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Europe in our school Comenius project 2012/2014
History of Romania Școala Gimnazială Vădeni,
Vădeni, Brăila, Romania
Prehistory
The Thinker of Hamangia, Neolithic Hamangia culture (c. 5250-4550 BC)
0,000 year old modern human remains were discovered in
present day Romania when the "Cave With Bones" was uncovered in 2002.
In 2011 older modern human remains were identified in the UK (Kents
Cavern at 41,000BP) and Italy (Grotta del Cavallo at 43,000BP), nonetheless
the Romanian fossils are still among the oldest remains of Homo sapiens in
Europe, so they may be representative of the first such people to have entered the continent. The
remains are especially interesting because they present a mixture of archaic, early modern human
and Neanderthal morphological features.
One of the fossils found—a male, adult jawbone—has been dated to be between 34,000
and 36,000 years old, which would make it one of the oldest fossils found to date of modern
humans in Europe. A skull found in Peștera cu Oase (The Cave with Bones) in 2004-5 bears
features of both modern humans and Neanderthals. According to a paper by Erik Trinkaus and
others, published in the Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences in January 2007, this
finding suggests that the two groups interbred thousands of years ago.
Dacia
The sanctuaries of the ancient Dacian Kingdomcapital, Sarmizegetusa Regia
The earliest written evidence of people living in the
territory of the present-day Romania comes
from Herodotus in book IV of his Histories written c. 440
BCE. Herein he writes that the tribal confederation of
the Getae were defeated by the Persian Emperor Darius
the Great during his campaign against
the Scythians. The Dacians, widely accepted as part of
the Getaedescribed earlier by the Greeks, were a branch of Thracians that inhabited Dacia
(corresponding to modern Romania, Moldova, northern Bulgaria and
surroundings).
The Dacian Kingdom reached its maximum expansion during
King Burebista, between 82 BCE - 44 BCE. Under his leadership
Dacia became a powerful state which threatened the regional interests of the Romans. Julius
Caesar intended to start a campaign against the Dacians, due to the support that Burebista gave
to Pompey, but was assassinated in 44 BC. A few months later, Burebista shared the same fate,
assassinated by his own noblemen. Another theory
suggests that he was killed by Caesar's friends. His
powerful state was divided in four and did not become
unified again until 95 AD, under the reign of the Dacian
king Decebalus.
The Roman Empire conquered Moesia by 29
BC, reaching the Danube. In 87 AD
Emperor Domitian sent six legions into Dacia, which
were defeated at Tapae. The
Dacians were eventually defeated
by Emperor Trajan in two campaigns stretching from 101 AD to
106 AD, and the core of their kingdom was turned into the province
of Roman Dacia.
Roman Dacia (106-275 AD)
Roman Dacia, between
106 and 271 AD. The Romans exploited the rich
ore deposits of Dacia. Gold and silver
were especially plentiful, and were
found in great quantities in the Western
Carpathians. After Trajan's conquest, he
brought back to Rome over 165 tons of
gold and 330 tons of silver. The Romans
heavily colonized the province, and thus
started a period of intenseromanization,
the Vulgar Latin giving birth to
the Proto-Romanian language. The
geographical position of Dacia
Felix (another name for the Roman
province of Dacia) made it difficult to defend against the barbarians, and during 240 AD - 256
AD, under the attacks of the Carpi and the Goths, Dacia was lost. The Roman Empire withdrew
from Dacia Romana around 271 AD, thus making it the first province to be abandoned.
Roman conquest of Dacia stands at the base of the origin of Romanians. Several
competing theories have been introduced to explain the origin of modern Romanians. Linguistic
and geo-historical analyses tend to indicate thatRomanians have coalesced as a major ethnic
group both South and North of the Danube.
For further discussion, see Origin of
Romanians and Vlachs.
Early Middle Ages
Between 271 and 275, the Roman army and administration left Dacia, which was invaded
afterwards by theGoths. The Goths mixed with the local people until the 4th century, when a
nomadic people, the Huns, arrived. The Gepids and the Avars and their Slavic subjects
ruled Transylvania until the 8th century. The Pechenegs, the Cumans and Uzes were also
mentioned by historic chronicles on the territory of Romania, until the founding of the Romanian
principalities of Wallachia, in the south, by Basarab I around 1310 in the High Middle Ages
and Moldova, in the east, by Dragoş around 1352.
Different migrating peoples lived alongside with the local populations, such as
the Gothic Empire (Oium) from 271 until 378, the Hunnish Empire until 435, the Avar
Empire andSlavs during the 6th century.
BasarabI The battle of Posada
Middle Ages
In the Middle Ages, Romanians lived in three distinct principalities: Wallachia (Romanian: Ţara
Românească "Romanian Land"), Moldavia (Romanian: Moldova) and Transylvania.
The Pechenegs (a semi-nomadic Turkic people of the Central Asian steppes) occupied the
steppes north of the Black Sea (8th–12th century) and by the 10th century they were in control of
all the lands between the Don and lower Danube rivers. During the 11th and 12th century, the
nomadic confederacy of the Cumans and (Eastern) Kipchaks (who are considered to be either the
eastern branch of the Cumans or a distinct but related tribe with whom the Cumans have created a
confederacy) were the dominant force over the vast territories stretching from as far as present-
day Kazakhstan, southern Russia, Ukraine, down to southern Moldavia and western Wallachia.
By the 11th century, the area of today's Transylvania became a largely autonomous part
of the Kingdom of Hungary. Kings of Hungary invited the Saxons to settle in Transylvania, to
populate the sparsely inhabited region. Also living in Transylvania were the Székely. After the
Magyar conquest (10-11th century), Transylvania became part of the Kingdom of Hungary until
the 16th century, when it became the independent Principality of Transylvania until 1711. Many
small local states with varying degrees of independence developed, but only in the 14th century
the larger principalities of Moldavia and Wallachia emerged to fight a threat in the form of
the Ottoman Turks, who conquered Constantinople in 1453.
Independent Wallachia has been on the border of the Ottoman Empire since the 14th
century until it gradually fell under the Ottomans' suzerainty during the 15th century. One famous
ruler in this period was Vlad III the Impaler (also known as Vlad Dracula, Romanian: Vlad
Ţepeş), Prince of Wallachia in 1448, 1456–62, and 1476. In the English-speaking world, Vlad is
best known for being the inspiration to the "vampire" main character in Bram Stoker's 1897
novel Dracula. As a king, he courageously maintained an independent policy towards
the Ottoman Empire. The Romanians appreciate him as a ruler with an extreme sense of
justice and the defender of the Wallachian independence and, in general, the western
European Christianism against the Ottoman expansionism.
Bran Castle built in 1212, is commonly known as Dracula's Castle and is
situated in the centre of present-day Romania. In addition to its
uniquearchitecture, the castle is famous because of persistent myths that it
was once the home of Vlad III
Dracula.
The principality of Moldavia reached its most glorious period under the rule of Stephen
the Great between 1457 and 1504.
His 47 years' reign was unusually long at that time -
only 13 rulers worldwide were recorded to have ruled for at
least 50 years until the end of 15th century. He was a very
successful both military and civil ruler ( losing only 2 out of 50
battles ), after each victory he raised a church, managing to
build 48 churches or monasteries, some of them
with a very unique and interesting style. For more
information see Painted churches of northern Moldavia listed
in UNESCO's list of World Heritage Sites. Stephen's
most prestigious victory was over the Ottoman Empire in 1475 at the Battle of Vaslui for which
he raised the Voroneţ Monastery. For this victory, Pope Sixtus IV nominated him as verus
christianae fidei athleta (a true Champion of the Christian Faith). However, after his
death, Moldavia also came under the suzerainty of the Ottoman Empire in the 16th century.
In the period the Romanians received the Orthodoxy during Bulgarian rule, which
subsequently became the traditional religion.
Early modern period
By 1541, the entire Balkan peninsula and most of Hungary became Ottoman provinces. In
contrast, Moldavia, Wallachia, and Transylvania, came under Ottoman suzerainty, but conserved
fully internal autonomy and, until the 18th century, some external independence. During this
period, also called the Phanariot Epoch, the Romanian lands were characterised by the slow
disappearance of the feudal system and the distinguishment of some rulers like Vasile
Lupu and Dimitrie Cantemir in Moldavia, Matei Basarab and Constantin Brâncoveanu in
Wallachia, and Gabriel Bethlen in Transylvania. At that time the Russian Empire appeared to
become the political and military power which threatened the Romanian principalities.
John II, the non-Habsburg king of Hungary, moved his royal court to Alba Iulia in
Transylvania, and after his abdication from the Hungarian throne, he became the first "Prince of
Transylvania". His Edict of Turda was the first decree of religious freedom in the modern
European history (1568). In the aftermath Transylvania was ruled by mostly Calvinist Hungarian
princes (until the end of the 17th century), and Protestantism flourished in the region.
Michael the Brave (Romanian: Mihai Viteazul) was the Prince of Wallachia (1593–1601),
of Transylvania (1599–1600), and of Moldavia (1600). For a short time during his reign
Transylvania was ruled together with Moldavia and Wallachia in a personal union. After his
death the union dissolved and as vassal tributary states Moldova and Wallachia still had an
internal autonomy and some external independence, which was finally lost in the 18th century.
Michael de Brave entering in Alba Iulia
Seal of Michael the Brave during the personal union of the two Romanian principalities
with Transylvania
The Principalities of Moldavia andWallachia in 1786, Italian map by G. Pittori, since the geographer Giovanni Antonio Rizzi Zannoni.
The Principality of Transylvania reached its golden age under the absolutist rule of Gabor
Bethlen (1613–1629). In 1699, Transylvania became a part of the Habsburgs' Austrian Empire,
following the Austrian victory over the Turks. The Austrians, in their turn, rapidly expanded their
empire: in 1718 a major part of Wallachia, Oltenia, was annexed to the Austrian monarchy and
was only returned in 1739. In 1775, the Austrian empire occupied the north-western part of
Moldavia, later on called Bukovina, while the eastern half of the principality (by the name
of Bessarabia) was occupied in 1812 by Russia.
Map of Europe in 1648 showing Transylvania and the two Romanian principalities:
Wallachia and Moldova
During the Austro-Hungarian rule in Transylvania, and
the Ottoman suzerainty overWallachia and Moldavia,
most Romanians were actually second-class citizens (or
even non-citizens) in a territory where in fact they
constituted the majority of the population. In some
Transylvanian cities like Brașov (at that time
the Transylvanian Saxon citadel of Kronstadt), Romanians were not even allowed to reside
within the city walls.
Revolutions of 1848
As in other European countries, 1848 brought up the revolution upon Moldavia, Wallachia
and Transylvania, through Tudor Vladimirescu and his Pandurs in the Wallachian uprising of
1821. The goals of the revolutionaries - full independence for Moldavia and Wallachia, and
national emancipation in Transylvania - remained unfulfilled, but were the basis of the
subsequent evolutions. The uprising helped the population of all three principalities recognise
their unity of language and interests; all tree Romanian
principalities were very close, not only in language,
but also geographically.
People in Bucharest during the 1848 events, carrying
the Romanian tricolor
After the unsuccessful 1848 Revolution,
the Great Powers rejected the Romanians' expressed
desire to officially unite in a single state, forcing the
Romanians to proceed alone their struggle against the Turks. Heavily taxed and badly
administered under the Ottoman Empire, in 1859, people's representatives in both Moldavia and
Wallachia elected the same "Domnitor" (ruling Prince of the Romanians): Alexandru Ioan Cuza.
Thus, Romania was created as a personal union albeit that did not include Transylvania,
where the upper class and the aristocracy remained mainly Hungarian, although Romanian
nationalist spirit inevitably ran up against the Hungarian nationalism at the end of the 19th
century. As in the previous 900 years, Austria-Hungary, especially under the Dual Monarchy of
1867, kept the territory firmly in control, even in parts of Transylvania where Romanians
constituted a vast majority.
Alexandru Ioan Cuza
Independence and Kingdom of Romania
In an 1866 coup d'état, Cuza was exiled and replaced by Prince Karl of Hohenzollern-
Sigmaringen, who became known as Prince Carol of Romania. He was appointed Domnitor -
Ruling Prince of the United Principality of Romania, as Prince Carol of Romania.
Romania declared its independence from the Ottoman Empire after the Russo-Turkish
War, 1877-78 in which she fought on the Russian side.
In the 1878 Treaty of Berlin, Romania was finally officially recognized as
anindependent state by the Great Powers. In return, Romania ceded the district of
Bassarabia to Russia "in exchange" for the access to the ports on the Black Sea shore, and
acquired Dobruja.
In 1881, the Romanian principality was raised to a kingdom and Prince Carol became on
the 26 of March King Carol I of Romania.
The 1878–1914 period was one of stability and progress for Romania. During the Second
Balkan War, Romania joined Greece,Serbia and Montenegro against Bulgaria.
In the peace Treaty of Bucharest (1913) Romania gained Southern Dobrudja - the
Quadrilater, the Durostor and Caliacra counties.
Peleş Castle, retreat of Romanian monarchs
Carol I of Romania
World War I (1916–1918)
Territories inhabited by Romanians before WWI.
The new state, squeezed between the great
powers of the Ottoman, Austro-Hungarian,
and Russian empires, looked to the West,
particularly France, for its cultural, educational, military
and administrative models. In 1916 Romania
entered World War I on the Entente side, after the
Entente agreed to recognize Romanian rights over
Transylvania, which was part of Austria-Hungary until that time.
In August 1914, when World War I broke out, Romania declared neutrality. Two years
later, under the pressure of Allies (especially France desperate to open a new front), on August
14/27 1916 it joined the Allies, for which they were promised support for the accomplishment of
national unity, Romania declared war on Austria-Hungary.
The Romanian military campaign ended in disaster for Romania as the Central
Powers conquered two-thirds of the country and captured or killed the majority of its army within
four months. Nevertheless, Moldova remained in Romanian hands after the invading forces were
stopped in 1917. In May 1918, Romania was in no position to continue the war, and negotiated a
peace treaty with Germany (see Treaty of Bucharest, 1918).
In October 1918, Romania joined the war again and by the end of the war, the Austro-
Hungarian and Russian empires had disintegrated. Governing bodies created by the Romanians of
Transylvania, Bessarabia and Bukovina chose union with the Kingdom of Romania, resulting
in Greater Romania. Since by the war's end, Austria-Hungary and the Russian Empire had
collapsed,Bassarabia, Bukovina and Transylvania were allowed to unite with the Kingdom of
Romania in 1918.
By the 1920 Treaty of Trianon, Hungary renounced in favour of Romania all the claims of
the Austro-Hungarian Monarchy over Transylvania. The union of Romania with Bukovinawas
ratified in 1919 in the Treaty of Saint Germain, and with Bassarabia in 1920 by the Treaty of
Paris.
Romanian troops at Marasesti battlefield in1917
Greater Romania (1918–1940)
Great Romania (1920 - 1940)
The Romanian expression România
Mare (literal translation "Great Romania", but
more commonly rendered "Greater Romania")
generally refers to the Romanian state in
the interwar period, and by extension, to the
territory Romania covered at the time. Romania
achieved at that time its greatest territorial extent (almost 300,000 km2 or 120,000 sq mi),
managing to unite all the historic Romanian lands.
Historically, Greater Romania—România Mare—represented one of the ideals of
Romanian nationalism. Greater Romania is still seen by many as a "paradise lost", often by
comparison with the "stunted" Communist Romania. To exploit the nationalistic connotation of
the term, a nationalist political party uses it as its name.
In 1918, at the end of World War I, Transylvania and Bessarabia united with
the Romanian Old Kingdom. The Deputies of the Romanians from Transylvania voted to unite
their region by the Proclamation of Union of Alba Iulia. Bessarabia, having declared its
independence from Russia in 1917 by the Conference of the Country (Sfatul Țării), called in
Romanian troops to protect the province from the Bolsheviks who were spreading the Russian
Revolution.
The union of the regions of Transylvania, Maramureș, Crișana and Banat with the Old
Kingdom of Romania was ratified in 1920 by the Treaty of Trianon, which recognised the
sovereignty of Romania over these regions and settled the border between the independent
Republic of Hungary and the Kingdom of Romania. The union of Bucovina and Bessarabia with
Romania was ratified in 1920 by the Treaty of Versailles. Romania had also recently acquired
the Southern Dobruja territory called "The Quadrilateral" from Bulgaria as a result of its
participation in the Second Balkan War in 1913.
Proclamation of Union between Transylvania and Romania
The Union of 1918 united most regions with clear
Romanian majorities into the boundaries of a single state.
However, it also led to the inclusion of various sizable minorities, including Magyars (ethnic
Hungarians), Germans, Jews, Ukrainians, Bulgarians, etc., for a total of about 28% of the
population (Magyars mostly in Transylvania; Germans in Transylvania, Bukovina, and Banat;
Ukrainians in part of Bessarabia and Bukovina, Bulgarians in Dobrudja).
Recognized by the Romanian Constitution of 1923 and supported by various laws
(education, electoral, etc.), national minorities were represented in Parliament, and several of
them created national parties (the Magyars in 1922, the Germans in 1929, the Jews in 1931),
although a unique standing of minorities with autonomy on a wide basis, provided for at the
assembly of Transylvanian Romanians on 1 December 1918 were not fulfilled.
Transition to authoritarian rule
Two periods can be identified in Romania between the two World Wars. From 1918 to
1938, Romania was a liberal constitutional monarchy, but one facing the rise of the
nationalist, anti-semitic parties, particularly Iron Guard, which won about 15% of the votes in the
general elections of 1937. From 1938 to 1944, Romania was a dictatorship. The first dictator
was King Carol II, who abolished the parliamentary regime and ruled with his camarilla.
In 1939, Germany and the Soviet Union signed the Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact, which
stipulated, amongst other things, the Soviet "interest" in Bessarabia. Following the severe
territorial losses of 1940 (see next section), Carol was forced to abdicate, replaced as king by his
son Mihai, but the power was taken by the military dictator Ion Antonescu (initially in
conjunction with the Iron Guard). In August 1944, Antonescu was arrested by Mihai.
World War II and aftermath (1940–1947)
Romanian territory during the 20th century: purple indicates the Old Kingdom before 1913,
orange indicates Greater Romania areas that joined or were annexed after the Second
Balkan War and WWI but were lost after WWII, and pink indicates areas that joined
Romania after WWI and remained so after WWII.
During the Second World War, Romania tried again to remain neutral, but on June 28,
1940, it received a Soviet ultimatum with an implied threat of invasion in the event of non-
compliance. Under pressure from Moscow and Berlin, the Romanian administration and the army
were forced to retreat from Bessarabia as well from Northern Bukovina to avoid war. This, in
combination with other factors, prompted the government to join the Axis. Thereafter,
southern Dobruja was awarded to Bulgaria, while Hungary received Northern Transylvania as
result of an Axis arbitration.
In 1940, Romania lost territory in both east and west: In June 1940, after receiving an
ultimatum from the Soviet Union, Romania ceded Bessarabia and northern Bukovina (see Soviet
occupation of Bessarabia). Two thirds of Bessarabia were combined with a small part of the
USSR to form the Moldavian SSR. Northern Bukovina and Budjak were apportioned to
the Ukrainian SSR. In August 1940, Northern Transylvania was awarded to Hungary
by Germany and Italy through the Second Vienna Award. Southern Dobruja was also lost to
Bulgaria shortly after Carol's abdication.
Because Carol II lost so much territory through failed diplomacy, the army supported
seizure of power by General Ion Antonescu. For four months (the period of the National
Legionary State), he had to share power with the Iron Guard, but the latter overplayed their hand
in January 1941 and were suppressed. Romania entered World War II under the command of the
German Wehrmacht in June 1941, declaring war to the Soviet Union in order to recover
Bessarabia and northern Bukovina. Romania was awarded the territory between Dniester and
the Southern Bug by Germany to administer it under the name of Transnistria.
Romania's borders during World War II (1941-1944)
The authoritarian King Carol II abdicated in 1940,
succeeded by the National Legionary State, in which power was
shared by Ion Antonescuand the Iron Guard. Within months,
Antonescu had crushed the Iron Guard, and the subsequent year
Romania entered the war on the side of the Axis powers. During the war, Romania was the most
important source of oil for Nazi Germany, prompting multiple bombing raidsby the Allies. By
means of the Axis invasion of the Soviet Union, Romania recovered Bassarabia and northern
Bukovina from the Soviet Russia, under the leadership of general Ion Antonescu.
The Antonescu regime played a major role in the Holocaust, following to a lesser extent
the Nazi policy of oppression and massacre of the Jews, and Romas, primarily in the Eastern
territories Romania recovered or occupied from the Soviet Union (Transnistria) and in Moldavia.
According to an international commission report released by the Romanian government in 2004,
Antonescu's dictatorial government of Romania is responsible for the murder in various forms
including deportations to concentration camps and executions by the Romanian
Army and Gendarmerie and the German Einsatzgruppen of some 280,000 to 380,000 Jews on
Romanian territories and in the war zone of Bassarabia, Bukovina and Transnistria.
A map of Romania after WWII.
On 20 August 1944 the Soviet Red Army crossed the
border into Romania. On 23 August 1944 Antonescu was
toppled and arrested by King Michael I of Romania who
joined the Allies and declared war
on Germany. On 31 August 1944 the
Soviet Red Army entered Bucharest.
Despite Romania`s change of sides
its role in the defeat of Nazi
Germany was not recognized by the Paris Peace Conference of 1947.
With the Red Army forces still stationed in the country and
exerting de facto control, Communists and their allied parties claimed
80% of the vote, through a combination of vote
manipulation, elimination, and forced mergers of competing parties,
thus establishing themselves as the dominant force. Romania suffered
additional heavy casualties fighting the Nazis in Hungary
and Czechoslovakia. By the end of the war, the Romanian army had
suffered almost 300,000 casualties.
The Paris Peace Treaty at the end of World War II rendered the Vienna Awards
void: Northern Transylvania returned to Romania, but Bessarabia, northern Bukovina and
southern Dobruja were not recovered. The Moldavian-SSR became independent of the Soviet
Union only with the latter's 1991 demise and turned into the Republic of Moldova.
Communist period (1947–1989)
In 1947, King Michael I was forced by the Communists to abdicate and leave the country,
Romania was proclaimed arepublic, and remained under direct military and economic control of
the USSR until the late 1950s. During this period, Romania's resources were drained by the
"SovRom" agreements: mixed Soviet-Romanian companies established to mask the looting of
Romania by the Soviet Union.
Soviet occupation following World War II led to the formation of a communist People's
Republic in 1947, and the abdication of King Michael, who went into exile. The leader of
Romania from 1948 to his death in 1965 was Gheorghe Gheorghiu-Dej, the First Secretary of
the Romanian Workers' Party, who first sowed the seeds of greater independence from the Soviet
Union by persuading Soviet First Secretary Nikita Khrushchev to withdraw troops from Romania
in April 1958.
Nicolae Ceauşescu condemning the Warsaw Pact invasion of Czechoslovakia in
1968
After the negotiated retreat of Soviet troops,
Romania, under the new leadership of Nicolae
Ceauşescu, started to pursue independent policies,
including the condemnation of the Soviet-led 1968
invasion of Czechoslovakia (Romania being the only Warsaw Pact country not to take part in the
invasion), the continuation of diplomatic relations with Israel after the Six-Day War of 1967
(again, the only Warsaw Pact country to do so), and the establishment of economic (1963) and
diplomatic (1967) relations with the Federal Republic of Germany. Also, close ties with
the Arab countries (and the PLO) allowed Romania to play a key role in the Israel-Egypt and
Israel-PLO peace processes by intermediating the visit
of Sadat in Israel.
As Romania's foreign debt sharply increased
between 1977 and 1981 (from 3 to 10 billion US
dollars), the influence of international financial
organisations such as the IMF and the World Bank grew,
conflicting with Nicolae Ceauşescu's autarchic policies.
Ceauşescu eventually initiated a project of total
reimbursement of the foreign debt (completed in 1989,
shortly before his overthrow). To achieve this goal, he
imposed policies that impoverished Romanians and
exhausted the Romanian economy. He greatly extended the
authority of the police state and imposed a cult of
personality. These led to a dramatic decrease in Ceauşescu's
popularity and culminated in his overthrow and execution in
the bloody Romanian Revolution of 1989.
Seduced by Ceauşescu's "Independent" foreign
policy, Western leaders were slow to turn against a regime
that, by the late 1970s, had become increasingly arbitrary,
capricious and harsh. Rapid economic growth fueled by
foreign credits gradually gave way to wrenching austerity
and severe political repression, which became increasingly
draconian through the 1980s. During the 1947–1962 period,
many people were arbitrarily killed or imprisoned for political, economic or unknown reasons:
detainees in prisons or camps, deported persons, persons under house arrest, and administrative
detainees.
Nicolae Ceaușescu
General Secretary of the Romanian
Communist Party
There were hundreds of thousands of abuses, deaths and incidents of torture against a
large range of people, from political opponents to ordinary citizens. Between 60,000and 80,000
political prisoners were detained as psychiatric patients and treated in some of the most sadistic
ways by doctors. It is estimated that, in total, two million people were direct victims of
Communist repression in Romania.
Standard as President of Romania in Communist
1989 Revolution
The Romanian Revolution of 1989 resulted
in more than 1,000 deaths
in Timişoara and Bucharest, and brought about
the fall of Ceauşescu and the end of the
Communist regime in Romania. After a
weeklong state of unrest in Timişoara, a mass
rally summoned in Bucharest in support of
Ceauşescu on December 21, 1989 turned
hostile. The Ceauşescu couple, fleeing
Bucharest by helicopter, ended up in the
custody of the army.
After being tried and convicted by
a kangaroo court for genocide and other crimes,
they were executed on December 25, 1989. The
events of this revolution remain to this day a
matter of debate, with many conflicting theories
as to the motivations and even actions of some
of the main players.
Ion Iliescu, a former Communist Party official marginalized by Ceauşescu, attained
national recognition as the leader of an impromptu governing coalition, the National Salvation
Romanian Revolution
Part of the Revolutions of 1989
Demonstrators and army vehicles in Bucharest
Front (FSN) that proclaimed the restoration of democracy and civil liberties on December 22,
1989. The Communist Party was initially outlawed by Ion Iliescu, but he soon revoked that
decision; as a consequence, Communism is not outlawed in Romania today. However,
Ceauşescu's most controversial measures, such as bans on abortion and contraception, were
among the first laws to be changed after the Revolution, and their legality has not been widely
questioned since then.
Transition of to free market (1990-2004)
After the fall of Ceauşescu, the National Salvation Front (FSN), led by Ion Iliescu, took
partial multi-party democratic and free market measures. Several major political parties of the
pre-war era, such as the National Christian Democrat Peasant's Party (PNŢCD), the National
Liberal Party (PNL) and the Romanian Social Democrat Party (PSDR) were resurrected. After
several major political rallies (especially in January), in April 1990, a sit-in protest contesting the
results of the recently held parliamentary elections began inUniversity Square, Bucharest.
The protesters accused the FSN of being made up of former Communists and members of
the Securitate. The protesters did not recognize the results of the election, which they deemed
undemocratic, and were asking for the exclusion from the political life of the former high-ranking
Communist Party members. The protest rapidly grew to become an ongoing mass demonstration
(known as the Golaniad). The peaceful demonstrations degenerated into violence, with some of
the protesters attacking the police headquarters, national television station, and the Foreign
Ministry.
After the police failed to bring the demonstrators to order, Ion Iliescu called on the "men of
good will" to come and defend the State institutions in Bucharest.Various worker groups from
Romania's industrial platforms responded, some of whom engaged in altercations with the
protesters. But the most visible and politically influential were the coal miners of the Jiu Valley.
After representatives of the government met with leaders of the Jiu Valley coal miners union,
thousands of miners were organized and arrived in Bucharest June 14.
Presidential and parliamentary elections were held on May 20, 1990. Running against
representatives of the re-established pre-war National
Peasants' Party and National Liberal Party, and taking
advantage of FSN's tight control of the national radio and
television, Iliescu won 85% of the vote. The FSN secured
two-thirds of the seats in Parliament. A university
professor with strong family roots in the Communist
Party, Petre Roman, was named prime minister of the
new government, which consisted mainly of former
communist officials. The government initiated
modest free market reforms. Ion Iliescu
Because the majority of ministers in the Petre Roman government were ex-communists,
anti-communist protesters initiated a round-the-clock anti-government demonstration in
University Square, Bucharest in April 1990. Two months later, these protesters, whom the
government referred to as "hooligans", were brutally dispersed by the miners from Jiu Valley,
called in by President Iliescu; this event became known as the mineriad (see June 1990
Mineriad). The facts surrounding these events are disputed by the miners, who claim that most of
the violence was perpetrated by government agents that were agitating the crowds.
Some of the counter-protesters also attacked the headquarters and private residences of
opposition leaders. Later Parliamentary inquiries showed that members of the government
intelligence services were involved in the instigation and manipulation of both the protesters and
the miners, and in June 1994 a Bucharest court found two former Securitate officers guilty of
ransacking and stealing $100,000 from the house of a leading opposition politician. Petre
Roman's government fell in late September 1991, when the miners returned to Bucharest to
demand higher salaries. A technocrat, Theodor Stolojan, was appointed to head an interim
government until new elections could be held.
New constitution
In December 1991, a new constitution was drafted and subsequently adopted, after a
popular referendum, which, however, attracted criticism from international observers who
accused the government of manipulating the population and even of outright fraud. (The
constitution was most recently revised by a national referendum on October 18–19, 2003, again
plagued by fraud accusations made by internal and international observers.) The new
constitution, which took effect October 29, 2003, follows the structure of the Constitution of
1991, but makes significant revisions, among which the most significant are extension of the
presidential mandate from four years to five, and the guaranteed protection of private property.
March 1992 marked the split of the FSN into two groups: the Democratic National
Front (FDSN), led by Ion Iliescu and the Democratic Party (PD), led by Petre Roman. Iliescu
won the presidential elections in September 1992 by a clear margin, and his FDSN won the
general elections held at the same time. With parliamentary support from the nationalist PUNR
(National Unity Party of Romanians), PRM (Great Romania Party), and the ex-communist PSM
(Socialist Workers' Party), a new government was formed in November 1992 under Prime
Minister Nicolae Văcăroiu, an economist. The FDSN changed its name to Party of Social
Democracy in Romania (PDSR) in July 1993.
The subsequent disintegration of the FSN produced several political parties including the
Romanian Democrat Social Party (PDSR, later Social Democratic Party, PSD), the Democratic
Party (PD) and the ApR (Alliance for Romania). The PDSR party governed Romania from 1990
until 1996 through several coalitions and governments with Ion Iliescu as head of state. Since
then there have been three democratic changes of government: in 1996, the democratic-liberal
opposition and its leader Emil Constantinescu acceded to power; in 2000 the Social Democrats
returned to power, with Iliescu once again president; and in 2004 Traian Băsescu was elected
president, with an electoral coalition called Justice and Truth Alliance (DA). The government
was formed by a larger coalition which also includes the Conservative Party and the ethnic
Hungarian party.
Emil Constantinescu of the Democratic
Convention (CDR) emerged as the winner of the
second round of the 1996 presidential elections and
replaced Iliescu as chief of state. The PDSR won the
largest number of seats in Parliament, but was unable
to form a viable coalition. Constituent parties of the
CDR joined the Democratic Party (PD), the National
Liberal Party (PNL) and the Hungarian Democratic
Union of Romania (UDMR) to form a centrist
coalition government, holding 60% of the seats in
Parliament.
This coalition of sorts frequently struggled for
survival, as decisions were often delayed by long
periods of negotiations among the involved parties.
Nevertheless, this coalition was able to implement
several critical reforms. The new coalition
government, under prime minister Victor
Ciorbea remained in office until March 1998,
when Radu Vasile (PNŢCD) took over as prime minister. The former governor of the National
Bank, Mugur Isărescu, eventually replaced Radu Vasile as head of the government.
The 2000 elections, brought Iliescu's PDSR, known as Social Democratic Party (PSD) after
the merger with the PSDR, back to power. Iliescu won a third term as the country's
president. Adrian Năstase became the prime minister of the newly formed government.
Adrian Năstase Mugur Isărescu
Emil Constantinescu
3rd President of Romania
European Union membership (2004- present)
Presidential and parliamentary elections took place again on November 28, 2004. No political
party was able to secure a viable parliamentary majority and opposition parties alike that the PSD
had committed large-scale electoral fraud There
was no winner in the first round of the presidential
elections. The joint PNL-PD candidate, Traian
Băsescu, won the second round on December 12,
2004 with 51% of the vote and thus became the
third post-revolutionary president of Romania.
The PNL leader, Călin Popescu
Tăriceanu was assigned the difficult task of
building a coalition government without including
the PSD. In December 2004, the new coalition
government (PD, PNL, PUR Romanian Humanist
Party - which eventually changed its name
to Romanian Conservative Party and UDMR), was
sworn in under Prime Minister Tăriceanu.
Post–Cold War Romania developed closer
ties with Western Europe, eventually
joining NATO in 2004. The country applied in
June 1993 for membership in the European Union (EU). It became an Associated State of the EU
in 1995, an Acceding Country in 2004, and a member on January 1, 2007.
Following the free travel agreement and politic of the post–Cold War period, as well as
hardship of the life in the post 1990s economic depression, Romania has an increasingly large
diaspora. The main emigration targets are Spain, Italy, Germany, Austria, UK, Canada and the
USA.
Traian Băsescu
Romania joined the North Atlantic Treaty Organization in 2004, and the European Union,
alongside Bulgaria, on January 1, 2007.
In April 2008, Bucharest hosted the NATO summit.
In January 2012, Romania started the first large national protests since '89, motivated by
the global economical crisis of that time and as an answer to the crisis situations and unrest in
Europe of 2000s.
[|áàÉÜç Éy fÑt|Ç
HISTORY OF SPAIN
Iberia enters written records as a land populated largely by the Iberians and Celts. After an arduous
conquest, the Peninsula came under the rule of Rome. During the early Middle Ages it came under
Germanic rule but later, it was conquered by Moorish invaders from North Africa. In a process that
took centuries, the small Christian kingdoms in the north gradually regained control of the
Peninsula. The last Moorish kingdom fell in the same year Columbus reached the Americas. A
global empire began which saw Spain become the strongest kingdom in Europe and the leading
world power for a century and a half and the largest overseas empire for three centuries.
Continued wars and other problems eventually led to a diminished status. The Napoleonic invasions
of Spain led to chaos, triggering independence movements that tore apart most of the empire and
left the country politically unstable. Prior to the Second World War, Spain suffered a devastating
civil war and came under the rule of an authoritarian government, whose rule oversaw a period of
stagnation but that finished with a powerful economic surge. Eventually democracy was peacefully
restored in the form of a parliamentary constitutional monarchy.
Spain joined the European Union, experiencing a cultural renaissance and steady economic
growth.
"Regnorum Hispaniae nova descriptio". 1631. Willem Blaeu. (casareal.es)
Prehistory and pre-Roman peoples
Archaeological research at Atapuerca indicates the Iberian Peninsula was populated by hominids
1.2 million years ago.
Modern humans first arrived in Iberia, from the north on foot, about 35,000 years ago. The two
main historical peoples of the Peninsula were the Iberians and the Celts. The Iberians inhabited the
Mediterranean side from the northeast to the southeast. The Celts inhabited the Atlantic side, in the
north, center (Celtiberian), northwest and southwest part of the Peninsula.
Western Mediterranean 509 B.C (ccssloranca.files.wordpress.com)
Phoenicians and Greeks is documented by Strabo and the Book of Solomon. Between about 800
BCE and 300 BCE, the seafaring Phoenicians and Greeks founded trading colonies along the
Mediterranean coast. The Carthaginians briefly exerted control over much of the Mediterranean side
of the Peninsula, until defeated in the Punic Wars by the Romans.
Roman Empire and the Gothic Kingdom
During the Second Punic War, an expanding Roman Empire captured Carthaginian trading colonies
along the Mediterranean coast from roughly 210 to 205 BCE. It took the Romans nearly two
centuries to complete the conquest of the Iberian Peninsula, though they had control of it for over
six centuries. Roman rule was bound together by law, language, and the Roman road. The cultures
of the Celtic and Iberian populations were gradually romanised (Latinised) at differing rates in
different parts of Hispania.
Christianity was introduced into Hispania in the 1st century of the Template Common Era and it
became popular in the cities in the 2nd century CE. Most of Spain's present languages and religion,
and the basis of its laws, originate from this period.
The weakening of the cWestern Roman Empire's jurisdiction in Hispania began in 409, when the
Germanic Suebi and Vandals, together with the Sarmatian Alans crossed the Rhine and ravaged
Gaul until the Visigoths drove them into Iberia that same year.
The Alans' allies, the Hasdingi Vandals, established a kingdom in Gallaecia, too, occupying largely
the same region but extending farther south to the Duero river. The Silingi Vandals occupied the
region that still bears a form of their name –Vandalusia, modern Andalusia, in Spain. The
Byzantines established an enclave, Spania, in the south, with the intention of reviving the Roman
empire throughout Iberia. Eventually, however, Hispania was reunited under Visigothic rule.
Muslim Iberia
In the 8th century, nearly all of the Iberian Peninsula was conquered (711–718) by largely Moorish
Muslim armies from North Africa. These conquests were part of the expansion of the Umayyad
Caliphate. Only a small area in the mountainous north-west of the peninsula managed to resist the
initial invasion.
Córdoba, the capital of the caliphate, was the largest, richest and most sophisticated city in western
Europe. The Romanised cultures of the Iberian peninsula interacted with Muslim and Jewish
cultures in complex ways, thus giving the region a distinctive culture.
In the 11th century, the Muslim holdings fractured into rival Taifa kingdoms, allowing the small
Christian states the opportunity to greatly enlarge their territories.
Fall of Muslim rule and unification
The Reconquista ("Reconquest") was the centuries-long period of expansion of Iberia's Christian
kingdoms. The breakup of Al-Andalus into the competing taifa kingdoms helped the long embattled
Iberian Christian kingdoms gain the initiative. The capture of the strategically central city of Toledo
in 1085 marked a significant shift in the balance of power in favour of the Christian kingdoms.
The year 1492 also marked the arrival in the New World of Cristopher Columbus, during a voyage
funded by Isabel. As Renaissance New Monarchs, Isabella and Ferdinand centralised royal power at
the expense of local nobility, and the word España, whose root is the ancient name Hispania, began
to be commonly used to designate the whole of the two kingdoms. With their wide-ranging
political, legal, religious and military reforms, Spain emerged as the first worl power.
Imperial Spain
The unification of the crowns of Aragon and Castile by the marriage of their sovereigns laid the
basis for modern Spain and the Spanish Empire, although each kingdom of Spain remained a
separate country, in social, political, laws, currency and language. Spain was Europe's leading
power throughout the 16th century and most of the 17th century, a position reinforced by trade and
wealth from colonial possessions. It reached its apogee during the reigns of the first two Spanish
Habsburgs – Charles I (1516–1556) and Philip II (1556–1598).
This period saw the Italians Wars, the revolt of the comuneros, the Dutch revolt, the Morisco revolt,
clashes with the Ottomans, the Anglo-Spanish war and wars with France.
The Spanish Empire expanded to include great parts of the Americas, islands in the Asia-Pacific
area, areas of Italy, cities in Northern Africa, as well as parts of what are now France, Germany,
Belgium, Luxembourg, and the Netherlands. It was the first empire of which it was said that the sun
never set.
In the latter half of the 17th century, Spain went into a gradual relative decline, during which it
surrendered several small territories to France and the Netherlands; however, it maintained and
enlarged its vast overseas empire, which remained intact until the beginning of the 19th century.
The 18th century saw a gradual recovery and an increase in prosperity through much of the empire.
The new Bourbon monarchy drew on the French system of modernising the administration and the
economy.
Napoleonic rule and its consequences
In 1807, the secret Treaty of Fontainebleau between Napoleon and the deeply unpopular Godoy led
to a declaration of war against Britain and Portugal. French troops entered the kingdom unopposed,
supposedly to invade Portugal, but instead they occupied Spanish fortresses. This invasion by
trickery led to the abdication of the ridiculed Spanish king in favour of Napoleon's brother, Joseph
Bonaparte.
The 2nd May 1808 revolt was one of many nationalist uprisings against the Bonapartist regime
across the country. These revolts marked the beginning of what is known to the Spanish as the War
of Independence. Napoleon was forced to intervene personally, defeating several badly coordinated
Spanish armies and forcing a British army to retreat. However, further military action by Spanish
guerrillas and armies, and Wellington's British-Portuguese forces, combined with Napoleon's
disastrous invasion of Russia, led to the ousting of the French imperial armies from the Spain in
1814, and the return of King Ferdinand VII.
Spanish Civil War
The Spanish Civil War (1936–39) ensued. Three years later the rebel Nationalist forces, led by
General Francisco Franco, emerged victorious with the support of Nazi Germany and Fascist Italy.
The Republican side was supported by the Soviet Union, Mexico and International Brigades, but it
was not supported officially by the Western powers due to the British-led policy of Non-
Intervention.
The Civil War claimed the lives of over 500,000 people and caused the flight of up to a half-million
citizens. Most of their descendants now live in Latin American countries, with some 300,000 in
Argentina alone.
Spain under Franco
After World War II Spain was politically and economically isolated, and was kept out of the United
Nations. This changed in 1955, during the Cold War period, when it became strategically important
for the U.S. to establish a military presence on the Iberian peninsula as a counter to any possible
move by the Soviet Union into the Mediterranean basin. In the 1960s, Spain registered an
unprecedented rate of economic growth in what became known as the Spanish miracle, which
resumed the much interrupted transition towards a modern economy.
Post-Franco
With Franco's death in November 1975, Juan Carlos succeeded to the position of King of Spain and
head of state in accordance with the law. With the approval of the new Spanish Constitution of 1978
and the restoration of democracy, the State devolved much authority to the regions and created an
internal organisation based on autonomous communities.
On 30 May 1982 Spain joined NATO, following a referendum. In 1986 Spain joined the
European Community, which later became the European Union.
HISTORY OF EXTREMADURA
Prehistory
Cave Dwellers : the earliest evidence of human presence in Extremadura is found at the pre-
historic cave of Maltravieso, containing paintings dated by paleontologists at approximately 30,000
B.C. Depicted in these paintings are hands missing the little finger, leading some to link this to
some sort of magical religious rite.
Prehistoric Tribes: before the arrival of the Romans, Extremadura was inhabited by four principal
tribes: from the Tagus River northward, the Vetonians; from the southern border to the Guadiana
River, the Turdetanians; in the central zone, the Lusitanians; and in the Western strip (near present-
day Badajoz), the Celts.
Dating from the Iron Age there are other castros generally built on top of hills or high plains. The
inhabitants of Extremadura during this time seem to have lived primarily from raising livestock,
mostly cattle, goats, sheep and pigs. Land apparently belonged jointly to tribal groups, with the
women responsible for the cultivation of crops such as wheat, olives, and grapes. The men
dedicated their time to hunting and to defending their people against attacks. There appears to have
been some mining as well as some commerical interchange with the Phoenicians. There have also
been found some artifacts of Carthaginian and of Greek origin, although not significant enough to
lead one to conclude these colonizers made it to Extremadura. From this period, as well, there is
evidence of much religious activity, denoted by cave paintings, magical rites, and special burial
ceremonies.
Roman Age
Extremadura first came into contact with Roman civilization between the years 155 and 152 B.C.
when the local Lusitananians and Vetonians began to defend themselves against Roman invasions.
The real establishment of Roman society in all of the province of Lusitania (including what is now
Extremadura) began in the the year 25 B.C. with the founding of the city Emérita Augusta
(Mérida), built as a home base for the Roman legions VAlauda and X Gémina, who had fought
against the Asturs and Cantabrians in the north of the peninsula. In a short time, Mérida came to be
the most important Roman city of the Iberian peninsula, and the 8th most important in all of the
empire.
An important point along the Vía de la Plata, the Roman highway which joined Asturias to
Andalusia, was the magnificent bridge which crossed the Guadiana River at Mérida.
“Via de la Plata” the Roman Highway. (www.lugaresconencanto.org)
Middle Ages
During the Middle Ages, the history of Extremadura can be broken down into three main periods:
a) Barbaric Peoples
b) Arab Conquest
c) Christian Reconquest
The Occupation by the Barbaric People
With the invasion of the Barbaric tribes came the loss of influence of many of the Roman cities,
(with the exception of Mérida, which continued on as the regional capital) and the increasing
ruralization of Extremadura. The continued cultural importance of Mérida is evidenced in its
election as the seat of the Archbishopric of Spain. The archbishop Masona was elected by the
Fathers of the Spanish church to preside the Third Council of Toledo, in which the Visigothic king
Reccared officially renounced his loyalty to Arianism and converted to Catholicism. As a result,
there was an increased merging of hispano-roman and visigothic cultures.
The Conquest and Domination of the Arabs
In the year 713, Mérida fell captive to the advancing army of the Arab general, Muza. From this
time, on several occasion the Berbers who settled in Mérida, as well as the remaining Christians,
attempted uprisings against the Emirate of Córdoba, but were eventually put down. In 855, when
Mérida is defeated by the forces of Mohammed I, that the population of Mérida looks to the
protection of Abderramán-ibm-Meruvan, who had established himself in the then small village of
Badajoz. In the following years as Meruvan gained in power, Badajoz gained in significance and
prestige, surpassing the importance of Mérida in the region. In the year 930, Mérida and Badajoz
were named as capitals of two separate provinces.
The Christian Reconquest
In 1142 Alfonso VII reconquered Coria and initiated the great Christian advance in Extremadura.
During succeeding years, various cities and fortresses in the region changed hands back and forth
between Christian and Muslim forces. During the years 1218-1230, important Christian gains were
made under the reign of Alfonso IX and the contribution of the military orders of Alcántara and
Calatrava.
Soldier from
“Orden de Calatrava”
(www.todoavante.es)
Conquistadors
Land of the Conquistadors
Extremadura was the cradle of the world's most famous discoverers and explorers of the New
World. Without the aid of modern communication, traveling mostly on foot in heavy medieval
armour, these men blazed the first trails across the New World. Here is a list of some of their
discoveries and explorations:
Land of Conquistadors
Mississippi River
Florida, Georgia, South Carolina, North
Carolina, Alabama, Mississippi, Arkansas
and Louisiana
Hernando de Soto
Pacific Ocean Vasco Núñez de Balboa
Aztec Empire Hernán Cortés
Inca Empire Peru Francisco Pizarro
Amazon River Francisco de Orellana
During the Spanish conquest of America, the vast majority of the most famous conquistadores were
born in Extremadura. These include among others, Cortés, Pizarro, Orellana, Vasco Núñez de
Balboa, Hernando de Soto, Alvarado, and Valdivia. The rationale given to explain the participation
of so many Extremadurans in the conquest of America is in part the relative economic privation of
the region and the dream of finding riches in the fabled El Dorado
Francisco Pizarro (1471-1541).
Conquerer of Peru.
During the modern and contemporary eras Extremadura was affected by two principal factors: the
consequences of the medieval Reconquest and its setting along the border with Portugal. On the
heels of the Reconquest, the land in Extremadura was divided between the military orders, and the
various royalty and aristocracy. The common people were considered as vassals of one of these
three groups. At the same time, the border with Portugal led to Extremadura being the scene of
continual pillaging and at times to open war with the Spanish ruling forces. These conflicts include
the fighting related to the ascendancy of Isabella to the throne of Castille, the armed intervention
accompanying the pretension of Spanish king Felipe II to the Portuguese crown, the almost three
decade long War of Restoration fought from 1640 to 1668, and at the beginning of the 18th century
the War of Spanish Succession.
1
Finnish history
The Swedish Empire 1249-1809 The middle ages in Finland began after
the Iron Age during the crusades in the
12th century. The campaigns organized
by the king of Sweden connected Finland
to Sweden for almost 600 years. The
Middle Ages brought religion and signs
of power to Finland. The crown built
castles and the religious people built
castles for their god. The role of the
bishop was rising as a leader and a tax
collector.
In the Middle Ages Finland was the
battlefield of the east and west.
The divided church, the Orthodoxies and
the Catholics of the west fought long for
the bordering areas of their countries.
Finland's part of the war was agreed in
peace treaty of Pähkinäsaari 1323.
The western people of Karelia and the
people of Savo came to the western
church's sphere of influence, when the
area of Laatokka was left to be the
Orthodox Church’s support area.
Reformation
1527
The reformation in Finland was done by
Mikael Agricola and Paavali Juusten. Its
most central principles were the teaching
of the Christian religion in Finnish and
Mikael Agricola started to make the
written language of Finnish. A church
service with the people's mother tongue
has not been recorded in any other way
other than in Paavali Juusten's memory.
2
The Cudgel War 1596-1597
Cudgel War was Finnish peasants’ rebel
against the nobility. The war ended
horribly. Over 3000 of peasants died. One
famous person of the Cudgel War was
Jaakko Ilkka. He was a rich man and he
started the first conflict of the Cudgel
War.
The huge famine 1695-1697
One third of Finns died. The frost took
the harvest, potatoes and root vegetables
rotted to the fields, and lots of people got
sick.
Russian Grand Duchy
1809—1917
The estate society
In the 1800's in Finland there were four
estates; nobility, clergy, bourgeoisie and
peasantry; people had rights and duties
according to which estate he belonged to.
In Finland about 70% of the people didn’t
belong to any estate in the 1800's.
Finnish war 1808-1809
French Emperor Napoleon and Tsar
Alexander I agreed in Tilsit in 1807 to put
pressure on Sweden to join continent
trade embargo, which was directed
against England. When Sweden would
not be persuaded, Russia began military
operations against Sweden at the end of
February 1808. The army proceeded to
Southern Finland without significant
resistance. The war continued in the
central and in the northern parts of
Finland further into the next year. The
poorly led Swedish-Finnish army’s
military actions brought, despite some
winning battles, a loss. Finland became a
part of Russia in the peace treaty of
Hamina on the seventeenth of September
1809.
3
Porvoo’s parliament 1809
During the war the emperor of Russia
Alexander I invited the parliament to
Porvoo. The members of the four estates
swore loyalty to the emperor and the
emperor gave sovereign insurance, where
he promised that Finnish people could
have their own religion and their own
constitution. A major change to the
earlier governmental position was that
Finland was given autonomy. A new
period began in the Finnish history.
Autonomy becomes true
1855 - 1891
Alexander II’s rise to the emperor started
a new season in Finland. Finland got own
stamps (1856) and money (1860). The first
railway from Helsinki to Hämeenlinna
finished in 1862. The Finnish language
became an official management and trial
language. The parliament of estate
gathered in 1863. An extensive economic
and societal renewal started in Finland
which continued over two decades.
4
Independence
1917
The First World War and the Russian
revolution made the independence of
Finland possible. Finland became
independent on the sixth of December
1917.
Finland's Independence
Finland became independent on the 6th
of December in 1917. Finland was meant
to be a kingdom. Finnish people wanted a
king from Germany. His name was
Friedrich Karl, but he gave up the crown
and never came to Finland.
Civil war 1918
In January 1918, there began a civil war in
Finland. The worker class in Finland, the
so called “reds” started the revolution.
And the opposite side the "whites”, led
by Regent Carl Gustav Emil Mannerheim,
announced themselves as the official
army. The war lasted for four months
and ended in the victory of the “whites”
in May 1918.
The war had its price. The “whites” lost
an estimated amount of 3100 men and the
“reds” 3600. The “reds” had killed 1649
“whites” outside of the war.
Kingdom or republic?
The Independent Finland was meant to
be republic but the experiences of the
civil war supported the monarchists. The
socialists who joined the rebellion lacked
from parliament, and the monarchists
wanted Finland to become a kingdom. As
a consequence of Germany being
defeated in the war, Finland didn’t
become a kingdom. The first president of
the republic was K.J Ståhlberg.
Winter war 1939
Finland got in to the Soviet Union’s front
lines during the non-aggression pact. In
October Moscow invited Finland to the
negotiations, where Finland was asked to
give away territories to Soviet Union.
Because Finland didn’t agree, Soviet
Union started a war by opening fire at
Kannas and bombing Helsinki. Finland
was supported by many matters against
the enemy in the war. Finland’s advances
were cold winter and the ability to use
the terrain. Despite some great victories,
Finland had to lose to Soviet Union and
give up big territories.
5
Continuation war
1941
Germany started an attack against the
Soviet Union on the twenty-second of
June 1941. Finns neither wanted to show
as attacker nor Germany’s confederate.
The goal of the war was to get Karelia
back.
Soviet Union started a big attack on
Karelia on the ninth of June 1944. 11 days
later Finland lost Vyborg. President Ryti
got help from Germany and things
started to get better but Germans would
help only if Finland didn’t make a peace
treaty with the Soviet Union.
Moscow’s truce was concluded in the
beginning of September and its
conditions were confirmed in Paris 1947.
Lapland War
The Lapland War was a war between
Finland and Germany from September
1944 to April 1945. Finns had to drive the
Germans away from Finland by 15th
September. The Germans were still in
Northern Finland that day so Finns
started a war. The Germans started to
destroy Lapland. The worst part was
already over in November 1944 but the
rest of the Germans left Finland in April
1945.
Finland had to cut off all the relationships
to Germany and the Germans had to
leave the country. When the Germans
left, they burnt almost the whole
Lapland. Finland lost 10% of their
territories because the Soviet Union
wanted more area from Finland.
Finland had to pay 600 million dollars as
war indemnity in six years. Later they
dropped the amount of the indemnities
lower, but the amount rose to the original
in 1952. The indemnities were paid fully
in 1952.
6
From YYA-Treaty to the
European Union
After the war Juho Kusti Paasikivi was
chosen as president after Mannerheim
1946. He created a new political line in
the difficult situation with respect to the
USSR. It was called the Line of Paasikivi.
National self-confidence was improved
especially with the Olympics of Helsinki.
Finland became a member of the United
Nations and the Nordic Council.
Economic growth has been fast until the
beginning of the 1990s. The biggest
reason for the growth was business with
the Soviet Union. Finland became a
member of the European Free Trade
Association (EFTA) 1961.
Finland’s long-term president Urho
Kekkonen resigned his position as a
president in autumn 1982.
In 1982 Prime Minister Mauno Koivisto
was chosen president.
The Soviet Union came down at the
beginning of 1990. In 1995 Finland
became a member of the European Union
after the new president Martti Ahtisaari
was elected.
Immigration
Immigrants have left to the USA,
Australia and Russia from Finland. An
important immigration started in the
1860s and continued till the 1930s, the
Finnish moved abroad a lot, about 12 000-
14 000 people every year.
In 2011 immigrants have come to Finland
from Russia, Somalia, China, India and
USA. Since 1980 there have been more
movers to Finland than leavers. In 1969
and 1970 the emigration was so fast that
the Finnish population dropped. The
move from Finland to Sweden grew very
much after the Second World War.
Shortage of labor in Sweden was reason
for immigration.
7
The Success Stories of
Finland
Finland is a rather small country with just
a few actual Finnish companies, but still
some of them have gained popularity
worldwide. These companies include the
famous ex-leading telephone company
Nokia, Rovio (the company behind
Angry Birds), Marimekko (a Finnish
fashion design company), Supercell (the
company behind Clash of Clans and Hay
Day), Hesburger (a Finnish fast-food
company that currently has stores in
Finland, Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania,
Germany, Russia, Ukraine, and is
planned to open in Poland and Brazil).
8
Finnish Presidents
1919-1925
Kaarlo Juho Ståhlberg
Kaarlo Juho Ståhlberg was a Finnish jurist and academic, who
played a central role in the drafting of the Constitution of Finland
in 1919. He was the first President of Finland (1919–1925) and a
nationalist liberal.
1925–1931
Lauri Kristian Relander
Lauri Kristian Relander was the second President of Finland. A
Prominent member of the Agrarian League, he served as a
member of Parliament, and as Speaker, before his election as
President.
1931-1937
Pehr Evind Svinhufvud
Pehr Evind Svinhufvud was the first Head of State of
independent Finland 1918 and third President of Finland from
1931 to 1937. Serving as a lawyer, judge, and politician in the
Russian Grand Duchy of Finland, he played a major role in the
movement for Finnish independence.
9
1937-1940
Kyösti Kallio
Kyösti Kallio was the fourth President of Finland. He was a
prominent leader of the Agrarian League, and served as Prime
Minister four times and Speaker of the Parliament six times.
1940-1944
Risto Heikki Ryti
Risto Heikki Ryti was the fifth President of Finland, from 1940 to
1944. Ryti started his career as a politician in the field of
economics and as a political background figure during the
interwar period.
1944-1946
Carl Gustaf Emil Mannerheim
Baron Carl Gustaf Emil Mannerheim was a Finnish military
leader and statesman. Mannerheim served as the military leader
of the Whites in the Finnish Civil War, Regent of Finland,
Commander In-Chief of Finland's Defense during World War II,
and the sixth President of Finland.
10
1946-1956
Juho Kusti Paasikivi
Juho Kusti Paasikivi was the seventh President of Finland.
Representing the Finnish Party and the National Coalition Party,
he also served as Prime Minister of Finland and was generally an
influential figure in Finnish economics and politics for over fifty
years.
1956-1982
Urho Kaleva Kekkonen
Urho Kaleva Kekkonen was a Finnish politician who served as
Prime Minister of Finland and later as the eighth and longest-
serving President of Finland. Kekkonen continued the “active
neutrality” policy of his predecessor President Juho Kusti
Paasikivi, a doctrine that came to be known as the “Paasikivi–
Kekkonen line”, under which Finland retained its independence
while maintaining extensive trade with both NATO members as
well as those of the Warsaw Pact.
1982-1994
Mauno Henrik Koivisto
Mauno Henrik Koivisto is a Finnish politician who served as the
ninth President of Finland from 1982 to 1994. He also served as
Prime Minister 1968–1970 and 1979–1982. He was the first Social
Democrat to be elected as President.
11
1994-2000
Martti Oiva Kalevi Ahtisaari
Martti Oiva Kalevi Ahtisaari is a Finnish politician, the tenth
President of Finland, Nobel Peace Prize laureate and United
Nations diplomat and mediator, noted for his international peace
work.
2000-2012
Tarja Kaarina Halonen
Tarja Kaarina Halonen is a Finnish politician who was the 11th
President of Finland, serving from 2000 to 2012. The first female
head of state in Finland, Halonen had previously held two
appointments as a minister and served as a member of the
parliament from 1979 to 2000 until her election to the presidency.
2012-
Sauli Väinämö Niinistö
Sauli Väinämö Niinistö is the 12th and current President of
Finland, in office since 2012. A lawyer by education, Niinistö
was Minister of Finance from 1996 to 2003 and the National
Coalition Party candidate in the 2006 presidential election.
ANATOLIAN CIVILIZATION
HITTIES
Hitite rock Sculpture
PHRYGIANS
Vase of Phrigians
Sard City
Hitties who spoke a language which is a kind of
Indo-europan language family, ruled Anatolia for a
long time and introduced themselves finely through
their specific lifestyles. There are some arguments
about their origin of place. Some says they come from
Thrace, Caucasus. Their first settlement is Hattuşa
which was near Middle Anatolia, Çorum. This place is
the capital of state. They govern the country between
1450-1200 BC. Their language is the first known
language in Indo-Europe language family. They used
another language in their formal writing. They wrote on
clay tablets. Today the writings on the surface of the
rocks which can be found almost everywhere in
Anatolia is hieroglyph alphabet. . The first treatment in
history is Kades treatment which was signed by Hitties
and Egypt (Ramses II). There are a lot of stone
memorials and a variety of clay tablets with pictograms
in Anatolia.
The kingdom was settled in Middle Anatolia between 750-300 BC. They came from Europe in 1200
through straits to Anatolia. They battled with Assur long years. When Midas was the king it was their
golden age, their most productive eras in art and commerce. They were polytheist. Their famous god
is mother god Kbele. They made progress on weaving, woodworking and mining. They had unique
style. Phrygians gave importance on agriculture and made laws on it. For example the penalty of
killing an ox or breaking cultivator is death.
URARTIANS
LYIANS
Lydians money
IONIA
Efesos
The kingdom was established on the
east side of Anatolia. At first they were
living dispersed confederation then they
came together and became stronger. Owing
to using metallic weapons their military
success got power. They battled with Assur,
Meds who ruled over Persia and Scythians
coming from Caucasia. It was Meds who put
an end to the presence of Urartians.
They made history with inventing money and
using it. They ruled West Anatolia and Antalya. They
are also knows by their famous “king way”. Lydians
adored Sun and Moon gods. Their capital city was
Sard. The remains are in Manisa, Salihli in Turkey
now. They were destroyed by Meds
They were settled down İzmir and Büyük
Menderes area. They lived as city- state
which is called as “polis”. The basic city
states are Smyrna, Phocaean, Ephesus,
Mylet. These city states could not unite
because of the commerce and the keenness of
liberty but they had got the union of culture
due to their belief. They got a wide web of
commerce thanks to their commerce colonies
settled on the coast of Mediterranean. Thales,
Psagor, Diogenes and Homerros are the
famous Ionian scholars. . Artemis temple
which is one of the 7 wonders of the world
and Apollon temple belong to Ionians. They
were destroyed by Persians.
ROMANS
Aspendos Theatre in Antalya
BYZANTION
After the split of the Roman Empire in 395 Eastern Roman Empire began to be called as this
name. Tey reigned a long period of time until 1453. Te capital city was Constantinople (Istanbul). The
Hrakleios, Isavria, Makedonia, Dukases, Kommenoses families were in the state administration for a
long time. Byzantion Empire who ruled 1000 years has taken its place thanks to the contribution and
giving value to science and art. The most outstanding work of art in Bzyantion is Saint Sophia. This
temple was used as church for 1000 years, used as mosque for 500 years and now this is a museum.
Istanbul which was the capital city of Roman Empire was the largest city of world. This city could
only be compared with Bagdath. Fine arts were developed there. Istanbul impressed everybody with its
spectacular palaces, high churches, hippodromes, walls, obelisks, wealth and crowd.
Saint Sofia Aqueduct In Istanbul
Writen By Mr Rahim ÖZKAYA
Mrs. Fatma KORAŞ
They were expanded over time and taken
into Anatolia, Syria, Palestine. Romans
maintained their domination over Anatolia for a
long time due to inclusion of Palestine after the
separation the east part continued its presence as
Byzantion Empire. There are lots of remains of
Romans in many parts of Anatolia. A lot of
coins and items used in daily life are found and
protected.
ANCIENT TURKISH Central Asia is not well known wherefore it can not be documented before
the Great Migrations (5000 BC) which happened as a result of drought.
Migrations caused to the development of world civilization and the formation of
a new culture. But we have not got precise information about the people left in
the area.
Turks began to appear on the stage of history when they came Otuken Valley (
between Orkhon River and the Tian Shan Mountains). Great Hun Empire is the
first known Turkish state. Hun means “people” in Turkish. The founder of the
state is Hiung-Nu in Chinese documents but historians are agree on the idea that
he is Teoman.
Kül Tiğin
After the migration the first
known place where Turks lived is
Siberian forests. After battling with the
hard conditions of nature thousands of
years in that area, they moved as they
grew. Some qualities that Turks had via
this battles are understood better as they
began to appear on the stage of history.
Some of historians think the foundation is 13.
decate BC but according to the first written
document which is a treaty in 318 BC and
Chinese emperorŞi Huangdi made Great Wall
built to be protected from Turks between 247-
210 BC.
Both the treaty and the date of building of
Great Wall of China show that Huns had been
living in that area before 300BC.
The founder of the emperor was Teoman and
his succesor Mete (210-174 BC) turn the state
into an empire.
As it was mentioned before Turks did not discriminate their peoples and this is
their state approach. They apply the same law to everyone. They protect their
peoples’ identity and did not exploit them. On the contrary, they tried to help
them. Turks behaved well the people whom They thought a friend. According to
Jean Paul Roux'y (p.27), tolerant behavior of the Turks is one of the most
important services they make to world civilization.
As a people, Turks made history with their best training, best mining,
friendly behaviour in time of peace and harsh behavior in time of war.
TABGACS The era When Attila was at Hungary, Tabgacs which is a branch of the Turks,
directed towards south China. They became dominant in China between 386-
552 . The Turks marked themselves so deep that Arabs and the Middle Age
Greeks called this place as the land of Turks.
SELJUKS EMPİRE
Sultan Alparslan
Acoording to Chinese records the era when
the son of Mete Kiyük (or Lao-Şang 174-161 BC)
was emperor they went on growing through both
west and South. They dominated various tribes that
lived in Central Asia. Empire became almost like a
mixture of peoples.
As a people, Turks made history with their best
training, best mining, friendly behaviour in time of
peace and harsh behavior in time of war.
During this period, another Turkish tribe Göktürks
who used “Turk” in the name of state began to
establish their state in 552 years .
Seljuks who came from middle East to Anatolia was
an Empire that spread over Afghanistan, Iran, Anatolia and
Arabistan. In 1071, with the war which took place in
Malazgirt, they settled in Anatolia. Long years they fought
against Moguls. After their collapse, Anatolian Seljuks got
the soverignty. They also fought against Moguls long years.
Because of internal problems the empire diveded into small
beyliks (small pieces). Karamanoğlu Beylik and Otoman
Empire was the longest of those pieces. The capital city of
Karamanoğlu was Karaman and it was conquered by Fatih
Sultan Mehmet in 1468.
The first Turkish tablet which exists in Mogul today is Orhun Tablet
OTTOMAN EMPİRE
Selimiye Mosque - Edirne Mostar Bridge - Bosnia Herzegovina
Archihtecture Mr. Mimar Sinan
Otoman Empire was founded in 1299. By expanding their territories they
became a big empire on Asia, Euro and Africa. They lived such a long time as
600 years. Especially in Balkans, İstanbul, Bursa and Edirne they left
wonderful historic buildings and beauties. After Treaty of Sevres, Ottoman
Empire was already passed away. As a result of I. World War and the Treaty of
Serves, our lands were invaded. Turkish nation launched the Independence War
with the leader Mustafa Kemal Atatürk and they got the success and they
founded the Turkish Republic in 1923.
Writen By Mr. Ahmet AYDIN
Mrs. Selcan BAĞCI
HISTORY OF TURKISH REPUBLIC
Before Turkısh Republic, there was again another Turkish state on
Anatolia, Ottoman Empire. This empire was built in 1299 in Söğüt, Bilecik by
Osman Gazi. He gave his name to the state. This empire governed between 1299
and 1922, at brightest times Ottoman dominated three continents. Since Ottoman
empire did not discriminate people according to their languages, nationalities,
religions they could succeed to govern lots of states. This is the secret of
survival for many years. Due to Fatih Sultan Mehmet conquered İstanbul Middle
Age was over and New era is started. Sultan Süleyman (Süleyman the
Magnificent) period was the time the empire reached the summit of power. After
this period, the empire started standstill and decline period. The Ottoman
Empire was unable to follow the innovations and developments in the world and
French Revolution in 1789 along with the spread of nationalism, lots of states
proclaimed their independence . All of these caused Ottoman Empire decline.
During the World war I Ottoman Empire allied with Germany to reach its
former power but was defeated in 1918. After this time, the territory of the
Ottoman Empire was occupied by the Allied Powers.
Turkish Parlament opened in 23th April 1920
After all of these in 1919-1922 under the leadership of great leader Mustafa
Kemal who was a young soldier in that time, people battled with strong enemy
states such as England, France, Italy and Greece. It was called Independence
War. This battle stopped by a ceasefire agreement in 1922 and finished with a
peace treaty in 1923.
1914 and 1922 was the hardest times for us, we fighted to survive. Unlike
other countries, Turkish people lost lots of people who was well educated while
battling. Now we feel and understand what it means.
İn 1922 sultanate was abolished and Ottoman Empire formally ended then
under the leadership of Atatürk a new Turkish State was establish on the same
land. The republic was announced in 29 october 1923 in Turkey.
After this time Turkey is configurated with a lot of reforms. These reforms
have made on the fields like politics, law, education, economy, culture and
sociology.
Despite hard times between 1923 and 2013 Turkey has been able to be
strong and powerful country.
Mustafa Kemal ATATÜRK Atatürk while teaching the Latin Alphabet
Our First President
Ankara: Capital Of Turkey
Writen By Mr. Hasan ÖZDİNÇ
Mr. Mücahit CÖHCEN
KARAMAN’S HISTORY Athough not known exactly it was discovered from the excavatings that
Karaman was an important settlement, trading and culture centre.
It is claimed that Karaman area had settled population inBC 8000. It was a
military zone and trading centre in the time of Hittite Empire then it was captured by
the Phrigias. BC 322, it was plundered by the Greek kings Perdiccass and Filippos.
In ancient times Karaman was known as Laranda. It was destroyed
by Perdiccas in about 322 BC and later became a seat of Isaurian pirates. It
belonged to the Roman and later Byzantine Empire until it was captured by the
Seljuks in the early 12th century. Karaman was occupied by Frederick Barbarossa in
1190 . In 1256, the town was taken by theTurkish bey Karamanoğlu Mehmet Bey and
was renamed Karaman in his honour. From 1275, Karaman was the capital of the
Karaman Beylik (and later Ottoman province) of Karamanid.
(Karamanoğlu Mehmet Bey)
In 1468 Karamanid was conquered by the Ottomans and in 1483 the capital of
the province was moved to Konya. Karaman has retained ruins of a Karamanid castle
and some walls, two mosques and a Koran school (madrasah) from that age. An
exquisite mihrab from a mosque from Karaman can now be found in the Çinili
Pavilion near the Archeology Museum in Istanbul.
The poet Yunus Emre (c. 1238-1320) resided in Karaman during his later
years and is believed to lie buried beside the Yunus Emre Mosque. A small adjacent
park is adorned with quotations from his verse, many of them unfortunately graffiti-
splattered. In 1222, the Sufi preacher Bahaeddin Veled arrived in town with his
family, and the Karamanoğlu emir built a medrese to accommodate them. Veled's
son was the famous Mevlana Jelaluddin Rumi, who married his wife, Gevher Hatun,
while his family was living in Karaman. It was here, too, that Rumi's mother died in
1224. She was buried, along with other family members, in the Aktekke Mosque (also
known as the Mader-i Mevlana Cami), which Alaeddin Ali Bey had built to replace the
original medrese in 1370.
Yunus Emre (a well known
poet through Turkey)
In 1222, the Sufi preacher Bahaeddin Veled arrived in town with his family, and the Karamanoğlu emir built a medrese to accommodate them. Veled's son was the famous Mevlana Jelaluddin Rumi.
Written Mr. Fatih Şimşek
Mrs. Ayşe Eda KARADENİZ
good at metal
working. They we-
re polytheistic
and they venera-
ted nature gods.
They lived in tribes
and used coins.
THE CELTS The Celts were an
Indo-European popu-
lation who lived in
Europe, in the Bri-
tish islands and in
the North of Europe,
till the river Danube,
between the IV and
the III century B.C.
In the South, they
expanded towards
Iberian, Italic and
Anatolian peninsu-
las.
In Italy they occu-
pied the Pianura Pa-
dana area and they
arrived at our terri-
tory. In fact there are
some Celtic tombs in
Gravellona Toce.
The Celtics were
warriors and very
Italy is a rich of history country. A lot of people occupied it and
they left signs of their culture.
THE ETRUSCANS
The Etruscans lived
in Etruria (today Tu-
scany), between the
X and I century B.C.
Thanks to Etruscan
merchants, their life
evidences arrived at
our city. In ancient
time Gravellona was
a border city. Who
passed through here
to reach Switzer-
land, had to pay a
toll. It consisted in
gold, but also ear-
thenware crockery
and cutlery, bronze
clips and trays.
Small parfum bot-
tles, jewels and pins
were found in the
tombs.
The Etruscans were
polytheistic and they
believed in life after
death. So, they put
everyday objects in
the tombs; these
objects were useful
for the afterworld
life.
ANCIENT ITALY
THE ROMANS
The city 2
The house 2
The family 3
Clothes 3
Language 3
THE CELTS
THE ETRUSCANS
THE GREEKS
THE GREEKS
Between the VIII and VII
century B.C. the coastal
cities of South Italy we-
re colonized by Greeks.
Napoli, Taranto, Siracu-
sa, Agrigento and many
other Greek colonies
reached a high level of
economical and cultu-
ral richness. So, they
were considered more
important than their
motherland and they
were called MAGNA
GRECIA (Megàle Hel-
làs).
Italy was the heart of
the great Roman Em-
pire and Rome has
been his great capital
for about five centu-
ries. It was founded in
753 B.C. and grew up
on the seven hills, a-
long the river Tevere.
The Emperor lived in
Rome and the city
was the political, eco-
nomical and cultural
centre of all the Empi-
re. Definitely, it was
the most populated
city in the ancient
world: it had one mil-
lion inhabitants a-
bout.
flats that could have
even three floors.
The most part of Ro-
mans' furniture were
beds. The rich had a
lot of beds where they
can sleep, eat, write
and entertain guests.
The most common
were single beds; the-
re were also double
beds for the bride and
the groom and triple
beds for the dining
room. Some rich
people loved amazing
The Romans had two
kinds of houses: the
“domus”and the
“insula”. The “domus”
was a single villa with
an inside garden for
rich people;
the
“insula”,
which was
for common
people, was
a kind of
block of
their guests with
huge six people
beds!
The Romans had
marble tables, but
they did not use any
chair, only beds or
stools without ba-
ckrest, which people
carried with them-
selves.
There were a lot of
carpets on the floor,
blankets and quilts
on the beds.
THE ROMANS AND ROME
THE CITY
The streets of the
town were narrow,
long, straight and
arranged in a
network of right-
angles. So, the
army could move
fast. The streets
were made of roun-
ded rocks to make
the water run du-
ring the rivers over-
flows.
Page 2 ANCIENT ITALY
THE HOUSE
The ancient Roman
family was considered a
social public organiza-
tion: Roman people were
enforced to marry and to
carry on the rice. The rich
family was composed by
the father, the mother,
sons and slaves.
The mother spent her
time with her housework
and she was specialized
in wool weaving and in
clothes making for each
member of the family.
The father was the head of
the family (“pater fami-
lias”): everybody was
submitted to his authori-
ty.
The Roman language
was the Latin: it beca-
me very important
when the Roman Em-
pire expanded. A lot
of people spoke Latin
for over than one
thousand of years.
It has also been the
Church official lan-
guage till last century.
During the centuries,
Latin language evol-
ved in Italian, Spa-
nish, Romanian,
Portuguese, Franch:
the so-called “new
latin” languages.
FAMILY
a belt on the waist.
On the “stola” wo-
men wore the
“palla”, a kind of
rectangular cloak,
similar to the Gre-
ek one.
Children wore a
white tunic with a
red border till they
grew up.
When somebody
died, members of
his family wore
black tunics.
Instead, white was
the brides' colour.
CLOTHES
Men wore the
“tunica” and the
“toga”, which was
a kind of cloak.
Only men who had
Roman citizenship
could wear the
“toga”.
The “stola” was
the women dress:
it was a large and
long tunic, fixed by
Page 3
LANGUAGE
Class 2C
minals: people
who broke the law
were tortured and
hanged.
At lunch time e-
verybody went
back home. Rich
people ate spicy
meat, game, ve-
getables, eggs,
cheese, fruit and
wine. Poor people
usually ate cereal
or vegetable
soup, bread river
fish and eggs.
They had pork on-
ce a year and
wine only on
special occasions.
The day started
at 6 o' clock in
the morning,
with the sound
of the bells. Af-
ter making three
times the sign of
the cross,
people got dres-
sed, they wa-
shed only their
hands and face.
They had a bath
only occasio-
nally, sometimes
after a long jour-
ney.
Then, Medieval
people went to
the church, be-
cause religion
was very impor-
tant. The war,
the plague, the
famine, the hil-
lness were con-
sidered the de-
mon's actions
and the Church
offered the only
remedy to hu-
man suffering.
After breakfast
men went to
work. Wor-
kshops were o-
pened and stre-
ets were full of
merchants, tra-
vellers and beg-
gars. There were
mostly outdoor
jobs. People
could listen to
preachers' spee-
ches or stories
by jesters in
squares. Often
people could al-
so see public e-
xecutions of cri-
EVERYDAY LIFE
IN MIDDLE AGES
(V – XV centuries)
People didn't use
neither dishes,
nor forks: they
used big slices of
bread on which
they put the food.
There was only
one glass for two
people. After
lunch there was a
break: people sta-
yed outside their
houses to speak
to neighbours
After dinner stre-
ets were empty,
except for people
going to inns
(pubs) to drink or
to play dice.
Bells rang every
three hours, even
at night.
CLOTHES
Poor men and wo-
men wore a long
woolen or cotton
shirt, rich people a
silk one. Women's
shirts were long,
they reached the
ground, while men's
shirts were at calf
length.
On their shirts
people wore a gar.
ment with buttons
and strings as long
as their shirts. Wo-
men's dresses had
several pairs of sle-
eves, so women
could change them
Men wore two pairs
of drawers, a light
one and a heavy
one on that.
Rich people had fur
cloaks (fox, beaver,
ermine, marten, be-
ar), poor ones had
felt cloaks. Women
wore woollen socks
and wooden clogs or
cork sole shoes.
HOUSES
Houses mostly had
two floors and woo-
den stairs. The be-
droom was up-
stairs, the kitchen
and workshop were
downstairs. Diffe-
rent rooms were di-
vided by curtains or
wooden panels.
The houses of
rich people over-
looked the main
road. The yard,
the vegetable
garden, the sta-
ble, the hen
house were at
the back. There
were just a few
pieces of furnitu-
re: they were he-
avy weight. Beds
were very large:
for up to five
people. There
wasn't any sewe-
rage. The
dumping went to
underground
drains or to side
lanes.
Travels were long,
difficult and dange-
rous. People used
horses or carriages
and they travelled
for no more than
20 km. a day, with
several stopovers.
Goods were moved
on the rivers,
thanks to winds
and current. Sea
travelling was very
dangerous. People
went overseas for
pilgrimages or mili-
Doctors didn't
know the human
body, they only
knew texts by
ancient Greek
scholars Ippo-
crates and Gale-
no.
Children death
rate was very
high (20 % of
children died
before they we-
re 10 years
old) and a men
aged 60 was
considered
very old
MOVING
LIFE EXPECTANCY
Medicines ma-
de from herbs
were used, but
prayers were of-
ten the only re-
medy.
Anatomy only ap-
pare during
Renaissance. Doc-
tors often prescri-
bed to leech, that
is to take
“infected” blood
away from the
sick person.
needs. They hel-
ped childbirth
and took care of
children and rela-
tives with herb
balms and po-
tions, because
they knew herbs
very well. For that
reason women
were really po-
werful and their
power was consi-
During Middle a-
ges, women were
very important in
family life. They
were busy in hou-
sework, in sewing
and weaving clo-
thes and gar-
ments for everyo-
ne in their family,
in lighting and
maintaining the
fire, in getting wa-
ter for domestic
dered dangerous because
they could even kill some-
one using herbs.
So, many women were
considered witches and
burned on the stake.
WOMEN
Galileo Galilei classe 2B
After the “Congress of Vi-
enna “ ( 1 st November
1814) Italy was divided in
several little states which
were controlled directly or
indirectly by Austria.
The police arrested all peo-
ple who did not accept this
situation.
Some secret organizations
were formed and patriots
secretly met to decide what
to do . The most important
secret organizations were
the “Carbonari “ group and
“ Young Italy”.
“Young It-
aly” was
founded by
Giuseppe
Mazzini. It
was the
first time
that feel-
ings of
unity and
independence spread.
The long unification process
started in Piedmont , the re-
gion where we live .That
could happen thanks to
Camillo Benso , count of Ca-
vour . He
was ap-
pointed
Prime
Minister
by king
Victor
Em-
manuel II
of Savoy
and he formed an alliance
with the French Emperor Na-
poleon III against Austria.
In 1856 almost every region
in the North and in the Centre
of Italy were part of Pied-
mont.
Giuseppe Garibaldi took part
in the process of unification
(called “Risorgimento”)with
his military campaign
“expedition of the thousand”.
Risorgimento CLASSE 3A
Camillo Benso Conte di
Cavour (1810—1860)
On 6 th May 1860 Gari-
baldi left from a beach
near Genoa with his
men and landed in Sic-
ily . They freed southern
Italy .
On 14 th March 1861
Victor Emmanuel II be-
came the first king of
Italy
The unification process
went on with the con-
quest of Veneto in 1866
and the occupation of
the capital city one year
later . Giuseppe Garibaldi
Giuseppe Mazzini
sphere of indignation to-
wards the government, which
led not only to the parlia-
mentary socialist opposition,
but also to the popular De
Gasperi and to the Liberals,
out of the majority of Giolitti
governmental organization
(the so-called "Aventine Se-
cession ").
On 3rd January 1925, Musso-
lini assumed the political,
moral, historical power and
shortly after he planned to
dissolve all political parties
except the PNF .
The history of the Italian
fascism starts with taking
the power of Benito Mus-
solini , on 30th October
1922, until the end of its
dictatorship, on 25th
July 1943.
On 28th January 1924
the Duce, in a speech
from the balcony of Palaz-
zo Venezia in Rome, sta-
ted its willingness to fight
the Italian Socialist Party
(PSI) and the Italian
Communist Party (PCI).
He rejected at the same
time each electoral allian-
ce with other parties . In
addition to this the Natio-
nal Fascist Party (PNF)
entered the plank, the
majority of members of
liberal and democratic
party.
In the elections the plank
(which had the fasces as a
symbol ) won 60.1% of the
votes and 356 deputies
Consultations took place
in a climate of violence
and intimidation of the
fascist squads throughout
Italy and, with a hard spe-
ech, the deputy socialist
Giacomo Matteotti asked
to undo them . After his
abduction and murder by
a gang of fascist extre-
mists, there was an atmo-
THE KILLING OF MATTEOTTI
On 30th May 1924 the socialist deputy Giacomo Matteotti spoke to the Chamber a tough speech against the government, accusing it of being di-rectly responsible for the abuses that had accom-panied him throughout the election period. A few days later, on 10th June 1924, Mr Matteotti was beaten and kidnapped by the fascists at the exit of his home in Rome and then killed. His body was not found until several weeks later. Hs bag was full of documents that had to be the basis of the spe-ech that the Member would have had to say in the House: the evidence of corruption and trafficking in w h i c h f a s c i s m w a s i n v o l v e d . After the assassination of Matteotti opposition MPs deci-ded not to participate longer in the work of Parliament.
The History
Italia election
Matteotti
Fascist laws
The battle of the
grain
The militia of
Mussolini
The Lateran Pacts
Foreign policy
THE FASCISM
Novembre 2013 Classe III C
FASCIST LAWS
The Fascist racial laws are a set of legislative and administrati-ve measures that were put in Italy between 1938 and the first five-years period of the forties. The anti-Semitic legislation included: the prohibition of mar-riage between Italians and Jews, the prohibition for Jews to have to employ domestic Aryan race, the prohibition to all pu-blic administrations and the private companies of a public na-ture - such as banks and insurance companies - to employ Jews. The fascist laws enacted between 1925 and 1926, are legal acts which began the transformation actually sorting the Kingdom of Italy in the fascist regime.
IC GALILEO GALILEI
In 1925 the Kingdom of Italy was importing 25 million bushels of wheat. To reverse this situation was studied the Battle of the grain, a campaign that had the aim to achieve comple-te self-sufficiency. On July 4th, the Committee of the grain was made up. This was commanded by Mussolini. The fascist authorities, with the aim to increase the production of wheat, opposed themselves to crops of plants considered minor. Among these there were broccoli, turnip greens, lentils and turnips. They tried to convince farmers to replace them with the grain.
y e a r s c o u l d
choose between:
the gymnasium,
five-years, which
gave access to the
grammar school or high
school, technical school
for three years, fol-
lowed by four years of
higher technical insti-
With the Gentile re-
form, compulsory edu-
cation was raised to 14
years but the children
would have studied for
five years at an elemen-
tary school and in later
tute, the institute for
training teachers of
seven years, destined
for future teachers, the
school complementary,
after which it was not
The woman and the family in the Italian fascist society.
THE GENTILE REFORM
Pagina 2 THE BATTLE OF GRAIN
NON
TOGLIETE IL
PANE AI
FIGLI DEI
NOSTRI
LAVORATORI
ACQUISTATE
PRODOTTI
ITALIANI
GIOVANNI GENTILE
As part of the battle for the increase in population the fascist regime produced a law-oriented economic aid for new fami-lies: to the new married couples were lo-ans that had to return in the event that they would not children. In 1939 Ellevi dealt with the dangers of feminism and bourgeois ambition.
THE MILITIA OF MUSSOLINI
The Volunteer Militia for National Security was born on January 12th, 1923
The Militia was inserted into the national army through regular recruitment, in an age range
between 17 and 50 years
The MVSN (Voluntary Militia for National Security) was submitted to the Presidency of the
Council of Ministers and, by law, conspired to maintain public order on the Italian territory
The commanding general was Mussolini.
possible to subscribe to
any other school.
Only the children of the
upper class and a very
small minority of chil-
dren of other social
strata, the more
equipped for studies,
could attend secondary
schools, especially the
grammar school; a mi-
nority of children of the
middle class could also
have access to other
high schools, the high
school and technical
institutes, while all oth-
ers must not continue
their education after
reaching the
age of 14.
THE NATIONAL OPERA BALILLA
respectively boys and girls from 14 to 18.
Between the ages of 18
and 22, young men and
women would join ad-
ditional groups of the
ONB - "Fasci Giovanili
di Combattimento" and
"Giovani Fasciste", re-
spectively. Male stu-
dents in all forms of
higher education were
enrolled in the GUF.
Black shirt, blue scarf,
gray-green trousers,
black belt, fez was the
uniform of the para-
military Balilla . In ad-
dition to after-school
t u t o r i a l s a n d
"Saturdays fascists", the
National Opera mobi-
lized its members for
gatherings and school
camps.
The National Opera Balilla (ONB) was a state entity established by law passed by parlia-ment. "The National Opera table for the as-sistance and for the physical and moral edu-c a t i o n o f youth" (complete name of the state) was founded in 1926. It was an Italian Fascist youth organization function-ing, as an addition to school education, be-tween 1926 and 1937. Since it was rigidly cen-tralized, the UN was an instrument of penetra-tion in the institutions of schools. Boys from 8 to 14 years, in the ONB, were called "Balilla" and girls, from 8 to 14, were called "Piccole I t a l i a n e " . "Avanguardisti" and "Giovani Italiane" were
Classe III C
I BALILLA
Pagina 3
I FIGLI DELLA LUPA
AVANGUARDISTI
Benito Mussolini died on 28th
April 1945 killed by shots in the
town of Tremezzo, in the prov-
ince of Como. He was killed
together with his mistress
Claretta Petacci. In a series of
articles of "The Unit" of March
1947, a partisan commander
Walter Audisio "Colonel Va-
lerio" said to have been the sole
author of the killing.
Mussolini and Hitler pursued territorial expansionist and interventionist foreign policy agendas
from the 1930s through the 1940s culminating in World War II. Mussolini wanted to establish
Italian domination of the Mediterranean Sea and secure Italian access to the Atlantic Ocean.
From 1935 to 1939 Germany and Italy escalated their demands for territorial claims and greater
influence in world affairs. Italy invaded Ethiopia in 1935. In 1936 Germany remilitarized the
industrial Rhineland; the region had been ordered demilitarized by the Treaty of Versailles. In
1938 Germany annexed Austria and Italy assisted Germany in resolving the diplomatic crisis
between Germany versus Britain and France . At the same time from 1938 to 1939, Italy was
demanding territorial and colonial concessions from France and Britain. In 1939, Germany pre-
pared for war with Poland.
The invasion of Poland by Germany was unacceptable by Britain, France and their allies, resulting in their mutual declara-
tion of war against Germany. In 1940, Mussolini led Italy into World War II. Mussolini was aware that Italy did not have the
military capacity to carry out a long war with France or the United Kingdom and waited until France was on the verge of im-
minent collapse and surrender from the German invasion before declaring war on France and the United Kingdom on 10
June 1940. Mussolini believed that Italy could gain some territorial concessions from France and then concentrate its forces
on a major offensive in Egypt. Plans by Germany to invade the UK in 1940 failed after Germany lost the aerial warfare cam-
paign in the Battle of Britain. The war became prolonged contrary to Mussolini's plans resulting in Italy losing battles on
multiple fronts and requiring German assistance.
By 1943, after Italy faced multiple military failures, the complete reliance and subordination of Italy to Germany, the Allied
in- vasion of Italy,
FOREIGN POLICY
THE MUSSOLINI’S DEATH
The Resistance is
not well organized.
Partisans are di-
vided into brigades
and they create in-
dependent republics
which last for a
short time.
1st September
1939:Hitler in-
vades Poland,
France and Eng-
land declare war
to Germany
In 1940: Italy goes
to war with Ger-
many.
In 1943: Anglo-
American Allies
land to Sicily. It-
aly signs the Ar-
mistice with the
Allies. Mussolini
is imprisoned, but
then he is released
by German peo-
ple.
In Northern Italy
there is “ The Re-
bublic of Salò”
which is dependent
from Germany. The
King goes to South-
ern Italy that is then
freed.
The Resistance
movement against
Nazi-Fascism is cre-
ated.
Here are some interviews to our classmates!
MARTA GIULI-
ANO
During the Second
World War my great
grand mother is
eighteen years old
and she lives with
her parents and her
sister.
She has one daugh-
ter,one month old.
Her husband is a
partisan forced to
live in the cellar. At
Christmas time they
move to Switzerland
because they cannot
go on in this way.
After the war they
come back to Italy.
MIRCO LAURIA
A friend of my
granddad told me
that life was hard
Resistance Movement
In Italy (1943-45)
because German
people where dan-
gerous and killed a
lot of people; but
thanks to the help of
the Allies and of the
Resistance move-
ment people got free
SIMONE
MARIOTTI
The life is very dif-
ficult during the war.
My great grand
mother remembers
that some German
people ordered to
stand near the wall.
Luckily they were
saved by the driver
of a lorry.
EDOARDO ROSA
My grand uncle was
on a train for his
military service. He
jumped off the train
with some others
and they hid on the
mountains. His sister
brought him the food
hiding it between her
and her baby girl.
Class 2A
Mafia is a word with deals
with criminal organizations. In
Italy Mafia is called also Cosa
Nostra. Such organizations
don’t care about killing people
who don’t agree with them and
don’t want to help in criminal
circumstances.
Mafia can cope with drugs,
weapons, prostitution and ille-
gal political affairs.
Lots of heroes, such as Dalla
Chiesa, Falcone and
Borsellino, who fought
against mafia, lost their life in
this fight for loyalty.
Alberto Dalla Chiesa was a
colonel of Carabinieri who
tried to discover mafia’s plans
using people who acted like
criminals in the mafia groups.
In 1973 he became brigadier
general and worked against
terrorism such as Brigate
Rosse Group. He was really
successful in his work against
Brigate Rosse so that he be-
came Prefect of Palermo and
the Italian Government wanted
him to continue his fight
against mafia.
But in 1982 on September 3th
he was killed with his wife by
criminals while he was discov-
ering important facts about
Cosa Nostra.
ITALIAN CONTEMPORARY STORY
The Radical Party in 1978 fought
against the law that condemned
abortion as a crime and they wrote
the law n. 194 that allowed women
to decide about their pregnancies.
Italy is a catholic country so lots of
people didn’t agree with the radi-
cal position but in the latest refer-
endum about abortion in 1981 Ital-
ian people decided not to change
law n. 194. Anyway nowadays
gynecologists can decide not to
operate women who want to inter-
rupt pregnancy and they are not
condemned by law so as it hap-
pened before.
MAFIA THE USTICA DISASTER
REFERENDUM FOR ABORT
In 1974 in Italy there was a referendum
for divorce. People were asked if they
want to cancel the law that permitted
divorce four years before. Italy is a
catholic country, so catholic people
condemned divorce protecting mar-
riage .
In 1974 the “NO” group (who didn’t
agree with divorce) won the referen-
dum but soon after, in 1975 and 1976,
people who defended divorce defi-
nitely grew, thanks to the help of com-
munist party.
REFERENDUM FOR DIVICE
The Ustica disaster was in 1980 when an
airplane that took off from Bologna ex-
ploded while flying over the Tyrrhenian sea
in the nearby costs of the middle of Italy.
There were 81 people travelling on the
plane, 13 were children. Everybody died in
this disaster but only 38 bodies were found
in the water. The causes of the accident are
still unknown.
Police thought about terrorism and after
several researches it was discover that a
shuttle had exploded on board but not a
bomb.
This crime has not been solved yet and the
families of the victims are still asking for
justice.
3 B
Paolo Emanuele Borsellino has been an
iIalian magistrate who worked against”
Cosa Nostra” and was killed by it together
with the five young policemen who were
with him in via D’Amelio. Italian people
consider him and his colleague and friend
Giovanni Falcone a national hero.
In 1975 he started to work in Palermo with
Rocco Chinnici against Mafia.
Rocco Chinnici became a really close
friend of Borsellino, so that his daughter
too choose him like a sort of guide.
In 1980 six people of the mafia association
were arrested and the “pool” against mafia
was created. Several policemen became
bodyguards of Borsellino, his family and
people of the pool because of the very dan-
gerous work against” Cosa Nostra”.
Borsellino explained that the pool was
gathered together to get the work against
mafia stronger and safer for the people
working for justice.
The pool asked the Italian State to protect
them but only in 1980 Dalla Chiesa arrived
in Palermo as Prefect.
Soon after Chinnici was killed by mafia
and Borsellino explained in public what it
was happening with mafia and the Italian
State.
In 1991 mafia had already planned to kill
Borsellino and in 1992 he was killed with a
bomb. He was killed with his five body-
guards.
Aldo Moro was born in 1916. He
was a very important politician who
tried to pass by the difficult situation
between the conservative parties and
the communist ones.
On March 16th 1978 the car that
Aldo Moro and his five bodyguards
were using to go to work was
stopped by Brigate Rosse kill-
ers .They shot the car and killed the
bodyguards . Aldo Moro, who was
kidnapped for 55 days. During these
days he wrote about 86 letters to the
major personalities of the political
world and the Pope Paul VI. Some of
them were posted, the others were
founded in the prison in which Aldo
Moro was hidden.
During the 55 days Brigate Rosse
wrote nine short letters in which they
accused Moro for his openness to the
communist parties. Brigate Rosse
didn’t want any sort of alliance with
the conservative parties.
On May 9th after a sort of illegal
process he was killed by Mario Mor-
etti and his body was founded hidden
in a car in the centre of Rome. The
radio told about at 2 o’clock p.m.
KILLING OF PAOLO EMANUELE BORSELLINO KILLING OF ALDO MORO
ENTRY OF THE EURO
On January 1st 2002 Euro became the
new currency for twelve countries of
UE.
The new currency had to help UE to
grow up in developing economy and
European culture. But now we’re
living a sort of disillusion about it and
lots of economists and common peo-
ple think about euro as the cause of
the economic crisis that Europe is
suffering.
History of Poland
History of Poland
The historically recorded Polish state begins with
Mieszko I in the second half of the 10th century.
Mieszko I chose to be baptized in the Western Latin
Rite in 966.Mieszko's son Bolesław I Chrobry
(ruled 992-1025) established a Polish Church
province, pursued territorial conquests and was
officially crowned at the end of his life in 1025,
becoming the first King of Poland. During the
Congress of Gniezno in the year 1000, Otto III,
Holy Roman Emperor authorized the founding of
the Archbishopric of Gniezno.
Bolesław III Wrymouth divided Poland among his sons in 1138, internal fragmentation
eroded the initial Piast monarchy structure in the 12th and 13th
centuries. The Piast Kingdom was effectively restored under
Władysław I the Elbow-high (1306-1333), crowned in 1320. Nest
king, King Casimir III the Great (1333-1370), Władysław's son
and the last of the Piast rulers, significantly strengthened and
expanded the country. Progress was made in the recovery of the
central province of Mazovia and in 1340 the conquest of Red
Ruthenia began, marking Poland's expansion to the east. The
Congress of Kraków took place in 1364 and the future Jagiellonian
University was founded that year.
The Kingdom continued under Louis I of Hungary (ruled Poland 1370-1382) of the
Angevin dynasty. Beginning with the Lithuanian Grand Duke Jogaila (King Władysław II
Jagiełło 1386-1434), the Jagiellonian dynasty (1386–1572) formed the Polish–Lithuanian union.
In the Baltic Sea region, Poland's struggle with the Teutonic Knights continued and culminated in
the Battle of Grunwald (1410). The reign of the young Władysław III (1434–44),[14] a king of
Poland and Hungary, was cut short by his death at the Battle of Varna, fought against the forces
of the Ottoman Empire. Central to the Jagiellonian period was the long reign of Casimir IV
Jagiellon (1447-1492). In 1454 Royal Prussia was incorporated by Poland and the Thirteen Years'
War with the Teutonic state ensued.he European Renaissance currents evoked in late Jagiellonian
Poland (kings Sigismund I the Old and Sigismund II Augustus) an immense cultural and
scientific flowering (the Golden Age), of which the astronomer Nicolaus Copernicus (died 1543)
is the best known representative.
Battle of Grunwald
I Reczpospolita and rulers of elective
- Federal State composed of the Crown of the Polish Kingdom and the Grand Duchy of
Lithuania, existing in years 1569-1795 :
- Sigismund III Vasa (1587-1632) and his sons - Władysław IV (1632-1648) and John Casimir
(1648-1668) led to the war with Sweden , Russia, Turkey , and reporting to the Tartars . Country
enfeebled the creation of a Cossack . This led to the destruction and decline in the international
position of the state , the loss of large territories and growing anarchy , chaos and lawlessness
internal magnates . Real , but short-lived success then was to get Moscow (1610) .
The situation deteriorated even brief reign of Michael Korybut Wiśniowiecki ( 1669-1673 ) .
Only John III Sobieski (1674-1696) , the great leader and politician , he started repairing the
state. European fame brought him many victories over the Turks (including the relief of Vienna
in 1683 ) . In view of the opposition magnates lay in ruins his plans to reform the anarchic system
and recover the power position of the Republic . This led to the partition and the collapse of the
Polish-Lithuanian in the eighteenth century.
- Saxon times
in the first half of the eighteenth century, the Republic experienced a period of serious political
crisis .It was a time when Poland was ruled by the kings of the Saxon Wettin dynasty , Augustus
II (1697-1733) and Augustus III ( 1733-1763 ) .Their reign , however, was caused weakness and
the economic crisis of the Republic and the dependence of Tsarist Russia.
Polish Armed Conflict
- The war with Turkey.
The Ottoman Empire maintained peaceful relations with the Republic until 1619 , when he made
a diversionary action lisowczycy in Transylvania. Hetman Żółkiewski , ahead of the Turkish
attack , marched into Moldavia. Republic forces were defeated - . In 1621 , in the camp of
Chocim forces Jan Karol Chodkiewicz resisted Turkish forces . Also, there was signed a truce ,
but the Turks have to commit to stop the marauding invasions of Tatars . 1673 at the Battle of a
Chocim Turks were defeated . Forces of the Republic led hetman Jan Sobieski , who in 1674 was
elected king. After the
victory of the Republic
regained some land Sobieski
dealt a decisive blow to the
Turks on September 12th,
1683 , under the Vienna.
The peace treaty signed in
Karłowice after the death of
Sobieski in 1699 the
Republic regained Podolia
.On June 17th, 1696 ,Jan III
Sobieski died.
- Khmelnytsky Uprising 1648-1667
Discord in the Sejm and the use of the peasants by the nobility in Ukraine advantage of Bohdan
Khmelnytsky, who organized the Cossack uprisings against the Commonwealth. He entered into
an alliance with the Tatar khan . Nierejestrowi rebellious Cossacks and the Registry , which is in
arrears with the payment of their pay , backed Tartar troops under the command of Tuhaj Bey
defeated the forces of the Republic of the Yellow Waters and Korsun . In August 1649 Jeremy
Wiśniowiecki forces were besieged in the fort Zbaraj . Cossack forces were surrounded by the
troops of King John Casimir Ladislas brother , who died in 1648 . Only by George Ossoliński ,
who bribed the Tartar Khan , an agreement was reached with the Khmelnitsky . He received the
title of captain of the host Zaporojian and the number of registered Cossacks twice raised from 20
to 40,000 . In 1651 years of John Casimir army , numbering 60,000 soldiers , Cossacks army
smashed Beresteczko . As a result of this victory was to reduce the record to 20,000 and reducing
the Cossack land to the province of Kiev . Settlement was signed in the White Church. But it did
not last long. In 1652 there was a battle Batoh culminating in the victory of the Cossacks and the
pogrom in the Polish army . In 1654 the Cossacks entered into an arrangement with Russia in
Pereyaslav . Thus, the Polish - Cossack war became a war Polish - Cossack and Russian .
- Swedish Deluge 1655-1660
Swedish invasion of Poland in 1655 during the Second Northern War (1655-1660). Formally
ended his room in Oliwa included in 1660. This war was carried out not only by Sweden, during
the war changed both alliances and forces on both sides. It was a continuation of previous wars
waged by the Republic, was also rooted in a dispute over the throne of Sweden has initiated by
King Sigismund III Vasa. Swedish Deluge showed weakness organizational Republic, and its
efficiency invader received such through collaboration and bribery in the Republic. And although
the Swedes were finally driven out, it incurred losses and expenses peace concessions were high,
and some material damage, particularly Swedish Polish cultural plunder, are visible today.
-
War with Russia, 1654-1667
Tsar's army of 200,000 soldiers took Smolensk , Belarus and Minsk , and part of Lithuania's
Vilnius and Grodno . Cossack troops backed by Russian meals surrounded Lviv, took Lublin and
reached all the way to the river. Follow-up to the invasion of the Russians stopped the Swedes.
Russia feared the rise of Sweden in the Baltic Sea and decided to call a truce with the Republic .
Settlement signed in Niemierzy . Khmelnytsky had ambitious plans . He wanted to become
independent from Russia, sought an agreement with the Swedes and Siedmiogrodzianami .
Khmelnytsky's successor John ( Ivan ) Wyhowski entered into an arrangement with the Republic
of the Hadziaczu . Under the agreement was to be formed Cossack state of three provinces: Kiev ,
Chernihiv and Bracław with their officials and liberties of the Church hierarchy for noble
Cossack elders , but the agreement never took effect , and Wyhowski was overthrown . The fight
for control of Ukraine resumed Russia . The Polish army defeated the Russian forces under
Połonka and Cudnów and regained Vilnius and took all of Ukraine . Wins have not been used
because there was insufficient funds to pay the outstanding salaries of the army and declared a
confederation .The truce was signed in Moscow in 1667 Andrusovo .
Enlightenment in Poland
In Poland, the ideas of the Enlightenment were adopted later than in Western Europe, which
was connected with the fact that the middle class has gained greater importance only in the
second half. Eighteenth of the century assumed that the time frame of the Polish Enlightenment
covers the period from the 40s Eighteenth century until 1822. The Enlightenment guided many
prominent contemporary artists of the eighteenth century. Thanks to them, there is a rapid
development of education, science, political and cultural life. Through activities such as
Stanislaw Kostka Potocki, Ignacy Potocki. Poland became the first they country in Europe to
obtain a modern constitution. Then also were trying to build a country on the principles of the
Enlightenment, which interrupted by partitions.
Classicism in Poland is sometimes called the style of Stanislaus (from King Stanisław
August Poniatowski). In these times of Stanislaus there was an attempted to reform the university
teaching. Universities have become substantially higher vocational schools. In 1765 King
Stanisław August Poniatowski founded the School Knights, created the Permanent Council and
the Commission of National Education. The Society was set up to Elementary Books, and at the
initiative of the king the meeting arose which various Polish thinkers called "Thursday dinners".
Four reforms:
-reform of the military-increasing number of troops
fiscal-reform-nobles will have to pay taxes,
-participation of 24 representatives from cities in the Parliament, but only in an advisory,
-formed government in the cities (the city),
-town people will be able to purchase goods of the earth,
-integrity of the person (personal freedom town people),
-will be able to hold lower offices. The Constitution of 3 May 1791,
- Polish hereditary monarchy,
- Abolished the liberum veto and free election,
- Separation of powers,
- Legislative power in the hands of parliament
- The judicial power in the hands of a neighbors earthly city and the Crown Court
- Peasants under the care of the right
- Abolished the division of the Republic and made a joint government, the treasury and the army.
Partitions of Polish - the period in Polish history in the years 1772-1795, when the Polish-
Lithuanian Commonwealth through Russia, Prussia and Austria made an assignment for the
benefit of part of its territory as a result of losing the war or the threat of force. The cause of
partition was the inability of the country to reform that could improve Polish military power.
Dabrowski's Mazurka-Polish patriotic song of 1797 from 26th February 1927 was the official
national anthem of the Polish Republic.
The Constitution of 3 May 1791
King Stanisław August Poniatowski
The Age of Partitions
Poles rebelled several times against the partitioners, particularly near
the end of the 18th century and the beginning of the 19th century. One
of the most famous and successful attempts at securing renewed Polish
independence took place in 1794, during the Kościuszko Uprising, at
the Racławice where Tadeusz Kosciuszko, a popular and distinguished
general who had served under Washington in America, led peasants and
some Polish regulars into battle
against numerically superior
Russian forces. In 1807, Napoleon
I of France recreated a Polish
state, the Duchy of Warsaw, but after the Napoleonic Wars,
Poland was again divided by the victorious Allies at the
Congress of Vienna of 1815. The eastern part was ruled by
the Russian tsar as a Congress Kingdom which possessed a
very liberal constitution. However, the tsars soon reduced
Polish freedoms, and Russia annexed the country in
virtually all but name. Thus in the latter half of the 19th century, only Austrian-ruled Galicia, and
particularly the Free City of Kraków, created good environment for free Polish cultural life to
flourish.
Throughout the period of the partitions, political and cultural repression of the Polish nation led
to the organisation of a number of uprisings against the authorities of the occupying Russian,
Prussian and Austrian governments. Notable among these are the November Uprising of 1830
and January Uprising of 1863, both of which were attempts to free Poland from the rule of tsarist
Russia. The November uprising began on 29 November 1830 in Warsaw when, led by Lieutenant
Piotr Wysocki, young non-commissioned officers at the Imperial Russian Army's military
academy in that city revolted. They were soon joined by large segments of Polish society, and
together forced Warsaw's Russian garrison to withdraw north of the city.
Over the course of the next seven months, Polish forces successfully defeated the Russian armies
of Field Marshal Hans Karl von Diebitsch and a number of other Russian commanders; however,
finding themselves in a position unsupported by any other foreign powers, save distant France
and the newborn United States, and with Prussia and Austria refusing to allow the import of
military supplies through their territories, the Poles accepted that the uprising was doomed to
failure. Upon the surrender of Warsaw to General Ivan Paskievich, many Polish troops, feeling
they could not go on, withdrew into Germany and there laid down their arms. Poles would have
to wait another 32 years for another opportunity to free their homeland.
When in January 1863 a new Polish uprising against Russian rule began, it did so as a
spontaneous protest by young Poles against conscription into the Imperial Russian Army.
However, the insurrectionists, despite being joined by high-ranking Polish-Lithuanian officers
and numerous politicians were still severely outnumbered and lacking in foreign support. They
were forced to resort to guerrilla warfare tactics and ultimately failed to win any major military
victories. Afterwards no major uprising was witnessed in the Russian controlled Congress Poland
and Poles resorted instead to fostering economic and cultural self-improvement.
Despite the political unrest experienced during the partitions, Poland did benefit from large scale
industrialisation and modernisation programs, instituted by the occupying powers, which helped
it develop into a more economically coherent and viable entity. This was particularly true in the
Greater Poland, Pomerania and Warmia annexed by Prussia (later becoming a part of the German
Empire); an area which eventually, thanks largely to the Greater Poland Uprising, was
reconstituted as a part of the Second Polish Republic and became one of its most productive
regions.
World War I and World War II
World War I and the political turbulence that was sweeping
Europe in 1914 offered the Polish nation hopes for regaining
independence. On the outbreak of war the Poles found themselves
conscripted into the armies of Germany, Austria and Russia, and forced
to fight each other in a war that was not theirs. In the Act of 5th
November 1916, the Kingdom of Poland (Królestwo Regencyjne) was
recreated by Germany and Austria on the formerly Russian-controlled
territory. This puppet, but increasingly autonomous state existed until
November 1918, when it was replaced by the newly established Republic
of Poland. Józef Piłsudski was a Polish statesman and "First Marshal"
(from 1920), and leader (1926–35) of the
Second Polish Republic.
On September 1, 1939 Hitler ordered
his troops into Poland and World War II
began. Poland had signed a pact with Britain
(as recently as August 25) and France and the
two western powers soon declared a war on
Germany, but remained rather inactive and
extended no aid to the attacked country. On
September 17, the Soviet troops moved in and
took control of most of the areas of eastern
Poland with heavy Ukrainian and Belarusian
populations under the terms of the German-Soviet agreement. In regard to actual military
campaigns, some Polish historians have argued that fighting the initial "September Campaign"
was the greatest Polish contribution in the war, despite its defeat. The Poles formed an
underground resistance movement and a Polish government in exile, first in Paris and later in
London.
Poles provided crucial help to the Allies throughout the war, fighting on land, on the seas
and in the air. Notable was the service of the Polish Air Force, not only in the Allied victory in
the Battle of Britain but also the subsequent war in the air. Polish ground troops were present in
the North Africa Campaign (siege of Tobruk); the Italian campaign (including the capture of the
monastery hill at the Battle of Monte Cassino); and in battles following the invasion of France
(the battle of the Falaise pocket; an airborne brigade parachute drop during Operation Market
Garden and one division in the Western Allied invasion of Germany).
Postwar communist Poland
At the insistence of Joseph Stalin, the Yalta Conference sanctioned the formation of a new Polish
provisional and pro-Communist coalition government in Moscow, which ignored the Polish
government-in-exile based in London; a move which angered many Poles who considered it a
betrayal by the Allies. In 1944, Stalin had made guarantees to Churchill and Roosevelt that he
would maintain Poland's sovereignty and allow democratic elections to take place; however,
upon achieving victory in 1945, the occupying Soviet authorities organised an election which
constituted nothing more than a sham and was ultimately used to claim the 'legitimacy' of Soviet
hegemony over Polish affairs. The Soviet Union instituted a new communist government in
Poland, analogous to much of the rest of the Eastern Bloc. As elsewhere in Communist Europe
the Soviet occupation of Poland met with armed resistance from the outset which continued into
the fifties.
Despite widespread objections, the new Polish government accepted the Soviet annexation of the
pre-war eastern regions of Poland[46] (in particular the
cities of Wilno and Lwów) and agreed to the permanent
garrisoning of Red Army units on Poland's territory.
Military alignment within the Warsaw Pact throughout the
Cold War came about as a direct result of this change in
Poland's political culture and in the European scene came to
characterise the full-fledged integration of Poland into the brotherhood of communist nations.
The People's Republic of Poland (Polska Rzeczpospolita Ludowa) was officially proclaimed in
1952. In 1956 after the death of Bolesław Bierut, the régime of Władysław Gomułka became
temporarily more liberal, freeing many people from prison and expanding some personal
freedoms. A similar situation repeated itself in the 1970s under Edward Gierek, but most of the
time persecution of anti-communist opposition groups persisted. Despite this, Poland was at the
time considered to be one of the least oppressive states of the Soviet Bloc.
Labour turmoil in 1980 led to the formation of the independent trade union "Solidarity"
("Solidarność"), which over time became a political force. Despite persecution and imposition of
martial law in 1981, it eroded the dominance of the Communist Party and by 1989 had triumphed
in Poland's first partially free and democratic parliamentary elections since the end of the Second
World War. Lech Wałęsa, a Solidarity candidate, eventually won the presidency in 1990. The
Solidarity movement heralded the collapse of communist regimes and parties across Europe.
Present-day Poland
Poland joined NATO in 1999 and since 2004 has been a member of the European Union.
A shock therapy programme, initiated by Leszek
Balcerowicz in the early 1990s enabled the country to
transform its socialist-style planned economy into a market
economy. As with all other post-communist countries,
Poland suffered temporary slumps in social and economic
standards, but it became the first post-communist country to
reach its pre-1989 GDP levels, which it achieved by 1995
largely thanks to its booming economy.
Most visibly, there were numerous improvements in human rights, such as the freedom of speech,
civil liberties (1st class) and political rights (1st class), according to Freedom House. In 1991,
Poland became a member of the Visegrád Group and joined the North Atlantic Treaty
Organization (NATO) alliance in 1999 along with the Czech Republic and Hungary. Poles then
voted to join the European Union in a referendum in June 2003, with Poland becoming a full
member on 1 May 2004. Subsequently Poland joined the Schengen Area in 2007, as a result of
which, the country's borders with other member states of the European Union have been
dismantled, allowing for full freedom of movement within most of the EU. In contrast to this, the
section of Poland's eastern border now comprising the external EU border with Belarus, Russia
and Ukraine, has become increasingly well protected, and has led in part to the coining of the
phrase 'Fortress Europe', in reference to the seeming 'impossibility' of gaining entry to the EU for
citizens of the former Soviet Union. In 1995-2005, the presidency included Aleksander
Kwaśniewski. In the years 2005-2010 the president was Lech Kaczynski. Since 2010, the
president is Bronisław Komorowski.
On 10 April 2010, the President of the Republic of Poland, Lech Kaczyński, along with 89 other
high-ranking Polish officials died in a plane crash near Smolensk, Russia. The president's party
were on their way to attend an annual service of commemoration for the victims of the Katyń
massacre when the tragedy took place.
Lech Wałęsa Aleksander Kwaśniewski Lech Kaczyński Bronisław Komorowski
History of Lubaczów
The beginnings of Lubaczów, one of the oldest settlements at the Polish and Russian
borderland are associated with the period of the
tribal Poland. By virtue of the agreement
between the Duke Leszek Biały and the
Hungarian King Andrzej, the settlement of
Lubaczów together with the subordinated
district was separated from the Przemyśl land
and Lubaczowski and given to Pakosław the
magnate from the circle of Leszk Biały (1214).
After incorporation into the monarchy of
the king Kazimierz Wielki (1340), Lubaczów become a poviat. It obtained the Magdeburg civic
rights in 1376. The villages have an old history. Few towns were established by the end of the
16th and 17th centuries: Oleszyce -1576, Cieszanow- 1590, Narol-1592, Lipsko-1613, Płazow-1614
and Wielkie Oczy-1671. Nearly all the towns with fortifications of Horyniec, Basznia, Dachnów
and Nowe Sioło created the district of Lubaczów. The destructive Tatar units reached the region
in the 16th and 17th centuries. After the first partition, Lubaczow became the part of Galicia.
Between 1783 and 1788 German colonies were established here. In 1867 a poviat was created
with a seat in Cieszanow.
Large scale investments by the end of 19th century brought economic revival. During the First
World War, the Russian invasion considerably damaged the city as well as Cieszanow, Narol,
Wielkie Oczy and Oleszyce.
HISTORY
OF
ESTONIA
A BRIEF HISTORY
Owing strategic position, Estonia has had an eventual and tradic history,and has suffered dramatic population losses over the centuries due to famine, plague,war, deportation, and flight.The country had had a long history of succesive invasions, occupations, and fragmentation.
Estonia Stone Age
The oldest known traces of human settlement in the Estonian territory date back to 9000 BC. This era, which started about five hundred years after the Ice Age, when ancestral hunters-fishers-gatherers inhabited the area, is called the Mesolithic Era (9000–4200 BC). About fifty Mesolithic settlement sites and four burial sites have been found in Estonia. Most of the settlements were located near bodies of water; by rivers and lakes in the first half of the Mesolithic era, and by the seaside during the later period. Numerous sites have been discovered on the shores of Võrtsjärv, Kahala, Peipsi and other lakes, and by the banks of the Navesti, Pärnu, Reiu, Suur Emajõgi, Õhne and other rivers, as well as in various places on the coast and on the islands of Saaremaa, Hiiumaa and Ruhnu.
Food was secured by hunting, fishing and gathering, and the only domestic animal was the dog. According to the animal bones found at the settlement sites, a wide range of wild animals were hunted at that time, mainly elk and in some places beavers as well. The reason why coastal areas and islands were colonised during the second period was the development of seal hunting. The oldest seal hunters’ settlements on the coast date back to 7100 BC, and on the islands to 5800 BC.
People probably lived in small communities of no more than a few dozen members, hunting and gathering in areas big enough to provide food for everybody. At the beginning of the era, whole communities probably changed their places of habitation after the hunting, fishing and gathering seasons. In the Late Mesolithic, however, villages
were established where people lived all year round, and only part of the community left for seasonal work elsewhere. Tools were made of stone, horn, bone and wood. The first earthenware was made in the Estonian territory in ca 5500 BC.
At the beginning of the Mesolithic Era, the local inhabitants established a contact network mostly with peoples living in the eastern and northern European forest zone. Large amounts of valuable quality material for making tools – flint – was brought to Estonia from the central parts of western Russia, about 500 km away, and from Lithuania and Belarus. With the growing population, these contacts probably disappeared and new, smaller social and economic networks developed instead.
Around 4200 BC, people in the Estonian territory acquired the skills of grain farming. The Stone Age, when besides hunting and fishing, people were also
involved in farming, is treated as a separate sub-period – theNeolithic Era (4200–1800 BC). So far, about one hundred Neolithic settlement sites and over twenty burial sites have been found in Estonia. Among the sites, there are short-term stopover places, the remains of hunting camps and villages. Some are located in the previous settlement sites, but there are also new locations where no ancient settlement traces had been found. Tools were still made of stone, horn, bone and wood, and people used earthenware.
At the beginning of the Neolithic Era, people mainly continued to live by the rivers, lakes and seaside. It is estimated that the year-round villages each contained a few dozen to fifty inhabitants. The main sources of subsistence were hunting, fishing and gathering. The most hunted animals were aurochs, elk and wild boar, and on the coast naturally seals, although beavers, wild horses and other beasts were hunted as well. Besides internal bodies of water and coastal waters, fishermen worked on the open sea. The oldest pollen grains of various crops found in the sediments of Estonian bogs
and lakes indicate the growing of grains – barley and wheat. Compared with hunting, fishing and gathering, cultivating the land still remained a marginal activity, and did not cause any changes in settlement habits or material culture, as cultivating land did not offer a sufficient alternative to the main source of subsistence – hunting. Considering the development of the farming economy in neighbouring countries, grain and agricultural knowledge might have been obtained from the southern regions.
During the Neolithic Era, wide networks were again developed, through which Estonia received amber from the coasts of Latvia and Lithuania, flint from western Russia, Lithuania-Belarus and metatuff from Karelia; some items, e.g. specific axes and wedge-axes, arrow- and spearheads and jewellery, were brought here as finished goods.
In the second half of the Neolithic Era, beginning in 2900 BC, people inhabiting the Estonian territory began breeding livestock – oxen, goats, sheep and pigs. Barley and wheat continued to be the most popular grains, and the share of the hunting economy was still large.
The role of the farming economy increased so much that it altered the settlement pattern of many local communities. In choosing their habitats, people now relied on different principles. It was no longer essential to live near bodies of water. Several old settlement sites in coastal areas and on the islands were again inhabited; at that time they were already over a kilometre away from the sea. Settlement units became smaller as well, mostly low-density farms.
Only a few antiquities have been found from the end of the Stone Age, primarily stone axes with an eye. We can assume that settlement in the Estonian territory was getting denser, and people were also moving to upland locations. The pollen found in bog peat and lake sediments indicates intensifying land cultivation. In the late Neolithic Era, the existing eastern and southern contacts were supplemented by relations with southern Scandinavia.
ca 1200–1558. Estonian middle ages
Since the Northern Crusades Estonia became a battleground for centuries where Denmark, Germany, Russia, Sweden and Poland fought their many wars over controlling the important geographical position of the country as a gateway between East and West. In Ancient War of Freedom in 1208–1224 Estonians were defeated.
One of the most intriguing issues of older Estonian history, the background of which is largely unexplained even today, is the 1343–1345 uprising of Estonians against alien rule, known under the name of the St. George’s Night uprising. It started in the Danish area of North Estonia on St. George’s Day on 23 April 1343. According to the Younger Livonian Rhymed Chronicle, attributed to Bartholomeus Hoeneke, chaplain of the Master of the Order, Estonians pillaged the Padise Cistercian monastery and killed the monks and numerous German vassals. Estonians elected four leaders whom they called kings. The peasant army surrounded Tallinn and the bishop’s residence Haapsalu in West Estonia. In addition, Estonians turned to the Swedish landlord across the Gulf of Finland, the bailiffs of Turku (Åbo) and Viipuri (Viborg), with a plea for assistance, and indeed received a promise from Finland to send reinforcements.
Spread of Christianity and
religious orders
Estonians were baptised by the German and Danish priests mostly during the second and third decades of the 13th century. The sacrament of baptism was often administered in a hurry, and within the formal baptising ritual, the essence of Christian teaching probably remained
quite obscure. But it seems logical, though, that it was not altogether abandoned after baptism. The more so that the tradition of preaching in West Europe was rapidly spreading at that time and new orders of mendicant friars emerged.
Compared with various other countries around the Baltic Sea, Christianity arrived in Estonia relatively late. In circumstances where state administration with a central government was not yet fully developed, Christianity was mostly imported by an independently functioning foreign mission. The area’s late Christian invasion could partly have been the result of the fact that the country was not economically attractive. This area acquired a significant position between the Eastern and Western trade transit comparable to the Viking era eastern route (Austrvegr — waterway connecting Scandinavia with Byzantium and Islamic Central Asia along the great Russian rivers) only after the conquest, Christianisation and the emergence of towns. Before the 13th century, the main transit route between Russia and West Europe was the Daugava River. Considering the level of navigation at the time, its geographical position was much more suitable and natural for this purpose than the Northern and Western Estonian coastal areas. Another reason might have been the numerous political problems in the neighbouring countries which needed constant attention — the countries were centralising around the royal power in Denmark and Sweden, and the primary concern of the German Eastern colonisation was to break the opposition of West Slavic tribes.
Estonian national awekening
The development of Estonia in the second half of the 19th century is
characterised by general modernisation; the reorganising of a static agrarian
society into a modern European society, industrialisation, urbanisation and the
success of the newly emerged nationalist awareness.
The liberal politics of Tsar Alexander II (1855–1881) and the emancipation of
the Russian peasants (1861) gave a new impetus to the reforms carried out in
the Baltic provinces. The new passport regulation (1863) which gave the
peasants their first identification documents, increased their freedom of
movement and encouraged emigration to Russia.
The 1866 peasant township law freed the peasants’ local government councils
from the landlords’ authority and granted them extensive rights to decide their
own economic and social affairs.
Engraving of Estonian country folk in the early 19th century.
In the 1860s, Estonian peasants began buying farmsteads from the estates, at
free market prices. Due to the shortage of land and the large number of buyers,
the prices were much higher than in Russia. The peasants made use of long-
term bank credits, which they later paid back from income received from
growing flax and potatoes (the flax prices went up because of the American
Civil War and the consequent drop in cotton imported to Europe).
By the end of the 19th century, the peasants in South Estonia (Livonian
province) possessed over 80 and in North Estonia (Estonian province) 50% of
the available farmland.
Influenced by the French Revolution, the ideas of Romanticism and the newly
emerging German national consciousness.
The leading force in the Estonian national movement was the new elite —
primarily the emerging intellectuals aspiring to better their social position, the
middle layer consisting of civil servants, merchants and artisans, and,
increasingly, the ethnic Estonian clergy.
The low social status and the lack of the right to make any decisions, a result of
the Russian central power and the Baltic German-dominated cultural situation,
motivated the elite of the ‘awakened peasants’ to build up their own
independent nation and national society. This was to be separate from the
existing German and Russian ones.
In 1857, the founder of the first Estonian-language newspaper Perno
Postimees, Johann Voldemar Jannsen (1819–1890), replaced the term ‘country
people’ with the word ‘Estonians’. Patriotic intellectuals encouraged Estonians
to participate in public life, determined the legal and cultural requirements of
the emerging nation, and organised the extensive sending of petitions to the
Russian authorities (1864, 1881). The leaders of the movement considered the
most significant guarantee for the ethnic survival and national development of
Estonians to be the establishment of a European-style Estonian-language high
culture.
First issue of the newspaper „Perno Postimees“
Pastor and linguist Jakob Hurt (1839–1906), founder of the Estonian national
ideology, was convinced that the mission of a small nation can only be of a
cultural and not of a political nature; what counts is national identity, not
statehood as such. The movement’s radical wing was headed by Carl Robert
Jakobson (1841–1882), a pedagogue, writer and journalist, founder of Sakala,
the first political newspaper in Estonian (published 1878–1882). Jakobson
formulated the economic and political programme of the Estonian national
movement, demanding equal political rights for Germans and Estonians
(representation of peasants and urban dwellers at diets, abolishment of the
Baltic Landesstaat and the privileges of the Baltic German nobility). He
regarded the Russian central government as the main anti-German ally.
Estonian societies, founded all over the country after the example of German
societies, played an important part in the national awakening; choirs and
orchestras were established in parishes.
The Society of Estonian Literati (1872–1893), founded in Tartu and consisting of
Estonian intellectuals, advanced the Estonian written language, organised the
gathering of folklore and ethnographic material, and published literature in
their native tongue. The song and drama societies (i.e. theatrical association)
forming Vanemuine laid a foundation for an Estonian national theatre (the first
performance took place in 1870) and, following the German example,
organised the first song festival in 1869. One thousand singers-musicians and
an audience of 12 000 participated in the event. The tradition, still maintained
today, occupies the central part in shaping Estonian national consciousness.
Estonian national museum
The Estonian Age of Awakening is a period in history where Estonians came to
acknowledge themselves as a nation deserving the right to govern themselves.
This period is considered to begin in 1850s with greater rights being granted to
commoners and to end with the declaration of the Republic of Estonia in 1918.
The term is sometimes also applied to the period around 1987–1988. The
Estonian Age of Awakening leaders were Johann Voldemar Jannsen, Carl Robert
Jakobson and Friedrich Reinhold Kreutzwald.
Johann Voldemar Jannsen Carl Robert Jakobson Friedrich Reinhold Kreutzwald
They helped us realize, that it was time we start promoting our culture and
become one.
We started to appreciate education and knowledge. Johann Voldemar Jannsen
started a newspaper called „Perno postimees” and Carl Robert Jakobson held
speeches, there was „Three Patriotic Speeches” what consisted of three
speeches, that really touched everyones heart. In Perno Postimees J.V. Jannsen
first used the term Estonians. In 1918, Estonia became free. The first president
was Konstantin Päts. 1918, 23th of February, the Declaration of Independence
was read by Hugo Kuusner. The feeling of freedom was sweet.
Estonian history beginning of 20th century to 1940
World War I (1914)
In 1914 the outbreak of the First World War Estonia was initially not directly
affected. However the Russian army was mobilized tens of thousands of
Estonians, throughout the war a period of about 100 000.
In 1915 the Germans however have already arrived in Riga and the withdrawal
of Russian troops from Estonia became and important hinterland area.
Therefore many troops were brought ashore; in recent had an important role in
1917 revolutions.
In 1917, after the February Revolution, Germany started new attack on the
eastern front and in the autumn of the same year Germans invaded the West
Estonian islands.
In February 1918, the Germans started a new attack and at the beginning of
March they occupied the whole territory of Estonia.
Road to the republic
Estonia as a unifies political entity first emerged after the Russian February
Revolution of 1917. With the collapse of the Russian Empire in World War I,
Russia’s Provisional Government granted national autonomy to an unified
Estonia in April. The Governorate of Estonia in the north was united with the
northern part of the Governorate of Livonia. Elections for a provisional
parliament, Maapäev was organized, with the Menshevik and Bolshevik
factions of the Russian Social Democratic Labour Party obtaining a part of the
vote. On November 5, 1917, two days before the October Revolution in Saint
Petersburg, Estonian Bolshevik leader Jaan Anvelt violently usurped power
from the legally constitued Maapäev in a coup d’etat, forcing the Maapäev
underground.
In February, after the collapse of the peace talks between Soviet Russia and the
German Empire mainland Estonia eas occupied by the Germans. Bolshevik
forces retreated to Russia. Between the Russian Red Army’s retreat and the
arrival of advancing German troops, the Salvation Committee of the Estonian
National Council Maapäev issued the Estonian Cedlaration of Independence in
Pärnu on February 23, 1918.
German Occupation (1918)
After the collapse of the short-lived puppet government of the United Baltic
Duchy and the withdrawal of German troops in November 1918, an Estonian
Provisional Government retook office. A military invasion by the Red Army
followed a few days later, however, marking the beginning of the Estonian War
of Independence (1918-1920).
The Estonian army cleared the entire territory of Estonia of the Red Army by
February 1919.
The Estonian Army High Command in 1920.
The War of Independence
The Estonian War of Independence (Estonian: Vabadussõda, literally "Freedom
War"), also known as the Estonian Liberation War, was a defensive campaign of
the Estonian Army and its allies, most notably theWhite Russian Northwestern
Army, Latvia, and the United Kingdom, against the Soviet Western Front
offensive and the aggression of the Baltische Landeswehr. It was fought in
connection with the Russian Civil War during 1918–1920. The campaign was
the struggle of Estonia for its sovereignty in the aftermath of World War I. It
resulted in a victory for the newly established state and was concluded in
the Treaty of Tartu.
The first celebration of Estonian Independence Day in Tallinn on 24 February
1919
INDEPENDENT ESTONIA
During the years 1905-1917, the unstabled period,Estonians dared to imagine that their country could become an independent state.Amid the chaos that followed the disintegration of the Russian empire, Russia`s provional government granted Estonia autonomy, but the path to independance was complicated by both Russian and German claims on territory.The Bolsheviks outlawed Estonia`s first popularly elected assembly,although this did not prevent it from proclaiming the Republic of Estonia on February 24,1918 – a date still celebrated as Independance Day.The following day German troops invaded.They withdraw in November,enabling the formation of a provincial Estonian government.Within days Soviet Russia invaded, beginning the War of Independance (1918-1920), with stretched Estonian troops receiving support from the British Navy and volunteers from Denmark,Finland,and Sweden. On New`s Eve,1919,Bolshevik Russia and the Republic of Estonia finallyagreed to a truce, resulting in the Tartu Peace Treaty of February 2,1920, according to which Russia renounced all claims to Estonia forever.The Republic of Estonia won international recognition and joined the League of Nations in 1921.
Democratic Estonia introduced a liberal constitution that proclaimed the supremacy of parliament, the Riigikogu.Land reforms ensured that the property of Baltic nobility was redistributed to Estonians, many of them workers and peasants.Tartu University was now Estonian University, with mainly Estonian students.Cultural and academic life thrived, and Estonia became the first country in Western Europe to guarantee cultural minority groups, including
Jews.The country found export markets, especially for agricultural products, in Western Europe and the USA,as well as the Soviet Union.
The country`s liberal political system was, however, shaken by the world economic crisis of 1929,which fueled both socialist and fascist extremism.Changes to the constitution in 1933restricted the power of parliament and considerably strenghtened the authority of the head of state, President Konstantin Päts. Estonia`s policy of neutrality was sabotaged by theNazi- Soviet Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact of 1939, according to which Germany and the Soviet Union assign Finland, Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania and Poland to either Soviet or Nazi spheres of influance.The Soviet Union offered Estonia ultimatum: accept soviet military bases on Estonian territory, or be invaded.Päts complied, and by the end of June the following year, the Soviet occupation was secure.The Soviet Union demanded the formation of a pro-Soviet puppet government, followed by „elections“,for which only pro-Communist candidates were alloed to run. The new „parliament „ proclaimed the Estonian Socialist Republic in 1940 and asked to become part of the USSR. The occupation and annexation of Estonia was considered illegal by the United States and other Western states, including Britain.
Estonian Soviet Socialist Republic
The Estonian Soviet Socialist Republic,
often abbreviated as Estonian SSR or ESSR,
was a republic of the Soviet Union,
administered by and a subordinate of the
Government of the Soviet Union. The ESSR
was initially established on the territory of the Republic of Estonia on July 21,
1940, following the invasion of Soviet troops on June 17, 1940 and the
installation of a puppet government backed by the Soviet Union, which
declared Estonia a Soviet state.
On July 23, 1940, the Estonian SSR nationalized all land, banks and major
industrial enterprises in Estonia. Peasants were only allotted small plots of land
during the land reforms. Small businesses were also later nationalized. The
occupation brought colonisation with it. According to some Western scholars,
relations between the Soviet Union and Estonian SSR were those of internal
colonialism. All banks and accounts were essentially nationalized; a lot of
industrial machinery was disassembled and relocated to other Soviet
territories. Before retreating in 1941, Red Army, following the scorched earth
policies, burnt most industrial constructions, destroying power plants, vehicles
and cattle. Millions of dollars worth of goods were also moved from Estonia to
Russia during the evacuation of 1941.
Immediately following the June 1940 Estonian occupation by the Soviet Union
and forcible incorporation as a result of a Soviet-supported Communist coup
d'état, the only foreign powers to recognize the Soviet annexation were Nazi
Germany and Sweden. The United States, United Kingdom and several other
countries considered the annexation of Estonia by the USSR illegal following
the Stimson Doctrine—a stance that made the doctrine an established
precedent of international law. Although the US, the UK, the other Allies of
World War II recognized the occupation of the Baltic states by USSR at Yalta
Conference in 1945 de facto, they retained diplomatic relations with the exiled
representatives of the independent Republic of Estonia, and never formally
recognized the annexation of Estonia de jure. The Russian government and
officials maintain that the Soviet annexation of Estonia was legitimate.
In the late 1970s, Estonian society grew increasingly concerned about the
threat of cultural Russification to the Estonian language and national identity.
By 1981, Russian was taught in the first grade of Estonian-language schools and
was also introduced into Estonian pre-school teaching.
By the beginning of the Gorbachev era, concern over the cultural survival of the Estonian people had reached a critical point. The ECP remained stable in the early perestroika years but waned in the late 1980s. Other political movements, groupings and parties moved to fill the power vacuum. The first and most important was the Estonian Popular Front, established in April 1988 with its own platform, leadership and broad constituency. The Greens and the dissident-led Estonian National Independence Party soon followed. By 1989 the political spectrum had widened, and new parties were formed and re-formed almost daily.
The republic's Supreme Soviet transformed into an authentic regional lawmaking body. This relatively conservative legislature passed an early declaration of sovereignty (November 16, 1988); a law on economic independence (May 1989) confirmed by the U.S.S.R. Supreme Soviet that
November; a language law making Estonian the official language (January 1989); and local and republic election laws stipulating residency requirements for voting and candidacy (August, November 1989).
Although the majority of Estonia's large Russian-speaking diaspora of Soviet-era immigrants did not support full independence, they were divided in their goals for the republic. In March 1990 some 18% of Russian speakers supported the idea of a fully independent Estonia, up from 7% the previous autumn, and by early 1990 only a small minority of ethnic Estonians were opposed to full independence.
The first freely elected parliament during the Soviet era in Estonia had passed Estonian Sovereignty Declaration on November 16, 1988, independence resolutions on May 8, 1990, and renamed the Estonian SSR the Republic of Estonia. On August 20, 1991 the Estonian parliament issued a Declaration of Independence from the Soviet Union. On September 6, 1991, Supreme Soviet of the USSR recognized the independence of Estonia., immediately followed by the international recognitions of the Republic of Estonia.
In 1992, Heinrich Mark, the Prime Minister of the Republic of Estonia in exile, presented his credentials to the newly elected President of Estonia Lennart Meri. On February 23, 1989 The flag of the Estonian SSR was lowered on Pikk Hermann, and replaced with the blue-black-white flag of Estonia on February 24, 1989. In 1991, August the 20th, we were free.
THE SINGING REVOLUTION
The four-year-long peaceful transition to the restoration otive states to invest in, thanks to the famous flat-tax system and liberal business laws, independence in Estonia was named after the first mass, openly anti-occupation Song Festival in the summer 1988, when as many as 300,000 people gathered at the Song Bowl grounds between Pirita and Kadriorg to boldly and calmly sing songs banned during the Soviet occupation.This followed the signing in April of a declaration by Estonian intellectuals calling for genuine perestroika.
ESTONIA TODAY
Today, Estonia is resolutely Westward –looking. International institutions have described Estonia as one of the most attractive states to invest in,thanks to the famous flat-tax system and liberal business laws.The country has made huge strides in building upa civil society, but there is some way to go in establishing truly open.minded and tolerant society where difference and disability are fully respected.
The election as President, in 2006, of a Westward-looking Estonian exile, Toomas Hendrik Ilves, who gave up his Us passport to join Estonian politics in 1990s, confirmed Estonia`s commitment to Europe. This irks Russia, which has always found it hard to accept that Estonia should be outside its sphere of influence. Relations with Russia are uneasy,with drawn-out border checks common, journalists denied access to international events in Russia, and the agreed upon border still not legally adopted by Russia. Most Estonians are deeply suspious of Big Brother next door, and are unimpressed,although not suprised, by President Vladimir Putin`s increasing authoritarianism and the way he seems to tolerate hard –line,xenophobic Russian nationalist movements while condemning Estonian „nationalism“. Now that Estonia has an official voice within the EU, however, Russia is finding it increasingly difficult to draw mileage out of the argument that Estonians dont respect the rights of Russians in Estonia.
Estonia in the world today is a member of NATO, The United Nations, The EU, the Western European Union,the Organization for Security and Co-Operation in Europe, The World Trade Organization,the International Monetary Fund, World Bank, the European Bank for Reconstruction and Development, and the World Customs Organisation, and is an observer member of the Organization of American States.
Estonian presidents
Estonia has only had 4 presidents, since it’s been a republic for little time.
Konstantin Päts (1874-1956) was the first
president of Estonia. His reign as a
president started in 1938 and ended in
1940. Päts’ political career started early.
He served as a municipal advisor in 1904
and had many political positions after
that. With his speech during the War of
Independence he put a basis to Estonian
economy. Päts’ position as a president
ended when Soviet Union occupied
Estonia in 1940. Päts was forced to leave
his office and was deported to Leningrad
with his family. In 1941, he was arrested.
In time he ended up in psychiatric
hospital, where he died in 1956.
Lennart Meri (1929-2006). His reign as the
second president of Estonia started in
1992 and ended in 2001. He started out as
a writer and filmmaker. Through his
political activeness he got the position of
Foreign minister in 1990. In 1992 he
became the president of Estonia. In 1996
he was re-elected and stayed on his
position as the president until election in
2001. He died in 2006 because of brain
tumor. "In his nine years as head of state,
Meri both restored the presidency and
built up the Republic of Estonia in the
widest sense," president Rüütel had said.
Arnold Rüütel (1928-). Before his position
as president he was a teacher at the Tartu
School of Mechanization of Agriculture
from 1955 to 1957. In 1957, he was
appointed as head expert in livestock and
director of the experimental farm of
the Estonian Livestock Breeding and
Veterinary Institute, and in 1963 he was
appointed as Director of
theTartu Model Sovkhoz, a position he
held until 1969. From 1969 to 1977,
Arnold Rüütel was Rector of the Estonian
Academy of Agriculture. In 2001 he was
elected as president. While his reign.
Estonia joined the European Union. Rüütel
lost his position as president in 2006,
when Ilves won the election with 174
votes, while Rüütel got 162.
Toomas Hendrik Ilves (1953-) is the fourth president of Estonia. He was born in Sweden and
moved to the United States when he was 5. In 1981 he moved to Canada. In 1996-1998 he
was Estonian Minister of Foreign Affairs. Ilves became a president candidate in 2006 and
won the elections. In 2011 he was re-elected.
Pärnu history
Also, the Livonian Order was fond of the favourable port location at the mouth
of Embekke (Estonian: Emajõgi) . Thus, in the 13th century, two settlements
appeared on the shores of River Pärnu - Perona (Old Pärnu) on the right shore,
at the mouth of River Sauga, and Embekke (New Pärnu) on the left shore. The
history books mention the City of Pärnu for the first time in 1251. Pärnu's first
period of prosperity was the time from the beginning of the 14th century up to
the end of the 15th century while it was a port on the route to the Hanseatic
City of Novgorod.
Perona (Estonian: Vana-Pärnu) was founded by the bishop of Henricus ca.
1251, suffered heavily under pressure of the concurrent town, and was finally
destroyed ca. 1600.
Another town, Embeke (later German: Neu-Pernau, Estonian: Uus-Pärnu) was
founded by the Livonian Order, who began building an Ordensburg nearby in
1265. The latter town, then known by the German name of Pernau, was a
member of the Hanseatic League and an important ice-free harbor for Livonia.
The Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth took control of town between 1560–
1617; the Poles and Lithuanians fought the Swedes nearby in 1609. Sweden
took control of the town during the 16th-century Livonian War, but it was
subsequently taken by the Russian Empire in the 1710 Capitulation of Estonia
and Livonia and the 1721 Treaty of Nystad, following the Great Northern War.
It belonged to Imperial Russian Governorate of Livonia then.
The town became part of independent Estonia in 1918 following World War I.
During the Great Northern War, the University of Dorpat (Tartu) was relocated
to Pärnu from 1699–1710.
The decisive factor contributing to the foundation of the City of Pärnu was the
presence of rivers.
Created by:
Mrs. Małgorzata Mendyk
Jakub Bauman,
Bartosz Tabaczek,
Aleksander Bogusz,
Szymon Antonik ,
Joachim Tworko,
Maciej Meder,
Piotr Parciak,
Școala Gimnazială Vădeni,
Mr. Rahim ÖZKAYA,
Mrs. Fatma KORAŞ,
Mr. Ahmet AYDIN,
Mrs. Selcan BAĞCI,
Mr. Hasan ÖZDİNÇ,
Istituto Comprehsivo “Galileo Galilei”-Italy
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