) assertion that consumers consume products on
the basis of the symbolic meaning of the products as portrayed in their
branding images, Highhouse et al.’s (1999) investigation provides support
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for this assertion as applied in a recruitment context. That is, the outcomes
provide evidence that ‘brand’ leaders in a respective industry (based on the
identification with an organisation’s logo alone) has the capacity to influence
job seeker perceptions across a broad spectrum of image dimensions (to
the organisation’s advantage) in attracting an individual to consider the
organisation for possible employment. Thus, the image of an organisation
can play a strategically advantageous role by offering a ‘leveraging’
platform for organisations to successfully compete for qualified talent
(Weigelt and Camerer 1988: 448).
Albinger and Freeman (2000) studied job seeker reactions to examine the
influence of corporate social performance (CSP) perceptions on intentions
to pursue a job for possible employment. The researchers proposed that
the relationship between an organisation’s CSP and its image as an
employer would be moderated by the level of job-choice possessed by a job
seeking population.
A total of three groups (totalling 200 subjects) were formed to collect
research data. Each group represented a different category of job seeker:
high choice job seeker, medium choice job seeker, and low choice job
seeker (Albinger and Freeman 2000: 247). The high choice sample was
constituted from a group of employed university graduates undertaking
postgraduate studies. The medium choice group was represented by
undergraduate students and unemployed graduate students from the same
university. The low choice sample was constituted from a group of low-
income earning individuals.
In Albinger and Freeman’s (2000) study, CSP data was generated for 25
large organisations that conducted business in the local area. The
researchers selected these organisations as it was perceived that the
organisations would offer job opportunities relevant to each of the three
categories of job seeker being investigated in the study. In addition, it was
assumed that, being local organisations, a large proportion of subjects
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would be aware of the organisations and be able to form an opinion of the
perceived image of the organisations (Albinger and Freeman 2000: 248).
A reputation index for all 25 organisations was then developed. The index
was developed based on ratings applied by business faculty members at a
local university on four dimensions of CSP. The four dimensions were:
community outreach, diversity, workplace and employee issues, and the
natural environment. Ratings from the faculty members were averaged to
calculate a rating for each of the four dimensions for all 25 organisations.
Additionally, an overall CSP rating for each organisation was generated.
Due to the internal consistency of the ‘natural environment’ dimension being
unacceptably low, that dimension was dropped from subsequent analysis.
Subsequently, overall organisational CSP was recomputed omitting the
scores of the omitted dimension.
Following a similar procedure as applied to the pre-test group, subjects in
each of the three groups representing different categories of job seeker
completed a survey instructing them to rate the perceived attractiveness of
the same 25 organisations. For each group of job seeker, the organisation’s
ratings were averaged to calculate an overall attractiveness rating for each
organisation per group.
Albinger and Freeman’s (2000: 248) research results indicated that job
seeking populations with low choice perceive the attractiveness of various
employing organisations differently than do groups of job seekers with
greater job choice – the low choice group wanted any job with any employer
regardless of an organisation’s CSP rating. Whether these effects stemmed
from a lack of information or a low value placed on CSP is an area for future
investigation. Further, the results indicated little difference between
organisational image perceptions possessed by medium choice and high
choice job seekers. Of note, however, was the significant relationship
between job-choice group and the ‘workplace and employee issues’
dimension suggesting that all categories of job seeker respond more
favourably to an organisation’s corporate performance in areas that will
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affect them directly (Albinger and Freeman 2000: 250). This finding is
consistent with Turban and Greening’s (1996) research that found that
organisations demonstrating higher levels of CSP have an increased ability
to attract job seekers to consider the organisation for possible employment.
Albinger and Freeman’s (2000) investigation has some methodological
weaknesses. Concern is raised that the four prescribed dimensions of CSP
may not have been entirely relevant to the sample populations. As such, all
dimensions relevant to the groups may not have been identified and
therefore could not be considered for investigation. Additionally, concern is
raised that the reputation index of all 25 organisations was developed
based on perceptions of a demographically different population than the
test group. Thus, it calls into question the objectivity of the CSP ratings.
Further, the utilisation of largely non-active job seekers in the high choice
and medium choice samples raises the concern of a potential lack of
seriousness in rating the organisations presented in the study.
Aiman-Smith, Bauer and Cable (2001) studied university student reactions
to examine the relative importance of four factors (pay, promotional
opportunity, lay-off policy, and ecological rating) on perceptions of
organisational image and associated job pursuit intentions. In an attempt to
clarify and differentiate the constructs of organisational image and job
pursuit in recruitment research, the researchers viewed organisational
image and job pursuit as distinct concepts. Within this framework, Aiman-
Smith et al. (2001: 221) postulated that each concept would be predicted by
different variables. On this basis, the researchers categorised ‘pay’ and
‘promotional opportunity’ as job factors; while ‘lay-off policy’ and ‘ecological
rating’ were considered organisational image constructs for the purpose of
the study. With regards to job factors, Aiman-Smith et al. (2001: 222)
adopted the variables of pay and promotional opportunity based on
previous recruitment research consistently finding these variables to be
important to job seekers when considering positions for possible
employment. The two organisational image constructs were selected by the
researchers based on the perception of growing public interest in lay-off
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policies and the ecological stance of organisations as significant points of
consideration made by individuals when considering whether to engage in a
positive relationship with an organisation by way of seeking out available
job opportunities.
Aiman-Smith et al. (2001: 225) gathered data from 78 university students
adopting a policy capturing approach. At random, subjects were presented
with a package containing experimental materials that the researchers had
prepared. The packages contained instructions, scenarios, questionnaires,
and answer sheets. The content of the scenarios had been manipulated by
the researchers with regards to four features: pay, promotional opportunity,
lay-off policy, and ecological rating. Accordingly, each variable had been
allocated a high, medium, and low level rating.
Approximately half of the subjects received a package that contained a
questionnaire designed to investigate how attracted the student was to the
organisation described in the scenarios. The other subjects received a
questionnaire designed to examine students’ job pursuit intentions with the
organisation described in the respective scenario. When reading the
scenarios, subjects were instructed by the researchers to imagine that all
organisations were exactly the same except as described in the specific
scenario. That is, the organisations were consistent in type of business,
geography, industry, and type of job (Aiman-Smith et al. 2001: 228).
Aiman-Smith et al.’s (2001: 229) research results indicated that ecological
rating most strongly predicted perceptions of organisational image, followed
by lay-off policy, pay, and finally, promotional opportunity. In contrast, when
analysing job pursuit intention results, pay was the strongest predictor of
pursuit behaviour, followed by lay-off policy, promotional opportunity, and
lastly, ecological rating. As such, one implication from Aiman-Smith et al.’s
(2001) research suggests that job seeker perceptions of organisational
image and associated job pursuit behaviour was not as closely related to
one another as some previous recruitment research had treated them. More
broadly, the research extended previous research results by indicating that,
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from a recruitment perspective, organisations perceived as possessing
positive corporate citizenship practices (having pro-environmental policies)
have the potential to achieve competitive advantage over organisations that
are not viewed so positively. Such positively perceived organisation’s might
then focus on pay and other job characteristics to evoke job seekers to
actively pursue a position for possible employment. Alternatively, an
organisation suffering from a poor perception of its image might have to
offer job seekers higher market salaries to attract candidates to consider
available positions (Aiman-Smith et al. 2001: 233).
Although Aiman-Smith et al.’s (2001) research presented some interesting
results in terms of the relationship between organisational image and job
pursuit intentions some methodological concerns are raised. Concern is
raised that the policy capturing approach was applied to manipulated
scenarios and not real-life situations. As such, all dimensions relevant to a
job seeker making active assessments of an organisation’s image or
specific job characteristics when considering positions for possible
employment may not have been identified; and, therefore, could not be
considered for investigation. Additionally, as subjects provided responses
based on assessments of fictitious organisations it is difficult to generalise
research results to a specific industry or business sector. It is therefore
recommended that the study be replicated in specific industrial
environments utilising established businesses as the test scenarios to
increase generalisability of results. Although it is acknowledged that
subjects considered a number of scenarios, research results should be
applied with caution when considering the relatively small sample size.
Limitations of the aforementioned literature notwithstanding, it does appear
that an individual attracted to an organisation is more likely to actively
pursue that organisation as a possible employer. Within this framework, it is
acknowledged that individual job seekers will be interested in pursuing
different types of organisations for possible employment based on personal
assessments of an organisation’s perceived attributes. As such, if a
minimum level of attraction does not develop there will be no motivation
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exerted on behalf of the individual to process subsequent information about
the organisation. In considering this conceptualisation in the context the
variables prescribed in Figure 1, the following hypotheses are presented in
reference to the attraction-application relationship:
Hypothesis 2a: High levels of attraction will positively influence
applicant intentions to apply to the organisation.
Hypothesis 2b: High levels of attraction will positively influence
applicant intentions to apply for a job.
Based on the previous two hypotheses and the conceptual framework
applicable to the current study, the present investigator has an expectation
that mediation will occur. Specifically, that positive image perceptions will
lead to a job seeker’s intention to apply to the organisation. Within this
relationship it is expected that this effect will be mediated by levels of
attraction as outlined in the following hypotheses:
Hypothesis 3a: Positive image perceptions lead to intentions to apply
to the organisation with the effect mediated by levels of attraction.
Hypothesis 3b: Positive image perceptions lead to intentions to apply
for a job with the effects mediated by levels of attraction.
Although the present investigator is not aware of the existence of any
empirical evidence to specifically support such hypotheses, in considering
the overarching relationships that have been presented in the literature
within this Chapter it is reasonable to assume that such relationships would
exist. As such, the relationships will be tested in this study.
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Summary
Despite the variance in terminologies applied by recruitment scholars in the
reviewed studies, there appears to be a consistency of understanding
among researchers in terms of the underlying concepts and relationships
inherent in the image-attraction-application relationship. As such, there
appears to be a universal recognition that individuals do not enter into a
relationship with a prospective employer as a ‘clean slate’, but rather, that
individuals have preferences for certain organisational and/or job attributes
and that an individuals’ perceptions as to the availability of these desirable
attributes within an organisation influence pursuit decisions (Cable and
Turban 2001: 118). When considering this evidence in light of Ferris et al.’s
(1998: 248) assertion that organisations will become pre-eminently involved
with the business of impression management as competition for qualified
labour intensifies in response to shifts in the composition of labour markets,
enhanced understanding of the factors related to applicant’s impressions of
an organisation at the pre-interview stage of the recruitment process, and
how these perceptions influence applicant pursuit decisions is of prime
relevance for organisations. As discussed earlier, the present investigation
will aim to broaden the knowledge base and understanding of factors
related to prospective applicant’s impressions of an organisation’s image as
an employer, and how these perceptions of image influence applicant
decisions at the initial pre-interview stage of the recruitment process by
sourcing data from a population of active job seekers. The strategy for
which is outlined in the next Chapter. In so doing, the investigation aims to
redress criticisms that organisational image research is plagued by a heavy
reliance on students as the source of research data – as evidenced in the
reviews of recruitment literature in this section of the paper.
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CHAPTER THREE
METHODOLOGY
Introduction Chapter Three outlines the design and methods of data collection as they
relate to the current investigation. Firstly, a discussion on the instrument
testing will be undertaken. This will be followed by a discussion of the
adopted data collection method; followed by detailed information on the
measures used to collect the data. A concluding statement will then be
presented.
Method
Participants
A total of 351 job seekers submitting applications for advertised job
vacancies in a large, Queensland-based higher education institution
participated in this study. Of the participants, 65.5% were female, and the
average age was 38 years old. The participants had an average of 16
years work experience.
Procedure
Due to logistical difficulties associated with conducting an instrument test
utilising a population of active job seekers, the instrument test participants
were representatives from the higher education institution’s human
resources department. The instrument test was conducted utilising these
representatives as it was perceived by the present investigator that these
individuals would be able to effectively identify with the target population
and therefore be able to objectively consider the test instrument and
provide constructive feedback accordingly. Although it was recognised that
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the instrument test population was demographically different from the actual
test population it was considered imperative that an instrument test be
conducted to enhance the effectiveness of the instrument in terms of face
validity and content validity (Cavana, Delahaye and Sekaran 2001: 238). As
an outcome of the instrument testing, a few minor adjustments were made
to the wording of some questionnaire items. The adjustments were made in
light of the base items in this study originating from investigations applied in
a predominantly U.S. context; and thus some of the terminology applied did
not directly translate to commonly applied Australian business terminology.
In these cases, terms were converted to a relevant equivalent. Ethical
clearance was granted by the higher education institution prior to
distributing the test instrument to the target population. Specific items that
were modified for the purposes of the current investigation will be identified
later in this section.
In attempting to respond to criticisms (Dineen, Ash and Noe 2002; Ziegert
and Ehrhart 2004) that recruitment research has generally failed to
incorporate a widespread technique used by over 90% of large
organisations as well as numerous applicants – web based recruitment –
the present investigation utilised the higher education institution’s well
established web presence as a predominant mechanism to distribute the
test instrument to the target population.
Job seekers applying for advertised job vacancies at the educational
institution were afforded the opportunity to submit an application via one of
four available methods. The four available methods were: email, postal mail,
facsimile, or hand delivery to the institution’s human resources department.
These job application submission options were the institution’s established
corporate standards, and were not modified in any way for the purposes of
the study. Given that the most utilised job application submission method of
the four options was the email option, for convenience, an on-line
questionnaire was developed on the basis that it was assumed that this
method presented the avenue that would yield most responses. The
questionnaire was administered via an automated email response
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mechanism to the job seeker that was automatically activated when a job
application was submitted to the institution via the specified corporate email
‘address’. This automated response message acknowledged receipt of the
submitted application and invited job seekers to complete the on-line survey
by ‘clicking’ on the specified website URL that housed the on-line
questionnaire. Participants were provided with a standard logon password
to enter the on-line survey website. The standard logon code acted as a
mechanism to maintain job seeker confidentiality. To supplement the on-
line questionnaire responses, job seekers who had submitted a job
application either by facsimile, postal mail, or hand delivery were also
invited to complete and return a hard copy version of the same
questionnaire. Confidentiality of responses was assured through the
provision of a prepaid and preaddressed envelope that was included in the
mailed package. At no time did on-line or hard copy questionnaire
responses influence the job seeker’s application for employment. This fact
was communicated and reinforced to job seekers.
Of the 351 survey responses obtained, 268 were received via the on-line
questionnaire; with 83 received in hard-copy format. See Appendix 1 and
Appendix 2 to view examples of the on-line and hard-copy questionnaire
respectively.
Measures
Data collected involved three sets of measures. The three sets of
measures included items developed to capture job seeker perceptions of
the higher education institution’s organisational image; attraction inherent in
the perceptions of the institution’s image that resulted in job seeker interest
in the organisation as a place for possible employment; and intentions to
pursue a job with the organisation. Where possible, the investigation
assessed constructs using established scales from existing studies that
were found to be previously reliable when measuring conceptually similar
constructs to those being investigated in the present study.
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Image
Perceptions of organisational image were measured on applicant
responses to a total of 22 items. Within this framework, eight items
assessed perceptions of the job itself, five items assessed perceptions of
compensation/job security at the organisation, while nine items assessed
perceptions of work/company. All items were adapted from measures
applied in Harris and Fink’s (1987) study.
Job Itself. Similar to Harris and Fink’s (1987) investigation, eight items were
applied to assess applicant perceptions of the job itself. In Harris and Fink’s
investigation one of the survey items requested respondents to indicate the
degree to which it was perceived that the job would provide them with
“challenging/interesting work”. It was the opinion of the present investigator
that ‘challenging’ and ‘interesting’ work are two fundamentally different
concepts; and thus perceived that it was justified to test the two concepts
individually in the present investigation. As a result, one item per concept
was developed. Additionally, the remaining items adopted from Harris and
Fink’s (1987) test instrument were expanded to provide additional
clarification based on feedback from the instrument testing exercise
indicating that the wording of items applied by Harris and Fink were
potentially ambiguous due to the lack of context surrounding the item
statements. For all items, respondents indicated perceptions on a five-point
scale ranging from 1 “very unlikely” to 5 “very likely” consistent with Harris
and Fink’s (1987) test instrument. Respondents were also provided with an
“unsure” option. The coefficient alpha reliability from Harris and Fink’s
(1987) study was .82. See Appendix 3 for a full list of items and their
adaptations from Harris and Fink’s initial instrument.
Compensation/Job Security. Applicant perceptions about the salary and
benefits linked to the job applied for was measured according to participant
responses to a total of five items adapted from Harris and Fink’s (1987)
investigation. Again, based upon feedback from the instrument testing
exercise, the wording of all five items was expanded to allow for items to be
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contextualised to the Australian environment in line with commonly applied
business terminology. For example, in Harris and Fink’s investigation one of
the survey items requested respondents to indicate the degree to which it
was perceived that the job would provide them with “good fringe benefits”. It
was the opinion of the present investigator that the term ‘fringe benefits’
was not commonly applied in the Australian business context and therefore
had the potential for job seekers to misinterpret the question. As a result,
the item wording was modified to “provide you with competitive non-salary
benefits”. For all items, respondents indicated perceptions on a five-point
scale ranging from 1 “very unlikely” to 5 “very likely” consistent with Harris
and Fink’s (1987) test instrument. Respondents were also provided with an
“unsure” option. The coefficient alpha reliability from Harris and Fink’s
(1987) study was .75. See Appendix 4 for a full list of items and their
adaptations from Harris and Fink’s initial instrument.
Work/Company. Nine items were applied to assess applicant perceptions of
the work/company. In Harris and Fink’s (1987) investigation, eight items
were applied; with one item requesting respondents to indicate the degree
to which it was perceived that an organisation would provide them with
“competent and sociable co-workers”. It was the opinion of the present
investigator that “competent” and “sociable” co-workers are two
fundamentally different concepts; and thus perceived that it was justified to
test the two concepts individually in the present investigation. As a result,
one item per concept was developed. Again, based upon feedback from the
instrument testing exercise, the wording of all nine items was expanded to
allow for items to be contextualised to the Australian environment in line
with commonly applied business terminology. For all items, respondents
indicated perceptions on a five-point scale ranging from 1 “very unlikely” to
5 “very likely” consistent with Harris and Fink’s (1987) test instrument.
Respondents were also provided with an “unsure” option. The coefficient
alpha reliability from Harris and Fink’s (1987) study was .78. See Appendix
5 for a full list of items and their adaptations from Harris and Fink’s initial
instrument.
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Attraction
Attraction was measured on applicant responses to a total of eight items.
As articulated earlier, ‘attraction’ as it applies to this investigation is
conceptualised as both an applicants overall interest in the organisation as
an employer, and subsequent interest in jobs advertised by that employer.
Within this framework, four items assessed interest in the organisation;
while four items assessed interest in the job. Items relating to interest in the
organisation were adapted from measures applied in Aiman-Smith et al.’s
(2001) study; while items relating to interest in the job were adapted from
measures applied in Thomas and Wise’s (1999) investigation.
Interest in the Organisation. The degree of applicant interest in the
organisation was measured according to participant responses to a total of
four items adapted from Aiman-Smith et al.’s (2001) investigation. Unlike
the practice applied to previous questionnaire items, whereby item wording
was expanded to provide contextual clarification, Aiman-Smith et al.’s item
wording was largely maintained with the only adaptations being the
interchange from the word “company” to the word “organisation” to more
accurately reflect terminology applied in the Australian context. For all items,
respondents indicated perceptions on a seven-point scale ranging from 1
“strongly disagree” to 7 “strongly agree” as per the item structure applied in
Aiman-Smith et al.’s (2001) study. This being said, it should be noted that
Aiman-Smith et al.’s investigation utilised five items to measure attraction to
an organisation. The present investigator removed one of the items from
testing (“I would want a company like this in my community”) on the basis
that it was not perceived to hold the same acute relevance in the Australian
business context as it did when applied in the original U.S. context. As such,
in the U.S. entire communities are developed around one core organisation
as its foundation. This situation is not characteristic of the business
landscape applicable to the region in which the higher education institution
is located in the study. The coefficient alpha reliability for organisational
attractiveness in Aiman-Smith et al.’s (2001) investigation was .98. See
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Appendix 6 for a full list of items and their adaptations from Aiman-Smith et
al.’s initial instrument.
Interest in the Job. The degree of applicant interest in the job was
measured according to participant responses to a total of four items
adapted from Thomas and Wise’s (1999) investigation. In Thomas and
Wise’s (1999) investigation three items were applied with one item
requesting respondents to indicate interest in the job according to the
perceived opportunity for “challenging and interesting work”. As applied
previously, it was the opinion of the current investigator that “challenging”
and “interesting” work are two fundamentally different concepts, and thus
perceived that it was justified to test the two concepts individually in the
present investigation. For all items respondents indicated perceptions on a
seven-point scale ranging from 1 “extremely unimportant” to 7 “extremely
important” consistent with Thomas and Wise’s (1999) test instrument. The
coefficient alpha reliability for Thomas and Wise’s (1999) instrument
was .78. See Appendix 7 for a full list of items and their adaptations from
Thomas and Wise’s initial instrument.
Application
Application intentions were measured in response to a total of eight items.
Within this framework, five items assessed intentions to pursue a job with
the organisation; while three items assessed intentions to pursue the job
applied for. All items were adapted from Highhouse et al.’s (2003) study.
Intention to Pursue a Job with the Organisation. The degree to which an
applicant intended to actively pursue the organisation for possible
employment was measured according to participant responses to a total of
five items adapted from Highhouse et al.’s (2003) investigation. In this
instance Highhouse et al.’s item wording was largely maintained with the
only adaptations being the interchange from the word “company” to the
specific name of the organisation relevant to this study. These modifications
were deemed necessary to more accurately frame item wording relevant to
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the present investigation. To illustrate, one of the items applied in
Highhouse et al.’s (2003) study was worded “I would make this company
one of my first choices as an employer”. To make this item more salient to
the job seeking population completing the survey, the present investigator
modified the item wording to “I would make Company X one of my first
choices as an employer”. It should be noted that the actual survey
contained the specific name of the test organisation in place of reference to
Company X. Company X as applied here is utilised for the purpose of
maintaining confidentiality as the present investigator is not in a position to
name the test organisation in the body of this thesis. For all items,
respondents indicated perceptions on a five-point scale ranging from 1
“strongly disagree” to 5 “strongly agree” as per the item structure applied in
Highhouse et al.’s (2003) study. The coefficient alpha reliability for intention
to pursue the organisation in Highhouse et al.’s (2003) investigation was .82.
See Appendix 8 for a full list of items and their adaptations from Highhouse
et al.’s initial instrument.
Intention to Pursue the Job Applied For. The degree to which an applicant
intended to actively pursue the job applied for was measured according to
participant responses to a total of three items. In this instance it must be
noted that a thorough search of the recruitment literature did not reveal
established scale items that the present investigator perceived to be
relevant in the context of the present study. On this basis, the present
investigator developed all item measures designed to explore job seeker
intentions to pursue the job applied for. This being said, the present
investigator was conscious that the underlying substance of Highhouse et
al.’s (2003) scale items that had been previously utilised to measure
intentions to pursue a job with the organisation could be applied to this
section of the survey. As such, three of Highhouse et al.’s original five items
were adapted. These modifications were deemed necessary to more
accurately frame item wording relevant to the target population of active job
seekers completing this survey. For all items, respondents indicated
perceptions on a five-point scale ranging from 1 “strongly disagree” to 5
“strongly agree” as per the item structure applied in Highhouse et al.’s
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(2003) investigation. See Appendix 9 for a full list of items and their
adaptations from Highhouse et al.’s initial instrument.
Summary
In summary, the data collection method and the specific measures have
been identified as well as the rationale for these choices. In terms of the
target population, job seekers applying for formally advertised jobs at a
large Queensland-based higher education institution constituted this group.
A report of findings and the actual data analysis follow in the next chapter.
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CHAPTER FOUR
RESULTS
Introduction
The previous chapter outlined the development and application of the test
instrument (the questionnaire). The primary objective of the questionnaire
was to facilitate the capture of data to test the hypotheses posed in Chapter
Two.
The objective of this chapter is to explore the strength of relationships
between the variables of interest in this study and present the results of the
data analyses. The Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS) Version
13 was employed as the mechanism to perform the data analyses.
The first section provides descriptive statistics. A brief overview of the data
cleaning approach, together with an outline of checks for normal distribution
compliance comprise this section. Further, a discussion pertaining to scale
reliability will be undertaken in this section of the chapter. The next section
presents the results of the hypothesis tests. The statistical tests performed
for each hypothesis are described followed by an examination of the data.
Preliminary Analyses
Data Cleaning
Prior to analysing the research data it was checked for accuracy and
missing values. Missing values were coded as either a number “9” or “99”.
For scales with less than nine ranking scales, the code “9” was input to
indicate a missing value, while the “99” code was input against scales with
more than nine rankings to indicate a missing value to ensure that data
accuracy was not compromised. As a direct result of the identification of
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missing values, two items were removed as both had approximately 97
missing responses. The missing responses to these two items were
attributed to a technical failure in the on-line survey. The two removed items
were: item 4 “do you believe the organisation will provide you with a
prestigious job title” from the “pay image” scale, and item 1 “how likely is it
that the organisation will provide you with access to competent co-workers”
from the “work image” scale. Analysis was conducted utilising the remaining
compliant data.
Secondly, the data was examined for normal distribution compliance. Upon
examining the histograms it was revealed that skew statistics were present
for a number of item measures thus indicating violations of normality.
Examination of the skewed statistics revealed that job interest, job image,
pay image, and work image were negatively skewed. On this basis, a
number of data checks were performed as recommended by Tabachnick
and Fidell (1989: 67). Data was checked to ensure that it had been entered
correctly and that missing values had been correctly coded. Upon satisfying
the integrity of the base data, performing a transformation of the data was
then considered as an option to remedy the normality violations. Upon
further investigation, it was decided not to pursue this course of action as it
was determined that applying this methodology would not result in a
significant improvement in the data due to the nature of the skewness. Thus,
the original data was retained for use in subsequent analyses.
Table 1 contains means, standard deviations, and the correlations among
the variables of interest in this study.
Table 1: Means, standard deviations and correlations M SD 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 1. job interest 5.90 1.23 1 2. organisation interest 4.19 0.76 .036 1 3. intention to apply for job
4.60 0.73 .053 .670** 1
4. intention to apply to organisation
4.46 0.73 .039 .452** .763** 1
5. job image 4.36 0.80 .076 .331** .286** .342** 1 6. pay image 4.05 0.98 .126* .460** .346** .282** .461** 1 7. work image 4.25 0.81 -.031 .512** .394** .311** .513** .578** 1
78
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Scale Reliability
Cronbach’s alpha statistics were examined for each scale to examine the
internal reliability of items. Cronbach’s alpha reliability coefficients are
presented in Table 2. As an outcome of this analysis it was discovered that
all scales have strong internal reliabilities, approximating or exceeding an
alpha of .78.
Table 2: Internal Reliabilities of the Included Scales
Demographic Characteristics
Effects of demographic gender characteristics of study subjects was also
examined to determine whether this demographic data exerted significant
influence on subject responses to the survey items. Based on the
assessment of the aforementioned characteristics no significant effects
were identified. See Appendix 10 to view results.
Results of Hypothesis Testing Hypothesis One
Hypothesis One tested the relationship between positive job seeker
impressions of the organisation and the job on attraction to that
organisation, with the following two hypotheses:
Scale No. of items Cronbach’s alpha
Job image 8 .87
Pay image 4 .78
Work image 8 .88
Job Interest 4 .82
Organisation interest 4 .84
Intention to apply to organisation 5 .84
Intention to apply for job 3 .87
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Hypothesis 1a. Positive perceptions of an organisation’s image will be
positively related to attraction to the organisation.
Hypothesis 1b. Positive perceptions of an organisation’s image will be
positively related to attraction to the job.
Two regressions were conducted, one each for the prediction of attraction
to the organisation and the job (the two measures of attraction). To test the
abovementioned hypotheses, the three variables which make up
organisational image (as presented in Figure 2, Chapter 2) were
investigated to determine if there was any association in explaining a job
seeker’s overall attraction to the organisation. These three variables were
termed “job image”, “pay image”, and “work image” for the purpose of the
analysis.
Predictors of Attraction
Regression 1: Attraction to the Organisation
The first analysis was performed to determine what variables predict
attraction to the organisation. Table 3 reports the results of the first
regression analysis testing. The overall model was significant accounting
for 29% of the adjusted variance [AdjR2 = .29] in predicting attraction to the
organisation.
Table 3: Standard Multiple Regression of Attraction to the Organisation
Variables B Std. error
β
Job image .06 .06 .05
Pay image .20 05 .24***
Work image .37 .06 .34***
Model: F (3, 341) = 48.38, p < .001
* p < .05 ** p < .01 *** p < .001
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As shown in Table 3, two predictors were significant at the p < .01 level,
which were: pay image (p < .001); and work image (p < .001).
Firstly, in regards to pay image, the results suggest that a job seeker’s
perception of an organisation’s communicated rate of pay for an advertised
position is a significant predictor of initial attraction to an organisation as an
employer. Secondly, a job seeker’s overall perception of an organisation’s
image was also revealed to be a significant predictor of attraction. Of
interest to the present investigator was the finding that a job seeker’s
perception of job image was not revealed to be a strong predicator of initial
attraction to the organisation as a potential employer. However, having said
this, it should be noted that all three variables were significantly correlated
with the dependent variable (DV). Further, it is noteworthy that the three
independent variables were correlated suggesting that job image does have
a positive relationship with organisational attraction, however in the
presence of the other variables it is not considered by job seeker’s to be a
significant point of reference in assessing an organisation as a prospective
employer.
Regression 2: Attraction to the Job
The first analysis was performed to determine what variables predict
attraction to the job. Table 4 reports the results of the second regression
analysis. Whilst the overall model was significant, examination of the
adjusted variance [AdjR2 = .03] reveals that only 3% of the variance was
accounted for in the model. Ultimately the variables were revealed to not be
efficient in predicting attraction to the job.
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Table 4: Standard Multiple Regression of Attraction to the Job
Variables B Std. error
β
Job image .13 .11 .08
Pay image .24 .08 .20*
Work image -.30 .11 -.19
Model: F (3, 341) = 4.30, p < .05
* p < .05 ** p < .01 *** p < .001
As shown in Table 4 above, only one predictor (pay image) was significant
(albeit weak) at the p < .05 level.
In considering the output of the two performed regressions, there is support
for Hypothesis One (a) that positive perceptions of the organisation will lead
to attraction to the organisation. However, support for Hypothesis One (b)
was not found.
In summary of discussions pertaining to Hypothesis One, there exists
support, at the organisational level at least, that a job seeker possessing a
positive perception of an organisation’s image will be attracted to the
organisation as a potential employer. At the job level, however, results
suggest that although image perceptions do influence attraction to a job, the
variables tested in this study do not sufficiently illustrate and account for
those considerations of upmost importance to individuals when registering
attraction to a job.
Hypothesis Two
Hypothesis Two predicted that when a job seeker has high levels of
attraction to an organisation, the positive perceptions would translate to
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intentions to actively pursue the organisation as a potential employer, with
the following hypotheses:
Hypothesis 2a: High levels of attraction will positively influence
applicant intentions to apply to the organisation.
Hypothesis 2b: High levels of attraction will positively influence
applicant intentions to apply for a job.
Two regressions were conducted, one each for the prediction of intention to
apply to the organisation and intention to apply for the job. Unlike the
previous hypothesis, tables will not be presented due to only one variable
being tested in each respective regression.
In the first regression, the overall model was significant accounting for 44%
of the adjusted variance [AdjR2 = .44; F (1, 350) = 284.10, p = .001]. Thus,
this output suggests significant support for a job seeker’s attraction to the
organisation being translated to an active intention to apply for a job with
the organisation.
In the second regression, the overall model was again found to be
significant however at a reduced variance [AdjR2 = .20; F (1, 350) = 89.80, p
= .001]. Thus, this output suggests that although a job seeker’s attraction to
the organisation is a factor of relevance in intending to apply to an
organisation, there are additional factors that can be considered as being a
stronger predictor of intentions to pursue employment.
In considering the output of the two performed regressions, there is support
for Hypothesis Two (a) that high levels of attraction will positively influence
applicant intentions to pursue an organisation for possible employment.
However, support for Hypothesis Two (b) was not found.
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Hypothesis Three
Hypothesis Three predicted that positive image perceptions will lead to a
job seeker’s intention to apply to the organisation, with the effects being
mediated by levels of attraction as outlined in the following hypotheses:
Hypothesis 3a: Positive image perceptions lead to intentions to apply
to the organisation with the effect mediated by levels of attraction.
Hypothesis 3b: Positive image perceptions lead to intentions to apply
for a job with the effects mediated by levels of attraction.
Based on the outcomes of Hypothesis One and Hypothesis Two, four tests
to explore the mediating effects of attraction were applied following the logic
presented by Baron and Kenny (1986: 1176). As discussed by Baron and
Kenny (1986: 1176) the following three conditions must be met: (1) the
independent variable must influence the mediator; (2) the independent
variable must influence the dependent variable; and (3) the mediator must
affect the dependent variable while controlling for the independent variable,
whereas the independent variable does not influence the dependent
variable when the mediator is controlled. Support for these three conditions
would indicate full mediation.
Mediated Regression Results
Test A – Interest in Organisation
Two mediated regressions were conducted to test Hypothesis 3a. These
mediations are represented diagrammatically below:
Test A: Regression One
Organisational Image
Interest in the organisation
Intention to pursue the organisation
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Test A: Regression Two In Test A, job image, pay image, and work image were entered as the
independent variables (IV’s), with organisation interest being input as the
mediator in the first test; and job interest being input as the mediator in the
second test. Intention to apply to the organisation was then entered as the
DV to test the relationship between variables in both tests for mediation.
The output correlations indicated that two independent variables (job image
and work image) were significant (β = .238 and β = .126) at the p < .01 level
and p < .05 respectively in predicting intentions to apply to the organisation.
When the mediator variable (organisation interest) was entered into the
relationship, the results indicated that the mediator was a significant
predictor of intention to apply to the organisation (β = .383), however job
image remained as a significant predictor at the p < .01 level (albeit at a
reduced level of significance β = .219). It should be noted at this point that
work image became insignificant after the mediator was entered into the
relationship. Thus, although a direct effect was evident in the first test a fully
mediated relationship was not supported.
Consistent with the output correlations in the first test, the two independent
variables of job image and work image were significant in the second test
for mediation (β = .238 and β = .129) at the p < .01 level and p < .05 level
respectively. However, when the mediator variable (job interest) was
entered into the relationship, job image and work image remained
significant maintaining levels of significance of β = .237 and β = .129
respectively. Although there was support for a direct effect (albeit weak) of
the mediator on the independent variables, again, support for a fully
mediated relationship was not found.
Organisational Image
Interest in the job
Intention to pursue the organisation
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Test B – Interest in Job
Two mediated regressions were conducted to test Hypothesis 3b. These
mediations are represented diagrammatically below:
Test B: Regression One
Test B: Regression Two In Test B, job image, pay image, and work image were entered as the
independent variables (IV’s), with organisation interest being input as the
mediator in the first test; and job interest being input as the mediator in the
second test. Intention to apply for a job with the organisation was then
entered as the DV to test the relationship between variables in both tests for
mediation. The output results indicated that two independent variables (pay
image and work image) were both significant at the p < .01 level (β = .159
and β = .261) in predicting intention to apply for a job in the first test. When
the mediator variable (organisation interest) was entered into the
relationship, the correlations indicated none of the independent variables
remained significant in predicting intention to apply for a job. Further, the
mediator was significant at the p < .01 level in predicting intention to apply
for a job. Thus, in this instance support for a fully mediated relationship was
supported.
Organisational Image
Interest in the organisation
Intention to pursue the job
Organisational Image
Interest in the job
Intention to pursue the job
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In the second test, consistent with the output correlations in the first test the
two independent variables of pay image and work image were respectively
significant (β = .159 and β = .261). When the mediator variable (job interest)
was entered into the relationship, pay image and work image remained
significant (β = .150 and β = .270) at the p < .01 level. Although there
existed support for a direct effect, a fully mediated relationship was not
found in this case.
In considering the output of the two performed mediated regressions, there
is support for Hypothesis Three (b) that positive image perceptions lead to
intentions to apply for a job with the effects mediated by levels of attraction.
However, full support for Hypothesis Three (b) was not found. Thus, it
appears that is that job seeker perceptions of organisational image mediate
the relationship between applicant attraction and intentions to pursue a job
with the organisation. This finding and its implications for recruitment
research will be discussed in more detail in the following Chapter.
The next chapter provides a discussion on the findings in light of theory,
implications for further research and practice, and the limitations of the
present study.
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CHAPTER FIVE
DISCUSSION
Introduction
This Chapter provides a discussion and conclusion to the investigation. In
the first section, the study results are discussed in light of the proposed
hypotheses. Following the discussion of each of the hypotheses,
implications for theory will then be highlighted, followed by directions for
future recruitment research and implications for practice. Issues relating to
study limitations are then considered, followed by a conclusion to the
investigation.
Hypotheses and Related Findings
In this investigation it was theorised that a job seeker having a positive
perception of an organisation’s image will view that organisation as a
desirable entity and want to engage in some relationship with it. Inherent in
this framework was the assumption that job seekers consider available
organisation information and organise this information in a meaningful
manner to form perceptions of the organisation that in turn inform their
actions to pursue an organisation for possible employment. Three core
hypotheses were developed around the relationships applicable to this
investigation.
Hypothesis One
Hypothesis One expected to reveal that positive job seeker perceptions of
the organisation’s image would result in attraction as evidenced by job
seeker interest in both the organisation and the job. Results provided
support for the hypothesis that positive perceptions of the organisation will
lead to attraction to the organisation, but not the job. Therefore, Hypothesis
One (a) was accepted (but not Hypothesis One (b)). This study’s finding
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that positive perceptions of an organisation’s image results in attraction to
that organisation as a prospective employer is consistent with the outcomes
of previous recruitment research (for example, Belt and Paolillo 1982;
Turban and Greening 1996; Cable and Graham 2000; Highhouse et al.
2003; Lievens and Highhouse 2003; and Cable and Turban 2003) that
identified that positive perceptions of an organisation’s image results in
attraction to that organisation. In one of the first empirical studies to
investigate the influence of organisational image perceptions on job seeker
attraction, Belt and Paolillo (1982) found that organisations perceived as
possessing favourable attributes were more likely to attract an individual to
consider that organisation for potential employment; as opposed to an
organisation perceived to possess low image attributes. Turban and
Greening (1996) also assessed job seeker perceptions of organisational
image and subsequent attractiveness as an employer. However, Turban
and Greening went further to postulate that an organisation adopting
socially responsible characteristics may yield a competitive advantage for
the organisation. Results supported this assumption whereby study
subjects rated organisations as more attractive, the higher the level of
perceived social responsibility. Thus, the aforementioned investigations
lend fundamental support for this study’s findings that positive assessments
of an organisation’s image will lead to attraction to the organisation as a
potential employer.
Results of the present investigation suggest that job seekers appear to
have a higher propensity to value macro considerations such as job security
and overarching contextual factors such as the perceived organisational
culture when displaying interest in an organisation as an employer. Further,
at this macro level of assessment, it appears that job seekers do not
automatically consider specific job attributes or potential role responsibilities
as significant factors of consideration when formulating image assessments
of organisations – contrary to a common perception within much of the
recruitment literature. Consistent with the results of Cable and Graham’s
(2000) study, results of the present investigation suggest that similar to the
concept of brand image in the marketing literature, a strong brand has the
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potential to initiate ‘purchase’ decisions in individuals whereby they actively
endeavour to associate themselves with that identity. When considering this
finding in the context of Rynes and Cable’s (2001: 73) statement that the
ability of organisations to attract qualified applicants will be the number one
force in business strategy by the end of the decade, it could be said that the
degree to which an organisation develops a capacity to project a strong
brand image will determine its ability to effectively compete for talent on a
global scale.
The research of Low and Lamb (2000) and Myers (2003) has found
additional support for the assertion that brand image influences purchase
intentions on the basis of the perceived ‘identity’ of the brand. Although the
studies of Low and Lamb (2000) and Myers (2003) were conducted from a
marketing perspective, the findings have implications for the recruitment
domain nonetheless. Low and Lamb (2000: 353) proposed that corporate
brand image perceptions would lead logically to the formulation of an
attitude and quality judgement towards the brand. Based on this ‘branding’
collective, the authors postulated that individuals develop high brand-
association memory structures for familiar brands than for less familiar ones
on the basis that individuals will actively seek out and process information
on brands that are perceived to possess qualities consistent with the
preferred ‘identity’ (Low and Lamb 2000: 354). To test the hypothesis,
advertisements were utilised to elicit brand associations over a range of
product categories. The results confirmed that well-known brands have a
higher propensity to influence the pursuit behaviour of individuals consistent
with the assertion that consumers have more developed memory structures
for familiar brands, and are more readily able to identify with the ‘persona’
of a brand. Further, the researchers found that individuals expend more
energy in processing information regarding familiar brands compared to
unfamiliar brands; and that overarching corporate brand images rather than
individual product item images had a greater influence on pursuit intent
(Low and Lamb 2000: 361).
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Myers’ (2003) research supported the findings of Low and Lamb (2000).
Further, Myers (2003: 48) found that the intangible attributes of products
may contribute significantly to the formulation of brand images than tangible
attributes alone. As such, although the study did not explicitly capture the
qualities of the intangible attributes, it was found that (based on an
assessment of physical attributes such a product price) subjects
subsequently assigned an intrinsic value to a brand beyond the physical
attributes presented (Myers 2003: 48). It was also found that an
organisation possessing a high market share within a specific product
category was not automatically perceived by subjects as having a superior
image. Indeed, Mottram (in Hart and Murphy 1998) stated that
organisation’s ‘increasingly compete on the basis of intangible factors and
the reputation of the corporation itself is often the most valuable and most
misunderstood intangible of all’ (p. 63). From a contemporary business
perspective, Mottram (1998: 64) stated that the benefits of corporate
branding have been most clearly illustrated in Japan and the Far East. For
example, Sony and LG have established strong global businesses quickly
and efficiently by focusing clearly on the visions and values of the
corporation. Specifically, Mottram (1998: 64) cited that the corporate brand
is used consistently by the aforementioned organisations to add ‘higher’
brand values to all products.
In applying these marketing principles to the recruitment domain, the
research of Low and Lamb (2000) and Myers (2003) strengthen this
investigation’s finding that perceptions of an organisation’s corporate image
can act as a stronger predictor of pursuit intent than job-specific information.
Specifically, in recognising the value of an organisation’s corporate image
as a public expression of the organisation’s core values and attributes, the
brand itself acts as a mechanism to which job seekers will formulate image
perceptions based on a consideration of their personal mindsets and
broader social considerations such as the environmental stances of the
entity.
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At the job level, an important implication revealed by this investigation was
that neither job image, pay image, nor work image were found to be
efficient predictors of applicant attraction to a job with the organisation. To
this end, it was discovered that although pay image was significant in
predicting attraction to the job, the relationship was weak. It was also
revealed that a negative relationship existed between work image and
overall attraction to the job, thus suggesting that there exists a number of
un-tested attributes that are more efficient in predicting initial applicant
attraction to the job. Based on this finding, it is plausible to assert that just
as organisations are experiencing significant shifts in the demographic
composition of labour markets; job seeker values and expectations of
employing organisations have evolved accordingly. Thus, it can be
suggested that the ‘traditional’ variables (as utilised in this study) applied to
capture image assessments of job seekers need to ‘move with the times’ to
more accurately identify those elements of importance to job seekers in the
contemporary business environment. Therefore, just as Lievens and
Highhouse (2003) broke with convention, it is suggested that mainstream
recruitment research needs to embrace a revised philosophy as to potential
‘new’ factors of importance to applicants.
In summary of discussions pertaining to Hypothesis One, there exists
support, at the organisational level at least, that a job seeker possessing a
positive perception of an organisation’s image will be attracted to the
organisation as a potential employer. At the job level, however, results
suggest that although image perceptions do influence attraction to a job, the
variables tested in this study do not sufficiently illustrate and account for
those considerations of upmost importance to individuals when registering
attraction to a job. Further, it could be asserted that job seekers may have
been sufficiently stimulated by the impact of the organisation’s corporate
image that the specificity of the job itself was not considered critical in
determining the likelihood of applying to the organisation. This being the
case, the finding offers support for a growing body of evidence that
suggests that positive image perceptions can yield competitive advantage
in the marketplace (Park and Srinivasan 1994: 271).
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Hypothesis Two
Hypothesis Two expected to reveal that when a job seeker had high levels
of attraction to an organisation the positive perceptions would translate to
intentions to actively pursue the organisation as a potential employer. As
presented in the previous Chapter, results provided support for the
hypothesis that high levels of attraction positively influence applicant
intentions to pursue an organisation for possible employment, but not the
job. Therefore, Hypothesis Two (a) was accepted (but not Hypothesis Two
(b)). This study’s finding that job seeker attraction leads to a conscious
decision on behalf of an individual to actively pursue an organisation as a
potential place of employment is consistent with the outcomes of previous
recruitment research (for example, Bauer and Aiman-Smith 1996;
Honeycutt and Rosen 1997; Highhouse et al. 1999; Albinger and Freeman
2000 and Aiman-Smith et al. 2001).
Research (for example Dutton, Dukerich and Harquail 1994) has suggested
that an individual’s employer is an important element in the development of
one’s self-concept and social identity. As such, Dutton et al. (1994) stated
that an individual’s assessment of an organisation’s attractiveness as a
potential employer is expected to be particularly strong during the pursuit
stages of the recruitment process on the basis that in the minds of some job
seekers joining a particular organisation is a public expression of an
individual job seeker’s values and abilities (Cable and Turban 2003: 2249.
In relating this information to the research results in the present
investigation it could, therefore, be asserted that individuals submitting
applications for advertised job vacancies at the higher education institution
were potentially seeking to improve or maintain their self-esteem by
associating themselves with an organisation perceived to possess a
positive image both within the framework of their personal mindset and the
broader social circles in which they belong or aspire to become affiliated
with (Dutton et al. 1994: 242). On this basis, it could be plausibly asserted
that when organisations employ strategies geared towards increasing
applicant exposure to the organisation’s brand in an attempt to evoke
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positive brand perceptions to influence the likelihood of active pursuit
intentions, organisations are better to focus attention on communicating
information pertaining to their commitment to their workforce (as evidenced
by level of salary offered relative to the wider marketplace and tenure
philosophy, for example), as well as the organisation’s corporate culture
and related values (Cober, Brown and Levy 2004: 203).
Research (Meglino, Ravlin and Adkins 1989; Judge and Bretz 1992; and
Judge and Cable 1997) has indicated the importance of culture on job
seeker attraction to organisations. Of these authors, the research findings
of Judge and Bretz 1992 have greatest relevance to the present
investigation. Judge and Bretz (1992: 269) found that when an organisation
developed a ‘core values’ image (and communicated this information to job
seekers via recruitment information), the collective ‘values image’ exerted
more influence in informing organisational attractiveness than did pay and
promotional opportunities. This finding suggests that in the contemporary
business environment, organisations with strong corporate cultures (based
on solid core values) may benefit from developing specific ‘branding’
identities that are aligned with the corporate value philosophy. This being
said it is recognised that the extent to which a job seeker identified with the
communicated value framework would influence the degree of attraction to
the organisation as a potential employer (Judge and Bretz 1992: 269).
Additionally, Cable, Aiman-Smith, Mulvey and Edwards (2000: 1076)
asserted that the cultural messages organisations convey to applicants
during the recruitment process may serve to pre-socialise applicants prior to
actively pursuing a prospective employer. Further, Cable et al. (2000)
stated that ‘when newcomers enter a firm with accurate culture beliefs, their
behaviour is guided in ways that transcend the objectives of a particular job’
(p. 1076). That is, the researchers advocated that the accurate
communication of an organisation’s cultural framework to applicants at the
pre-interview stage of the recruitment process was potentially
advantageous from the dual perspective of both increasing applicant
attraction to the organisation (based on the alignment of an organisation’s
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value set with that of the individual’s), and enhancing the likelihood of
organisational fit based on the commonality of that value set post-
appointment thus increasing the utility of the recruitment process (Cable et
al. 2000: 1077). Further, when considering ‘culture’ within the context of
organisational attractiveness, it is recognised that in a business context
individual departments within organisations, although operating within the
preferred cultural framework, develop operationally distinct sub-cultures
relevant to the core business of that unit (Legge 1995: 180). In taking into
consideration that jobs advertised by the higher education institution contain
information regarding the job and the broader organisational unit in which
the job is located, it would be plausible to assume that cultural
considerations could have been pertinent to a job seeker’s thought
processes when assessing a job for possible employment.
Consistent with this investigation’s findings that overarching contextual
factors have a higher propensity (than job attributes) to inform perceptions
of organisational attractiveness, a number of ‘new’ concepts not traditionally
applied in recruitment research present themselves as potential alternative
avenues for investigation. As such, drawing on the dimensions of brand
personality as espoused by Aaker (1997: 347), the present investigator
considers ‘excitement’ and ‘competence’ as possessing potential in forging
alternative pathways for capturing applicant attraction to the organisation.
In recognition of the value of creating branding identities that attract
applicants in the contemporary business environment, Cable et al. (2000:
1077) stated that numerous market leaders in the U.S. (for example,
Hewlett-Packard, Xerox, and Motorola) are actively attempting to modify
their ‘traditional’ public images from being perceived as bureaucratic and
conservative to being recognised as experimental, innovative, and results-
driven as a strategy to increase applicant attention in the organisations as
‘exciting’ employers. Further, recent scholarly and practitioner literature (for
example De Cieri, Holmes, Abbott and Pettitt 2005; Nord, Fox, Phoenix and
Viano 2002; Lambert 2000) have drawn attention to the business issues of
work/life balance to engage the energy and motivation of individuals to
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consider organisations as interesting places to work. The higher education
institution of relevance to this study is committed to work/life balance and
staff wellness concepts. Thus, in considering the broader social implications
of this factor, it is plausible to assume that this could have been a key issue
of relevance in attracting individuals to the higher education institution as a
potential employer.
Researchers (De Cieri et al. 2005; Nord et al. 2002; Lambert 2000) have
asserted that in the contemporary business environment, organisations
aiming to achieve competitive advantages in the recruitment domain must
adopt strategies and policies to accommodate the work/life balance needs
of a diverse range of job seeking individuals. Within this framework, De
Cieri et al. and Nord et al. stated that the emergent challenge for
organisations is to develop structures capable of limiting barriers to the
achievement of flexible employment options for individuals. However,
Taylor and Collins (in Cooper and Locke 2000: 328) urged organisations to
‘avoid the faddish implementation of practices that offer no clear advantage
for the business’ on the basis that simply adopting another organisation’s
initiatives is unlikely to offer strategic value in the longer term if operational
practices are not appropriately aligned with the overarching core values of
the organisation. Indeed, Taylor and Collins (2002: 328) suggested that
inconsistencies could represent significant costs for organisations in terms
of unnecessarily high recruitment expenses and the premature loss of
‘talent’ to competitor organisations adopting fully integrated strategies.
With regards to ‘competence’, the present investigator views this factor as
being a logical consideration in the thought processes of applicants. As
such, it is plausible to assume that individuals would not seek to align
themselves with an organisation (and a job) that was not perceived to be
operationally competent (in the eyes of the job seeker) relative to industry
standards and those minimum levels of achievement for which an applicant
would deem necessary to evoke consideration as a potential option for
employment.
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At the job level, the result that job seekers do not consider job attributes as
a critical consideration when first displaying attraction to the organisation,
could be attributed to the fact that applicants had an average of 16 years
work experience. As such, it is possible that a significant number of
applicants applying for advertised vacancies at the higher education
institution already held comparable positions at other organisations. This
being the case it would be logical to assume that job seekers would already
possess knowledge pertaining to the likely duties and responsibilities of the
position for which they were potentially applying. Further, it would also be
logical to assume that in such a scenario, job seekers displaying positive
pursuit behaviours would have a natural predisposition to value features
that distinguished the higher education institution from their current
employer. In addition, when considering the recent changes to the industrial
relations fabric of the Australian business landscape, it could be asserted
that job seekers view the tertiary education sector as a stable employment
option by virtue of its regulated workforce agreements (Lansbury 2004: 103).
Thus, it could be plausible to assume that if applicants applying for
positions at the higher education institution were currently employed in the
private sector, that is largely less regulated, individuals would have a higher
propensity to be interested in (and thus attracted to) these macro level
organisational attributes.
In summary of discussions pertaining to Hypothesis Two, there is again
support to draw attention to the overarching influence of organisational
attractiveness perceptions and its influence on pursuit intentions. Indeed, as
has been discussed, it appears that individuals will select themselves into
organisational environments that are perceived to fulfil their personal values
and needs. On this basis, the higher the attraction, the more likely a job
seeker will engage in positive pursuit behaviour. Implications for theory
based on these findings will now be discussed.
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Hypothesis Three
Hypothesis Three expected to reveal a mediated relationship between
variables of interest in the current study. Results pertaining to Hypothesis
Three found support for the existence of a mediated relationship.
Consistent with the findings of Hypothesis One and Hypothesis Two,
stronger support for a mediated relationship was found for the relationship
between the influence of organisational attributes as opposed to job
attributes in explaining the significance of mediation; however this influence
was found to be stronger when examining interest in the job. As such, as
advocated by Turban (2001: 306) it appears that a job seeker’s ‘mere
exposure’ to an organisation’s corporate branding identity has the potential
to influence an applicant’s perceptions of the organisation as an employer.
This finding has significant strategic implications for organisations from the
perspective of confirming that an organisation’s branding identity does have
the ability to act as a source of sustainable competitive advantage in the
contemporary business environment. With many industries currently
experiencing a crumbling of the traditional, static labour market assumption
in the wake of shifts in the demographic composition of labour markets and
rapid changes in technology, recruitment as the primary mechanism used
by organisations to attract quality applicants arises at the forefront of
strategic organisational planning (Martin and Franz 1994: 33). When
applying this outcome to the marketing assumption that a brand preference
is achieved only after an extensive exercise of information consolidation,
there is strong support for the value of organisation’s establishing and
maintaining preferred ‘branding’ positions as a strategy for positioning
themselves as an ‘employer of choice’ within their preferred labour market.
Implications for theory will now be discussed.
Implications for Theory
Findings from the present investigation revealed that when a job seeker
rates an organisation’s image highly, the collective positive perceptions
translate to active intentions to pursue an organisation as a prospective
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employer. Thus, similar to the principles of brand image in the marketing
literature, a strong brand has the potential to initiate ‘purchase’ decisions.
However, it is not clearly identifiable from the present investigation’s
findings which specific components of an organisation’s image convincingly
account for the formulation of positive image perceptions – for the current
investigation’s results suggest that factors outside those tested have a
greater potential influence of image formulations - as previously discussed.
Within this framework, the present investigation has found support for Ferris
et al.’s (1998: 248) assertion that an organisation’s image can create
‘reputational capital’ capable of generating competitive advantage by virtue
of the fact that it has been found that an individual job seeker will select
themselves into an organisational environment that is perceived to
positively fulfil their personal needs. When applying this outcome to the
marketing assumption that a brand preference is achieved only after an
extensive exercise of information consolidation, there is strong support for
the value of organisation’s establishing and maintaining preferred ‘branding’
positions within the contemporary business environment as a strategy for
positioning themselves as an ‘employer of choice’ within their preferred
labour market. When applied in a specific business context, the proposition
of branding has the potential to create strategic value for organisations
conducting business in niche markets, for example. As such, given the
nature of their business, niche market organisations typically require the
acquisition of talent within highly specialised areas of technical expertise
(Collins and Stevens 2002: 1121). In the event that a niche market
organisation can effectively establish and convey a strong branding position
of interest to the preferred job seeking population; based on the results of
the present investigation, the organisation would be in an advantageous
position in terms of increasing the likelihood of entering a job seekers
‘radar’ as a possible employer. As an outcome, there would exist significant
potential (for the organisation) to increase the utility of the organisation’s
recruitment initiatives.
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The results of the present investigation have a further strategic implication.
As such, the findings suggest that, similar to Lievens and Highhouse’s
(2003) research outcomes, distinct dimensions of image motivate job
seekers when assessing organisational and job attributes of a potential
employer. For example, in discovering that job seekers have a higher
propensity to value macro considerations such as the perceived
organisational culture over and above specific role responsibilities when
formulating initial image assessments of an organisation, it is suggested
that employers focus attention on developing strategies and marketing
initiatives geared towards increasing ‘branding’ exposure from the
perspective of communicating information pertaining to an organisation’s
corporate philosophy and related operational values; rather than exclusively
promoting the virtues of the job itself. On this basis, if an organisation does
not enter into a job seekers preferred ‘set’ of organisations of choice, an
organisation will find it challenging, if not impossible, to attract the job
seeker to consider the organisation as a potential employer.
Further, the present investigation has illustrated that in applying the
fundamentals of brand image to the recruitment domain, the principles offer
a complimentary platform to Fishbein and Ajzen’s (1975) theory of
reasoned action (TRA). Specifically, the concept of brand image can
facilitate an understanding of how measures such as organisational
familiarity influence the cognitive processes of job seekers prior to engaging
in active pursuit behaviour. In so doing, the credibility of Fishbein and
Ajzen’s (1975) TRA (in unison with the principles of brand image) has been
confirmed as an appropriate theoretical framework for exploring the
influence of organisational image perceptions of job seekers at the pre-
interview stage of the recruitment process. Thus, historical criticisms that
recruitment research lacks a clearly articulated theoretical foundation have
been addressed. Further, the applicability of incorporating two disparate
literatures – recruitment and marketing – has been confirmed as a relevant
combination in such a recruitment context. This finding is valuable to the
recruitment domain from the perspective of offering a viable platform to
enhance the generation of knowledge relating to applicant impressions of
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organisations as employers; and subsequent pursuit decisions at the pre-
interview stage of the recruitment process.
In applying Fishbein and Ajzen’s (1975) TRA as a platform for the further
exploration of behavioural intentions in the pre-interview stages of the
recruitment process, it should be acknowledged that the model possesses a
potentially significant limitation when applied in this context. As such, as
originally developed and typically used, Fishbein and Ajzen’s (1975) model
focuses primarily on the determinants and performance of a single
behaviour. Fishbein and Ajzen (in Sheppard, Hartwick and Warshaw 1988:
326) have acknowledged that not considering the possibility that individuals
choose among alternative behaviours represents a serious omission in the
model. As such, job seekers, like consumers in the marketing context, are
constantly presented with choice among organisations as potential
employers. It is therefore important for recruitment researchers to
acknowledge the limitation of the theory of reasoned action in its extension
to studies in which job seekers are presented with choice among alternative
behaviours (Sheppard et al. 1988: 326). Regardless, the TRA still
possesses contextual relevance to future recruitment studies designed to
capture the behavioural intentions of job seekers based on assessments of
a single organisation’s image as a potential employer. However, when
considering the studies of Belt and Paolillo (1982) and Highhouse et al.
(1999) whereby subjects in both investigations simultaneously assessed
multiple organisational images in the fast food industry, the validity of
Fishbein and Ajzen’s (1975) model applied in its original form would be
questionable based on its inability to be utilised outside a single choice
scenario. Directions for future research will now be discussed.
Directions for Future Research
Recruitment’s potential significance for both individuals and organisations
make it a relevant topic for continued research. Drawing on the research of
Heneman and Berkley (1999) that identified that small organisations
dominate the business landscape within the U.S., a future research
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direction to draw out from a brand image perspective is whether there exists
marked distinctions in a small businesses’ ability to effectively compete
against ‘big business’ in a recruitment context. As such, there is evidence to
suggest (for example Bauer and Aiman-Smith 1996 and Aiman-Smith et al.
2001) that on face-value, organisations promoting socially responsible
virtues by way of pro-environmental policies can achieve a competitive
advantage over competitors in the same industry that do not actively
embrace environmentally conscious behaviours. In transferring this
‘branding’ framework to a small business versus big business scenario, the
present investigator is not aware of a single study that has investigated the
potential for a small business to effectively compete against a large
organisation on the basis of ‘branding’ identity in a recruitment context. In
considering Ferris et al.’s (1998: 248) assertion that organisations will
become pre-eminently involved with the business of impression
management as competition for qualified labour intensifies in response to a
crumbling of the static labour market assumption; this future research
direction is of pertinent importance.
Kramar (2002: 66) asserted that a number of drivers exist that will influence
the shape of Australian organisations conducting business by the year 2010.
Specifically, that the ‘typical’ organisation would be predominantly smaller in
size to allow it to more effectively respond to changes in the business
landscape. Although Kramar (2002) wrote from an Australian viewpoint,
other writers (Hunt in Wiesner and Miller (2003) and Beer (1997), for
example) have identified with Kramar’s drivers as being applicable on a
global scale. In addition, as niche markets continue to evolve for specialised
talent and expertise across industries, it is to an organisation’s advantage to
understand the ‘science’ of brand image with its consumer behaviour
underpinnings to increase the utility of recruitment initiatives. On this basis,
the ‘branding’ position and capabilities of organisations comes to the fore in
being able to effectively compete for qualified talent in the contemporary
business environment; thus strengthening the argument for further brand
image research in the recruitment context.
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While much recruitment research has focused on measuring organisational
attraction as a generic concept collectively encompassing assessments of a
number of potentially distinct dimensions; research outcomes highlighted in
the present investigation suggest that from a measurement perspective,
future research should focus on the identification and development of new
scales that more appropriately measure distinct components of attraction.
As such, organisational image as a construct has received increased
attention in the organisational sciences in recent years as a necessary
ingredient in building and maintaining effective workforces; thus highlighting
the need for research to remain at the cutting edge to effectively
complement practice (Berkson, Harris and Ferris 1999: 83). Drawing on
research results highlighted in the present investigation, it appears a
plausible assertion to make that advancements in the measurement of
attraction (in response to image perceptions) are required to adequately
achieve this end. Indeed, it is recommended that future recruitment
research draws on the foundations laid by Highhouse et al. (2003) to more
accurately explore organisational attraction as a construct. As previously
discussed, Highhouse et al. broke with convention in testing three distinct
components of attraction. As a result of this action the researchers
determined the viability and value of pursuing this framework to achieve a
greater depth of understanding of how organisational choice behaviour is
influenced based on applicant perceptions of image. In particular, prestige
perceptions appear to possess significant potential as a construct for future
research in terms of its apparent strength in influencing pursuit behaviour
based on Highhouse et al.’s (2003) findings.
A further viable option for future research concentration is the continued
engagement of active job seekers from which to source recruitment data.
As highlighted previously, recruitment research has been plagued by a
heavy reliance on college and university students as a source of research
data. In light of this fact, it is suggested that in order to increase the
credibility and generalisability of research results to the wider business
community, recruitment researchers should make a conscious decision to
utilise job seekers with professional work experience from which to
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generate research data. Although it is acknowledged that college and
university students offer researchers a convenient and geographically
compact population from which to source data, given both the importance of
organisational image to organisations as potential sources of competitive
advantage, and advances in technology that offer alternative avenues for
data collection (such as the internet), it is recommended that future
research be directed towards developing further knowledge based on non-
student perceptions of organisational image.
Continuing on the path of increased research credibility and generalisability
of results to organisations, it is recommended that future recruitment
research utilise established businesses as the focus for data collection. As
such, some image studies (Honeycutt and Rosen (1997), for example) have
measured attraction based on image perceptions of hypothetical jobs and
organisations. Alternatively, where non-fictitious organisations have been
utilised, some detail with regards to the portrayed image to study subjects
has been manipulated by researchers. It is suggested that more value can
be provided if future recruitment research (particularly focusing on the pre-
interview stages of the process) utilise established businesses whose
images have not been modified to achieve more credible research
outcomes. Some practical implications are now addressed.
Implications for Practice
This investigation offers a number of viable implications for recruitment
practice. Firstly, as stated previously, marketing scholars have long
recognised the strategic importance of the concept of brand image to evoke
a set of associations or impressions in the ‘hearts and minds’ of individuals
to influence purchase decisions. In providing a linkage between these
conceptualisations to organisational image research in the recruitment
context, organisations have a very powerful resource available to them in
the form of their corporate websites that can facilitate the achievement of
strong brand identities. Within this framework, Dineen et al. (2002: 723)
stated that an organisations corporate website, when utilised as a dedicated
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recruitment mechanism, can reduce costs by up to 95% over those
traditionally utilised recruitment sources (such as printed newspaper media).
Further, Cober, Brown, Blumental, Doverspike and Levy (2000: 479) argued
that the ability of an organisations corporate website to enhance the
communication of organisational information to broad audiences is not
restricted to the realm of technologically sophisticated organisations. Indeed
there are several key advantages that can be emphasised in utilising an
organisations corporate website as a cost-effective recruitment and
branding tool. For example, in what the present investigator refers to as
‘wholesale’ job boards (such as SEEK and MyCareer), organisational and
job relevant information is presented to applicants in a generic format that
does not facilitate the ability for organisations to adequately promote the
unique qualities of the organisation; thus inhibiting the differentiation of
organisations from their respective competitors. In this environment, the
business of ‘impression management’ that is crucial to the formulation of
brand identities is severely restricted.
Alternatively, a corporate website that is under the ‘control’ of the
organisation, and provides adequate opportunities for strategic decision
makers to provide content on the three broad components of organisation
image of importance to job seekers - organisational information, job specific
information, and people information - is better positioned to market
themselves in a manner likely to generate applicant attention (Cable and
Turban 2001: 125). As stated by Dineen et al. (2002: 729), the use of
corporate websites as a holistic, cost-effective tool for attracting applicants
still remains a relatively novel concept with organisations generally adopting
this resource in a disjointed and ad hoc manner. However, the internet as a
platform offers organisations a sustainable framework for enhancing image
perceptions by actively engaging job seekers to consider positions for
possible employment.
A further practical implication to draw out is that, at the organisational level,
the human resource (HR) department should be poised to bring the
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principles from product branding to the recruitment realm to build an
organisations external brand (Sartain 2005: 90). Building on this
perspective, Sartain (2005: 90) went further to advocate the role of HR as
“speaking the language of business” by externalising an organisations
branding identity to achieve a deeper emotional connection with prospective
employees. Thus, rather than HR being a passive contributor to the
achievement of organisational objectives, a ‘boundary spanning’ role is
proposed whereby HR professionals are actively engaged as organisational
information processors that functionally relate the organisation to both its
internal and external business environment to inform the appropriate
projection of the organisations public image (Russ, Galang and Ferris 1998:
126). In this vein, Russ et al. (1998: 127) proposed that the image
enhancing activities of HR should be embraced as a strategic
organisational tactic to increase the utility of the recruitment process by
achieving a suitable return on investment on the recruitment dollar spent;
and to ensure that those practices and activities carried out by an
organisation with the primary purpose of identifying and attracting the ‘best
and brightest’ talent are appropriately informed to capitalise on recruitment
opportunities. With specific reference to the intensification of competition for
qualified talent in the global marketplace, HR professionals within
organisations must learn to become informed risk takers confident in their
ability to experiment with new ideas and act to create sustainable business
impact within the preferred brand identity of the respective organisation. In
staying alert to shifts in the broader political and social contexts in which
business is conducted, HR professionals will be in a sustained position to
offer strategic recommendations regarding the tailoring of brand images as
required.
Lastly, in terms of the recruitment process itself, a practical implication
stemming from this investigation is the need for organisations to focus
increased attention on achieving recruitment efficiencies. As discussed
earlier in this paper, there is universal recognition that individuals do not
enter into a relationship with a prospective employer as a ‘clean slate’.
Rather, individuals have preferences for certain attributes, and an
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individual’s perceptions as to the availability of these desirable attributes
within an organisation influence pursuit intentions. Thus, recruitment does
not occur in a vacuum. Rather, it occurs in a real-world context in which a
host of factors can influence both the types of recruitment activities
organisations engage in and applicant responses to those activities (Barber
1998: 3). Within this framework, it has already been discussed that
organisations should actively embrace the internet as a platform to actively
engage and attract job seekers to consider positions for possible
employment.
However, in achieving further recruitment efficiencies in organisations it is
suggested that a fundamental shift in the psyche of organisations is
required to realise this strategic potential. As such, organisations have
traditionally focused attention on processes related to the selection of new
recruits – a fact largely attributable to the previously abundant supply of
qualified labour across industries (Franz and Martin 1994: 34). With this
developed recruitment practices that have entered the ‘comfort zone’ of
many organisations due to their standardised application over time. With
the tightening of labour markets organisations need to challenge traditional
recruitment assumptions and practices accordingly. As such, a common
practice to date has involved the standard application of recruitment
methodologies (for example the placement of newspaper advertisements)
to draw attention to jobs regardless of the type of industry or the knowledge,
skills, and abilities required by applicants to perform successfully in these
advertised roles.
As niche markets continue to evolve for specialised talent and expertise
across industries, it is proposed that organisations need to ‘get smarter’ in
terms of the means by which different talent pools are attracted to consider
organisations for possible employment. For example, rather than
organisations attempting to persuade job seekers to become applicants
through ‘safe’ options such as placement office postings, it is proposed that
organisations may need to conduct extensive market research that delves
into the preferred lifestyles of the desired applicant population to determine
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if there exists a higher propensity for individuals to be attracted to a certain
leisurely pursuit. As such, it may become a viable option for some
organisations within specific industries to actively engage in socially
responsible and community minded events (such as through the sponsoring
of an event or activity) to increase the likelihood of potential applicants
becoming exposed to the organisation and its preferred branding position;
thus, achieving ‘an edge’ over competitors (Collins and Han 2004: 689).
Within this framework, it is acknowledged that ultimately the opportunity
cost for the engagement of such strategies is a prime consideration in
achieving recruitment efficiencies. Regardless, it is suggested that
recruitment practices within organisations ‘move with the times’ and are not
applied purely on the basis of tradition.
Limitations Some limitations associated with the present investigation should be
acknowledged. A criticism is that characteristics of the instrument testing
group were not consistent with the population from which the research data
was drawn. As such, due to logistical difficulties associated with conducting
an instrument test utilising a population of active job seekers, the instrument
test participants were representatives from the higher education institution’s
human resource department. Although it was perceived by the present
investigator that the instrument test participants could offer objective
insights and feedback on the test instrument, it became evident at the data
analysis stage of the investigation that distinct subtleties in the framing of
survey items, particularly the introductory paragraphs, could have resulted
in some items not being as specifically targeted to the respective content as
had been hoped. For example, with reference to items framed to explore
applicant “intention to pursue a job with the organisation” and “intention to
pursue the job applied for” subtle, but in hindsight distinct, variations in the
introductions to these respective scale items existed that could have
compromised the quality of data collected. As such, the introductory
sentence related to “intention to pursue a job with the organisation” was
worded unambiguously as “the following questions explore your motivations
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for pursuing a job with this organisation”. However, when introducing items
related to “intention to pursue the job applied for”, the sentence was worded
“the following questions will explore your motivations for pursuing the job
that you most recently applied for”.
Although it is acknowledged that respondents were invited to complete the
survey only after having submitted an actual application for an advertised
position with the higher education institution, the leading sentence is
considered, in hindsight, to be ambiguous enough to have potentially
compromised the objectivity of applicant responses. Further, as the wording
of the corresponding scale items were not framed with specific reference to
the test organisation, it is perceived by the present investigator that there
could have arisen the situation whereby a job seeker responded to these
items with reference to a job they had potentially applied for outside the
higher education institution. Thus, the research data could have been
compromised.
Secondly, as job seekers responded to survey items that had been
prescribed by the present investigator, other elements potentially relevant to
the study were not captured for consideration. As such, previous
recruitment research conducted by Cable and Graham (2000) and Lievens
and Highhouse (2003), by design, facilitated the identification and
categorisation of a myriad of elements considered by job seekers as
important when considering organisations as potential places of
employment. The two studies revealed critical areas of importance (from
the applicant’s perspective) that had not previously been considered by
recruitment researchers as mainstream considerations when assessing
image perceptions of job seekers. As such, being relatively new findings the
present investigator was not aware of any subsequent studies that
incorporated Cable and Graham’s (2000) and Lievens and Highhouse’s
(2003) results into newly developed survey items that more inclusively
tested applicant image perceptions. Although it was realised by the present
investigator that there existed potential to develop lines of questioning
around the broader elements discovered by Cable and Graham (2000) and
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Lievens and Highhouse (2003), the conservative path was chosen that
adopted ‘tried and tested’ scales that had acceptable levels of reliability.
Nonetheless, results from the present investigation have revealed that it
would be a plausible assertion to make that elements outside those tested
in this study could be influential to job seekers when considering both
organisations and jobs for possible employment – as discussed earlier in
the Chapter.
The fact that applicants provided survey responses based on the
assessment of only one organisation is also considered a limitation. This
situation contrasts with applicant’s actual perceived practice of considering
multiple opportunities over a prescribed period of time. Although this study
was designed to only test job seeker perceptions related to one employer,
relating back to the marketing literature, it is asserted that individuals refer
to a group of possible brands that are perceived to meet their most basic,
fundamental ‘buying’ criteria; and it is from this ‘set’ of brands that decisions
regarding organisational pursuit intentions are drawn. Logically, it would
then follow that although a job seeker may be actively pursuing one
employer from their ‘set’ of preferences, the applicant would be
subconsciously assessing one organisation against the others in that group.
Thus, it is possible that when applicants were providing responses to the
survey ‘exclusive’ answers were not being provided. As such, it is a
possibility that job seekers were subconsciously responding based on the
assessment of the study organisation relative to other organisations
contained in their personalised ‘consideration set’. On this basis, research
data could have been compromised.
The technical failure of the on-line survey is considered a further limitation.
Directly attributed to the technical error in the on-line survey, data collected
in response to two items had to be discounted from subsequent analysis
due to missing responses. As a result, the ability to holistically examine the
research data was compromised.
Finally, a disadvantage of this study is that results could not be assumed to
generalise to applicant populations outside the higher education sector.
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Thus, research results should be applied with caution and not assumed to
be relevant across all industrial environments. It is therefore recommended
that the study be replicated in specific industrial environments utilising
established businesses as the test sites to increase generalisability of
results.
Conclusion
In summary, the objective of this investigation was to contribute to the
recruitment literature by broadening the knowledge base and understanding
of factors related to prospective applicant impressions of an organisation’s
image as an employer, and how these perceptions of image influence
applicant decisions at the pre-interview stage of the recruitment process. A
rationale for this research focus was justified on the basis that the
immediate objective of recruitment – applicant attraction – remains under-
researched resulting in practitioners being forced to rely on personal
experience, myth and intuition. With many industries currently experiencing
a crumbling of the traditional, static labour market assumption in the wake
of shifts in the demographic composition of labour markets and rapid
changes in technology, recruitment as the primary mechanism used by
organisations to attract quality applicants arises at the forefront of strategic
organisational planning. Within this framework, the historical abundance of
individuals across labour markets has previously focussed research
attention on three core components of the recruitment process (recruitment
sources, recruiter characteristics, and realistic job previews). Thus, there is
limited empirical evidence to guide organisations at the critical pre-interview
stage of the recruitment process in response to shifts in labour market
conditions. To address this weakness in the recruitment research the
present investigation integrated two disparate areas of literature –
recruitment and marketing – within the theoretical context of Fishbein and
Ajzen’s (1975) theory of reasoned action. The theory of reasoned action is
well tested in the social psychology arena and provided a sound theoretical
platform to underpin the relationships applicable to this investigation. In
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applying the marketing literature to the recruitment context, the marketing
principles of brand image were utilised.
While it is acknowledged that there were a number of potential aspects of
the marketing literature relevant to recruitment, it was perceived that the
principles of brand image formed a strong basis with which to structure the
present investigation due to it being well tested in the marketing arena. In
applying the marketing principles of brand image to the recruitment context,
the present investigator conceptualised organisational image as a process
whereby the buyer (the applicant) made a cognitively demanding purchase
decision to enter into a long-term purchase decision with the seller (the
organisation). On this basis, it was theorised that an individual having a
positive affective attitude towards an organisation would view the
organisation as a desirable entity and want to engage in a relationship with
it. To explore the role of organisational image perceptions at the pre-
interview stage of the recruitment process, six hypotheses were developed
around the core relationships applicable to the investigation:
Hypothesis 1a. Positive perceptions of an organisation’s image will be
positively related to attraction to the organisation.
Hypothesis 1b. Positive perceptions of an organisation’s image will be
positively related to attraction to the job.
Hypothesis 2a: High levels of attraction will positively influence
applicant intentions to apply to the organisation.
Hypothesis 2b: High levels of attraction will positively influence
applicant intentions to apply for a job.
Hypothesis 3a: Positive image perceptions lead to intentions to apply
to the organisation with the effect mediated by levels of attraction.
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Hypothesis 3b: Positive image perceptions lead to intentions to apply
for a job with the effects mediated by levels of attraction.
Chapter Two provided an extensive literature review examining underlying
concepts and relationships inherent in a job seeker’s pre-employment
perceptions of organisations. It was argued that inherent in a positive
applicant-organisation relationship would be a translation to active
organisational pursuit behaviour. This argument stemmed from the
literature reviewed which indicated that job seekers will generally react
positively towards an employing organisation when that organisation’s
image is perceived in a positive light. The conceptual framework was
presented diagrammatically in this Chapter.
Chapter Three reported the design, methodology, and administration of the
investigation. Data was collected from job seekers submitting applications
for advertised job vacancies at a large, Queensland-based higher education
institution, thereby addressing criticisms that organisational image research
is plagued by the heavy reliance on college and university students as a
source of research data. The study predominantly collected data using an
on-line questionnaire. A hard copy version of the same questionnaire
supplemented on-line questionnaire responses. A description of the
questionnaire design process was outlined examining scale development
and instrument test procedures. Demographic information was also
presented.
Chapter Four presented study results. The results were examined in light of
the stated hypotheses. Results presented some positive and significant
results for the organisation.
Chapter Five provided a discussion and conclusion to the investigation. The
results were discussed in the context of the presented hypotheses and the
wider recruitment and marketing literature. Implications for theory, practice,
and future recruitment research were also identified and discussed. Finally,
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the limitations of the study were acknowledged as a means to assist future
recruitment studies in this area.
As advocated by Ferris et al. (1998: 248) organisations will become pre-
eminently involved with the business of impression management as
competition for qualified labour intensifies in response to the crumbling of
the static labour market assumption. Specifically, that organisations should
capitalise on information to actively promote their images to create
‘reputational captial’ capable of generating significant intangible wealth in
the form of competitive advantage. Within this framework, the present
investigation has found support for Ferris et al.’s (1998) assertion that an
organisation’s image can create ‘reputational capital’ capable of generating
competitive advantage by virtue of the fact that it has been found that an
individual job seeker will select themselves into an organisational
environment that is perceived to positively fulfil their personal needs. When
applying this outcome to the marketing assumption that a brand preference
is achieved only after an extensive exercise of information consolidation,
there is strong support for the value of organisations establishing and
maintaining preferred ‘branding’ positions within the contemporary business
environment as a strategy for positioning themselves as an ‘employer of
choice’ within their preferred labour market.
The results of the present investigation have a further strategic implication.
As such, the findings suggest that, similar to Lievens and Highhouse’s
(2003) research outcomes, distinct dimensions of image motivate job
seekers when assessing organisational and job attributes of a potential
employer. For example, in discovering that job seekers have a higher
propensity to value macro considerations such as the perceived
organisational culture over and above specific role responsibilities when
formulating initial image assessments of an organisation, it is suggested
that employers focus attention on developing strategies and marketing
initiatives geared towards increasing ‘branding’ exposure from the
perspective of communicating information pertaining to an organisations
corporate philosophy and related operational values; rather than exclusively
promoting the virtues of the job itself. On this basis, if an organisation does
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not enter into a job seekers preferred ‘set’ of organisations of choice, an
organisation will find it challenging, if not impossible, to attract the job
seeker to consider the organisation as a potential employer.
To this end, future investigations focusing on the pre-interview stage of the
recruitment process offer researchers rich opportunities to enhance the
image-building capability of organisations and have a key role to play in
complementing and enhancing an organisations preferred competitive
position and influencing organisational efficiencies in terms of the
organisation’s interactions with external constituents. Thus, although it is
recognised that there is a tightening of labour markets and the deep pool of
applicant talent that once existed across industries has become shallow,
strategic decision makers in organisations have cause to remain optimistic.
As such, despite the limitations, this study has re-affirmed previous
academic research findings that organisational image perceptions of
applicants do influence intentions to pursue an organisation for possible
employment. Thus, applied in a recruitment context, this line of research
enquiry holds promise for organisations in offering a viable platform for
enhanced understanding of the strategic impact of organisational image
perceptions on job seeking populations.
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APPENDIX 1
Example of On-Line Survey Format
A Study of the Recruitment Process
Complete Survey
• What is This Survey? • Project Descriptions • Expected Benefits • How Should I Respond? • Who Will See My Answers? • Questions • Concerns
What is This Survey?
This survey is being conducted as part of our Master of Business (Research) studies at Company X. This survey is designed to capture your views and opinions of recruitment processes and sources. Participation is voluntary. This is not a test and there are no right or wrong answers. We are merely interested in your views and opinions.
The responses you give are confidential. At no time will your questionnaire responses influence your application for employment at Compnay X. There will be no relationship between what you say and getting a job. Answers will only be seen by us as Masters students and not by anybody who will be involved in your selection process. Project Descriptions
This study aims to extend the recruitment literature by investigating applicant impressions of organisational image and e-recruitment effectiveness. Expected Benefits
It is envisaged that our research will build on the recruitment literature by determining the major components of organisational image, from an applicant’s perspective and ascertaining whether e-recruitment is a worthwhile source for organisations to continue to invest in when advertising vacancies. The data received from the surveys will be valuable to gauge the perceptions of applicants on the usage of, and usefulness of, the original recruitment source used in locating the job. This is new research as previous research on recruitment has not included the Internet as a source and has predominantly involved surveying employees and not applicants.
It is hoped that as an outcome of this research, organisations may be better positioned to cost-effectively tailor recruitment information and the use of appropriate recruitment sources to both capture and increase applicant interest in an organisation as an employer.
While your involvement in this project will not directly benefit you, we
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hope that by increasing understanding of these issues, recruitment information provided to people such as yourself can be improved in the future. Therefore, we would greatly appreciate your participation in this survey. How Should I Respond?
For each question you are asked to select the one response that best fits your views. Please answer all the questions as openly and honestly as possible.
For example, the following question asks about the ease of locating the job advertisement. If you believe that it was extremely easy to locate this particular position advertisement, you might answer like this:
Was there sufficient information about the position provided in the job advertisement?
Extremely Insufficient More Than
Enough
Who Will See My Answers?
The responses you give are confidential and will remain anonymous. At no time will Company X have access to any of the questionnaires completed by individuals. Findings will be made available on request to all who participate and complete the questionnaire, but in such a way that it is not possible for individuals to be identified. Questions
For additional information about the project, or to have questions answered, potential participants should contact either of the Chief Investigators: Natalie Rose, on email ne.rose@Company X.edu.au, or Erica Marr on e-mail e.marr@Company X.edu.au, or the Masters Study Supervisor, Dr Lisa Bradley, on email lm.bradley@Company X.edu.au. Concerns
Potential participants should be advised that if they have any concerns or complaints about the ethical conduct of the project, they should contact the Research Ethics Officer, Company X, on (telephone number withheld to maintain confidentiality). Thank you very much for your participation in this project. It is
greatly appreciated.
Complete Survey
A Study of the Recruitment Process
Recruitment Source
This question investigates the sources people use to find jobs to apply for. Please respond by marking one box corresponding with your answer.
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1. Where did you first locate the job you most recently applied for at Company X?
Newspaper
Internet
Friends/Relatives
Other (please provide details) 2. What is the likelihood that you would use each of the following sources to find a job you could apply for? Please mark one box for each source.
Very Unlikely Very
Likely Unsure
Newspaper Internet Friends/ Relatives Other (eg employment agency) Advertisement Placement/Information
The following questions aim to investigate your thoughts about the placement of, and information contained in, the position advertisement. Please mark one box for each question.
3. How easy was it to find the advertisement?
Extremely Difficult Extremely Easy
4. How much impact did each of the following characteristics have on bringing the advertisement to your attention?
No Impact Some
Impact High Impact
Job Title Advertisement Location Advertisement Layout
5. How easy was it to understand the information contained within the advertisement?
Very Difficult Very Easy
6. Did you obtain additional information about the job after first locating the advertisement?
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Yes
Please indicate where you obtained this information from?
Organisational Website
Telephone request to organisational employee for duty statement mail-out
Other (please specify)
No Interest in the Job
The following question explores what characteristics of a position are of most interest to you when looking for a job. Please mark one box for each question.
7. How important are the following four factors to you when you consider applying for a job?
Extremely Unimportant
Somewhat important
Extremely Important
Salary Opportunity to use my abilities Challenging work Interesting work Perceptions of Job Itself
The following questions explore your thoughts and understanding about the job you have applied for. Please mark one box for each question.
8. Do you believe that the job you have applied for will:
Very Unlikely Very
Likely Unsure
Provide adequate opportunities for you to use your abilities to your full potential in performing job tasks?
Provide you with adequate opportunity to develop and learn new work skills?
Provide you with adequate opportunity to show your supervisors effective performance in completing work tasks?
Provide you with a variety of work tasks to maintain your interest in the job?
Provide you with adequate opportunities for career
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advancement? Provide you with the freedom to do the job your own way? Provide you with challenging work? Provide you with interesting work? Perceptions of Compensation/Job Security
The following questions explore your thoughts about the salary and benefits linked to the job you have applied for. Please mark one box for each question.
9. Do you believe that Company X will:
Very Unlikely Very
Likely Unsure
Provide you with a competitive salary? Provide you with strong job security? Provide you with competitive non-salary benefits? Provide you with a prestigious job title? Provide you with good career paths? Perceptions of Work/Company
The following questions explore your thoughts and understanding about the organisation, Company X, where the job is located. Please mark one box for each question.
10. How likely is it that Company X will provide each of the following:
Very Unlikely Very
Likely Unsure
Provide you with access to competent co-workers? Provide you with access to sociable co-workers? Provide access to appropriate training programs? Provide you with a pleasant work environment? Offer you a job that fits with your life style? Provide you with a supervisor that you can work with? A good reputation as an employer? A desirable geographic location? An appropriately sized company for you?
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Interest in the Organisation
The following statements relate to how much interest you have in working for Company X. Please mark one box for each question. Remember answers will only be seen by Masters students (authors) and not by anybody who will be involved in the selection process for the job you have applied for. Your answers will in no way influence the job selection panel.
Please indicate how strongly you agree or disagree with each of the following statements. Please select one response for each question.
Strongly Disagree
Neither Agree or Disagree
Strongly Agree
11. Company X would be a good organisation to work for 12. I would like to work for Company X 13. Company X cares about its employees 14. I find Company X a very attractive organisation Intention to Pursue for a Job with this Organisation
The following questions will explore your motivations for pursuing a job with this organisation (Company X). Please mark one box for each question.
Strongly Disagree
Neither Agree or Disagree
Strongly Agree
15. I would accept a job offer from Company X 16. I would make Company X one of my first choices as an employer 17. If Company X invited me for a job interview I would go 18. I would exert a great deal of effort to work at Company X 19. I would recommend Company X to a friend/family member looking for a job Intention to Pursue the Job Applied For
The following questions will explore your motivations for pursuing the job that you most recently applied for. Please mark one box for each question.
Strongly Disagree
Neither Agree or Disagree
Strongly Agree
20. I would accept the job I applied for 21. I would make this job one of my first choices
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22. I would exert a great deal of effort to get this job This section asks for demographic information. It is important that you complete this section. Remember that you will not be able to be identified by this information
What is your sex? Male Female
What is your age? years
Where are you from? Country...
What is the highest level of education you have completed? Up to and including Grade 10 or equivalent
Approximately how many years have you been in the workforce for?
What job category is the position you have applied for? (please mark one box per job applied for in the appropriate category)
General Staff HEWA1 ($14,065-$29,434)
HEWA2 ($15,082-$30,887)
HEWA3 ($15,807-$35,163)
HEWA4 ($18,051-$37,983)
HEWA5 ($39,238-$44,258)
HEWA6 ($45,521-$49,288)
HEWA7 ($50,224-$54,941)
HEWA8 ($56,502-$64,036)
HEWA9 ($65,922-$69,061)
HEWA10 ($70,632)
Academic Staff Associate Lecturer Lecturer Senior Lecturer
Associate Professor Professor
Senior Staff
What type of position are you applying for (Please mark one of each A and B)
A Full-time Part-time B Ongoing Fixed-term
What is the campus location of the position you are applying for? (please mark one box)
Note: Campus locations withheld to maintain confidentiality.
Submit your survey responses Reset
THANK YOU VERY MUCH FOR YOUR COOPERATION We greatly appreciate the time you have taken to complete this survey
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APPENDIX 2
Example of Hard-Copy Survey Format
INFORMATION SHEET
Title: A Study of the Recruitment Process
What is This Survey? This survey is being conducted as part of our Master of Business (Research) studies at Company X. This survey is designed to capture your views and opinions of recruitment processes and sources. Participation is voluntary. This is not a test and there are no right or wrong answers. We are merely interested in your views and opinions. The responses you give are confidential. At no time will your questionnaire responses influence your application for employment at Company X. There will be no relationship between what you say and getting a job. Answers will only be seen by us as Masters students and not by anybody who will be involved in your selection process.
Project Descriptions This study aims to extend the recruitment literature by investigating applicant impressions of organisational image and e-recruitment effectiveness. Expected Benefits It is envisaged that our research will build on the recruitment literature by determining the major components of organisational image, from an applicant’s perspective and ascertaining whether e-recruitment is a worthwhile source for organisations to continue to invest in when advertising job vacancies. The data received from the surveys will be valuable to gauge the perceptions of applicants on the usage of, and usefulness of, the original recruitment source used in locating the job. This is new research as previous research on recruitment has not included the Internet as a source and has predominantly involved surveying employees and not applicants. It is hoped that as an outcome of this research organisations may be better positioned to tailor recruitment information and the use of appropriate recruitment sources to both capture and increase applicant interest in an organisation as an employer. While your involvement in this project will not directly benefit you, we hope that by increasing understanding of these issues, recruitment information provided to people such as yourself can be improved in the future. Therefore, we would greatly appreciate your participation in this survey.
____________________________________________________________
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How Should I Respond? For each question you are asked to select the one response that best fits your views. Please answer all the questions as openly and honestly as possible. For example, the following question asks about the information contained in the job advertisement. If you believe that there was plenty of information in that particular position advertisement (the one for the job you recently applied for) you might answer like this: Was there sufficient information about the position provided in the job advertisement? Inadequate More than
enough
Who Will See My Answers? The responses you give are confidential and will remain anonymous. Company X will at no time have access to any of the questionnaires completed by individuals. Findings will be made available on request to all who participate and complete the questionnaire in full, but in such a way that it is not possible for individuals to be identified. Questions For additional information about the project, or to have questions answered, potential participants should contact either of the Chief Investigators: Natalie Rose, on email [email protected], or Erica Marr on e-mail [email protected], or the Masters Study Supervisor, Dr Lisa Bradley, on email [email protected].
Concerns If you have any concerns or complaints about the ethical conduct of the project, you can contact the Research Ethics Officer, Company X, on (telephone number withheld to maintain confidentiality).
Please return the survey in the self-addressed stamped envelope enclosed, or alternatively you can complete the survey on-line at: http://www.hrd.companyx.edu.au/recruitselect/jobs/recruitment_survey_intro.htm Thank you very much for your participation in this project.
It is greatly appreciated.
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Recruitment Source This question investigates the sources people use to find jobs to apply for. Please respond by marking one box corresponding with your answer.
1. Where did you first locate the job you most recently applied for?
a. Newspaper
b. Internet
c. Friends/relatives
d. Other (please provide details) _________________________
2. What is the likelihood that you would use each of the following sources to find a job you could apply for? Please mark one box for each source.
Very unlikely
Very likely
Unsure
a. Newspaper 1 2 3 4 5 6
b. Internet 1 2 3 4 5 6
c. Friends/relatives 1 2 3 4 5 6
d. Other (eg. employment agency) 1 2 3 4 5 6
Advertisement Placement/Information The following questions aim to investigate your thoughts about the placement of, and information in, the position advertisement. Please mark one box for each question.
3. How easy was it to find the advertisement?
Extremely difficult Extremely easy 1 2 3 4 5
4. How much impact did each of the following characteristics have on bringing the advertisement to
your attention?
No impact Some impact
High impact
a. Job Title 1 2 3 4 5
b. Advertisement location 1 2 3 4 5
c. Advertisement layout 1 2 3 4 5
5. How easy was it to understand the information contained within the advertisement?
Very difficult Very easy
1 2 3 4 5
6. Did you obtain additional information about the job after first locating the advertisement?
a. Yes
- Please indicate where you obtained this information from?
a. Organisational website
b. Telephone request to organisational employee for duty statement mail-out
c. Other (please specify) __________________
b. No
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Interest in the Job The following question explores what characteristics of a position are of most interest to you when looking for a job. Please mark one box for each question.
7. How important are the following four factors to you when you consider applying for a job? Extremely
un-important
Extremely important
a. Salary 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
b. Opportunity to use my abilities
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
c. Challenging work
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
d. Interesting work
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Perceptions of the Job Itself The following questions explore your thoughts and understanding about the job you have applied for. Please mark one box for each question.
8. Do you believe that the job you have applied for will:
Very unlikely
Very likely
Unsure
a. Provide adequate opportunities for you to use your abilities to your full potential in performing job tasks?
1 2 3 4 5 6
b. Provide you with adequate opportunity to develop and learn new work skills?
1 2 3 4 5 6
c. Provide you with adequate opportunity to show your supervisors effective performance in completing work tasks?
1 2 3 4 5 6
d. Provide you with a variety of work tasks to maintain your interest in the job?
1 2 3 4 5 6
e. Provide you with adequate opportunities for career advancement?
1 2 3 4 5 6
f. Provide you with the freedom to do the job your own way?
1 2 3 4 5 6
g. Provide you with challenging work? 1 2 3 4 5 6
h. Provide you with interesting work? 1 2 3 4 5 6
Perceptions of Compensation/Job Security The following questions explore your thoughts about the salary and benefits linked to the job you have applied for. Please mark one box for each question.
9. Do you believe that Company X will:
Very unlikely
Very likely
Unsure
a. Provide you with a competitive salary?
1 2 3 4 5 6
b. Provide you with strong job 1 2 3 4 5 6
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security?
c. Provide you with competitive non-salary benefits?
1 2 3 4 5 6
d. Provide you with a prestigious job title?
1 2 3 4 5 6
e. Provide you with good career paths?
1 2 3 4 5 6
Perceptions of Work/Company The following questions explore your thoughts and understanding about the organisation, Company X, where the job is located. Please mark one box for each question.
10. How likely is it that Company X will provide each of the following:
Very unlikely
Very likely
Unsure
a. Provide you with access to competent co-workers?
1 2 3 4 5 6
b. Provide you with access to sociable co-workers?
1 2 3 4 5 6
b. Provide access to appropriate training programs?
1 2 3 4 5 6
c. Provide you with a pleasant work environment?
1 2 3 4 5 6
d. Offer you a job that fits with your lifestyle?
1 2 3 4 5 6
e. Provide you with a supervisor that you can work with?
1 2 3 4 5 6
f. A good reputation as an employer? 1 2 3 4 5 6
g. A desirable geographic location? 1 2 3 4 5 6
h. An appropriately sized company for you?
1 2 3 4 5 6
Interest in the Organisation The following statements relate to how much interest you have in working for Company X. Please mark one box for each question. Remember, answers will only be seen by Masters students (authors) and not by anybody who will be involved in the selection process for the job you have applied for. Your answers will in no way influence the job selection panel. Please indicate how strongly you agree or disagree with each of the following statements.
11. Company X would be a good organisation to work for
Strongly disagree Neither agree or disagree
Strongly agree
1 2 3 4 5
12. I would like to work for Company X
Strongly disagree Neither agree or disagree
Strongly agree
1 2 3 4 5
13. Company X cares about its employees
Strongly disagree Neither agree or Strongly agree
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disagree 1 2 3 4 5
14. I find Company X a very attractive organisation
Strongly disagree Neither agree or disagree
Strongly agree
1 2 3 4 5
Intention to Pursue a Job with this Organisation The following questions will explore your motivations for pursuing a job with this organisation (Company X). Please mark one box for each question. 15. I would accept a job offer from Company X
Strongly disagree
Neither agree or disagree
Strongly agree
1 2 3 4 5
16. I would make Company X one of my first choices as an employer
Strongly disagree
Neither agree or disagree
Strongly agree
1 2 3 4 5
17. If Company X invited me for a job interview I would go
Strongly disagree
Neither agree or disagree
Strongly agree
1 2 3 4 5
18. I would exert a great deal of effort to work for Company X
Strongly disagree
Neither agree or disagree
Strongly agree
1 2 3 4 5 19. I would recommend Company X to a friend/family member looking for a job
Strongly disagree
Neither agree or disagree
Strongly agree
1 2 3 4 5
Intention to Pursue the Job Applied For The following questions will explore your motivations for pursuing the job that you most recently applied for. Please mark one box for each question. 20. I would accept the job I applied for
Strongly disagree
Neither agree or disagree
Strongly agree
1 2 3 4 5
21. I would make this job one of my first choices
Strongly disagree
Neither agree or disagree
Strongly agree
1 2 3 4 5
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22. I would exert a great deal of effort to get this job
Strongly disagree
Neither agree or disagree
Strongly agree
1 2 3 4 5
This section asks for demographic information. It is important that you complete this section. Remember that you will not be able to be identified by this information.
What is your sex?
Male
Female
(Please mark the box)
What is your age? ______________ years
What country are you from? ___________________ What is the highest level of education you have completed? (Please mark one box)
1. Up to and including Grade 10 (or equivalent)
2. Grade 12 (or equivalent)
3. Diploma/Certificate from TAFE (or equivalent)
4. Undergraduate degree
5. Honours degree
6. Postgraduate Certificate from University
7. Postgraduate Diploma from University
8. Masters
9. PhD
10. Other
Approximately how many years have you been in the workforce for?
______________ years
What job category is the position you have applied for? (please mark the box of the appropriate category – more than one box can be marked if you have applied for more than one position)
General Staff: ($14,065-$29,434) HEWA1
($15,082-$30,887) HEWA2
($15,807-$35,163) HEWA3
($18,051-$37,983) HEWA4
($39,238-$44,258)
HEWA5
($45,521-$49,288)
HEWA6
($50,224-$54,941)
HEWA7
($56,502-$64,036)
HEWA8
($65,922-$69,061)
HEWA9
($70,632) HEWA10
Academic Staff: Associate Lecturer Lecturer Senior Lecturer Associate Professor Professor
Senior Staff
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________130
What type of position are you applying for (Please mark one of each A and B)
A. Full-time Part-time
B. Ongoing Fixed-term
What is the campus location of the position you are applying for? (please mark one box) Note: Campus locations withheld to maintain confidentiality.
THANK YOU VERY MUCH FOR YOUR
COOPERATION. We greatly appreciate the time you have taken to complete this survey.
____________________________________________________________
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APPENDIX 3
Job Itself Items and Corresponding Items Adapted from
Harris and Fink (1987)
Harris and Fink’s (1987) items Present Investigator’s Adaptations
Challenging/interesting work Provide you with challenging work Provide you with interesting work Opportunities to use abilities Provide you with adequate
opportunities for you to use your abilities to your full potential in performing job tasks
Opportunity to learn Provide you with adequate opportunity to develop and learn new work skills
Opportunity to show superiors effective performance
Provide you with adequate opportunity to show your supervisors effective performance in completing work tasks
Variety of activities Provide you with a variety of work tasks to maintain your interest in the job
Opportunity for rapid advancement Provide you with adequate opportunities for career advancement
Freedom to do the job my own way Provide you with the freedom to do the job your own way
Enjoyable type of work Note: Item deleted from present investigation due to perceived redundancy of the concept with “variety of activities”
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APPENDIX 4
Compensation/Job Security Items and Corresponding Items Adapted from Harris and Fink (1987)
Harris and Fink’s (1987) items Present Investigator’s Adaptations
Good salary Provide you with a competitive salary
Job security Provide you with strong job security Good fringe benefits Provide you with competitive non-
salary benefits Prestigious job title Provide you with a prestigious job
title Good career paths Provide you with good career paths
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APPENDIX 5
Work/Company Items and Corresponding Items Adapted from Harris and Fink (1987)
Harris and Fink’s (1987) items Present Investigator’s Adaptations
Competent and sociable co-workers Provide you with access to competent co-workers
Provide you with access to sociable co-workers
Training programs available Provide you with appropriate training programs
Pleasant work environment Provide you with a pleasant work environment
Job fits with my lifestyle Offer you a job that fits with your lifestyle
Boss I can work with Provide you with a supervisor that you can work with
Company has good reputation A good reputation as an employer Desirable geographic location A desirable geographic location Appropriately sized company An appropriately sized company for
you
____________________________________________________________
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APPENDIX 6
Interest in the Organisation Items and Corresponding Items Adapted from Aiman-Smith, Bauer and Cable (2001)
Aiman-Smith et al.’s (2001) items Present Investigator’s Adaptations
This would be a good company to work for
Company X would be a good organisation to work for
I would like to work for this company I would like to work for Company X This company cares about its employees
Company X cares about its employees
I find this a very attractive company I find Company X a very attractive organisation
I would want a company like this in my community
Note: Item deleted from present investigation due to perceived non relevance to the Australian business context
Note: To maintain confidentiality pertaining to the identity of the test organisation, reference to “Company X” in the above item wording replaces use of the actual organisation’s name contained within this investigation’s survey instrument.
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________135
APPENDIX 7
Interest in the Job Items and Corresponding Items Adapted from Thomas and Wise (1999)
Thomas and Wise’s (1999) items Present Investigator’s Adaptations
Salary Salary Opportunity to use my abilities Opportunity to use my abilities Challenging and interesting work Challenging work Interesting work
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________136
APPENDIX 8
Intention to Pursue a Job with the Organisation Items Adapted from Highhouse, Lievens and Sinar (2003)
Highhouse et al.’s (2003) items Present Investigator’s Adaptations
I would accept a job offer from this company
I would accept a job offer from Company X
I would make this company one of my first choices as an employer
I would make Company X one of my first choices as an employer
If this company invited me for a job interview I would go
If Company X invited me for a job interview I would go
I would exert a great deal of effort to work for this company
I would exert a great deal of effort to work for Company X
I would recommend this company to a friend looking for a job
I would recommend Company X to friends/family members looking for a job
Note: To maintain confidentiality pertaining to the identity of the test organisation, reference to “Company X” in the above item wording replaces use of the actual organisation’s name contained within this investigation’s survey instrument.
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________137
APPENDIX 9
Intention to Pursue the Job Applied For Items Adapted from Highhouse, Lievens and Sinar (2003)
Highhouse et al.’s (2003) items Present Investigator’s Adaptations
I would accept a job offer from this company
I would accept a job offer from Company X
I would make this company one of my first choices as an employer
I would make this job one of my first choices
If this company invited me for a job interview I would go
Not utilised in this study
I would exert a great deal of effort to work for this company
I would exert of great deal of offer to get this job
I would recommend this company to a friend looking for a job
Not utilised in this study
Note: To maintain confidentiality pertaining to the identity of the test organisation, reference to “Company X” in the above item wording replaces use of the actual organisation’s name contained within this investigation’s survey instrument.
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________138
APPENDIX 10
Results of Test for Gender Effects
T Significance
Job interest -.12180 .092
Organisation interest -.07048 .434
Intention to apply for
job
-.09739 .238
Intention to apply to
organisation
-.04569 .529
Job image -.00481 .891
Pay image -.15979 .584
Work image .02414 .480
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________139
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