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CHAPTER ONE

History of QuantitativeStructure-Activity Relationships

C. D. SELASSIE

Chemistry DepartmentPomona CollegeClaremont, California

Burger’s Medicinal Chemistry and Drug DiscoverySixth Edition, Volume 1: Drug DiscoveryEdited by Donald J. AbrahamISBN 0-471-27090-3 © 2003 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

Contents

1 Introduction, 21.1 Historical Development of QSAR, 31.2 Development of Receptor Theory, 4

2 Tools and Techniques of QSAR, 72.1 Biological Parameters, 72.2 Statistical Methods: Linear

Regression Analysis, 82.3 Compound Selection, 11

3 Parameters Used in QSAR, 113.1 Electronic Parameters, 113.2 Hydrophobicity Parameters, 15

3.2.1 Determination of Hydrophobicity byChromatography, 17

3.2.2 Calculation Methods, 183.3 Steric Parameters, 233.4 Other Variables and Variable Selection, 253.5 Molecular Structure Descriptors, 26

4 Quantitative Models, 264.1 Linear Models, 26

4.1.1 Penetration of ROH intoPhosphatidylcholine Monolayers (184),27

4.1.2 Changes in EPR Signal of LabeledGhost Membranes by ROH (185), 27

4.1.3 Induction of Narcosis in Rabbits byROH (184), 27

4.1.4 Inhibition of Bacterial Luminescenceby ROH (185), 27

4.1.5 Inhibition of Growth of Tetrahymenapyriformis by ROH (76, 186), 27

4.2 Nonlinear Models, 284.2.1 Narcotic Action of ROH on Tadpoles, 284.2.2 Induction of Ataxia in Rats by ROH, 29

4.3 Free-Wilson Approach, 294.4 Other QSAR Approaches, 30

5 Applications of QSAR, 305.1 Isolated Receptor Interactions, 31

1

5.1.1 Inhibition of Crude Pigeon LiverDHFR by Triazines (202), 31

5.1.2 Inhibition of Chicken Liver DHFR by3-X-Triazines (207), 31

5.1.3 Inhibition of Human DHFR by 3-X-Triazines (208), 32

5.1.4 Inhibition of L1210 DHFR by 3-X-Triazines (209), 32

5.1.5 Inhibition of P. carinii DHFR by 3-X-Triazines (210), 32

5.1.6 Inhibition of L. major DHFR by 3-X-Triazines (211), 33

5.1.7 Inhibition of T. gondii DHFR by 3-X-Triazines, 33

5.1.8 Inhibition of Rat Liver DHFR by 2,4-Diamino, 5-Y, 6-Z-quinazolines (213),34

5.1.9 Inhibition of Human Liver DHFR by2,4-Diamino, 5-Y, 6-Z-quinazolines(214), 34

5.1.10 Inhibition of Murine L1210 DHFR by2,4-Diamino, 5-Y, 6-Z-quinazolines(214), 34

5.1.11 Inhibition of Bovine Liver DHFR by2,4-Diamino, 5-Y, 6-Z-quinazolines(215), 34

5.1.12 Binding of X-Phenyl, N-Benzoyl-L-alaninates to a-Chymotrypsin inPhosphate Buffer, pH 7.4 (203), 35

5.1.13 Binding of X-Phenyl, N-Benzoyl-L-ala-ninates to a-Chymotrypsin inPentanol (203), 35

5.1.14 Binding of X-Phenyl, N-Benzoyl-L-alaninates in Aqueous PhosphateBuffer (218), 35

5.1.15 Binding of X-Phenyl, N-Benzoyl-L-alaninates in Pentanol (218), 35

5.1.16 Inhibition of 5-a-Reductase by 4-X,N-Y-6-azaandrost-17-CO-Z-4-ene-3-ones, I, 36

5.1.17 Inhibition of 5-a-Reductase by 17b-(N-(X-phenyl)carbamoyl)-6-azaan-drost-4-ene-3-ones, II, 36

5.1.18 Inhibition of 5-a-Reductase by 17b-(N-(1-X-phenyl-cycloalkyl)carbamoyl)-6-azaandrost-4-ene-3-ones, III, 36

5.2 Interactions at the Cellular Level, 375.2.1 Inhibition of Growth of L1210/S by 3-

X-Triazines (209), 375.2.2 Inhibition of Growth of L1210/R by

3-X-Triazines (209), 375.2.3 Inhibition of Growth of Tetrahymena

pyriformis (40 h), 375.2.4 Inhibition of Growth of T. pyriformis

by Phenols (using s) (227), 385.2.5 Inhibition of Growth of T. pyriformis

by Electron-Releasing Phenols (227),38

5.2.6 Inhibition of Growth of T. pyriformisby Electron-Attracting Phenols (227),38

5.2.7 Inhibition of Growth of T. pyriformisby Aromatic Compounds (229), 38

5.3 Interactions In Vivo, 385.3.1 Renal Clearance of b-Adrenoreceptor

Antagonists, 385.3.2 Nonrenal Clearance of b-

Adrenoreceptor Antagonists, 396 Comparative QSAR, 39

6.1 Database Development, 396.2 Database: Mining for Models, 39

6.2.1 Incidence of Tail Defects of Embryos(235), 40

6.2.2 Inhibition of DNA Synthesis in CHOCells by X-Phenols (236), 40

6.2.3 Inhibition of Growth of L1210 by X-Phenols, 40

6.2.4 Inhibition of Growth of L1210 byElectron-Withdrawing Substituents(s1 . 0), 41

6.2.5 Inhibition of Growth of L1210 byElectron-Donating Substituents (s1 ,0), 41

6.3 Progress in QSAR, 417 Summary, 42

1 INTRODUCTION

It has been nearly 40 years since the quantita-tive structure-activity relationship (QSAR)paradigm first found its way into the practiceof agrochemistry, pharmaceutical chemistry,toxicology, and eventually most facets ofchemistry (1). Its staying power may be attrib-uted to the strength of its initial postulate thatactivity was a function of structure as de-

scribed by electronic attributes, hydrophobic-ity, and steric properties as well as the rapidand extensive development in methodologiesand computational techniques that have en-sued to delineate and refine the many vari-ables and approaches that define the para-digm. The overall goals of QSAR retain theiroriginal essence and remain focused on thepredictive ability of the approach and its re-ceptiveness to mechanistic interpretation.

History of Quantitative Structure-Activity Relationships2

Rigorous analysis and fine-tuning of indepen-dent variables has led to an expansion in de-velopment of molecular and atom-based de-scriptors, as well as descriptors derived fromquantum chemical calculations and spectros-copy (2). The improvement in high-through-put screening procedures allows for rapidscreening of large numbers of compounds un-der similar test conditions and thus minimizesthe risk of combining variable test data frommany sources.

The formulation of thousands of equa-tions using QSAR methodology attests to avalidation of its concepts and its utility inthe elucidation of the mechanism of action ofdrugs at the molecular level and a more com-plete understanding of physicochemical phe-nomena such as hydrophobicity. It is nowpossible not only to develop a model for asystem but also to compare models from abiological database and to draw analogieswith models from a physical organic data-base (3). This process is dubbed model min-ing and it provides a sophisticated approachto the study of chemical-biological interac-tions. QSAR has clearly matured, althoughit still has a way to go. The previous reviewby Kubinyi has relevant sections coveringportions of this chapter as well as an exten-sive bibliography recommended for a morecomplete overview (4).

1.1 Historical Development of QSAR

More than a century ago, Crum-Brown andFraser expressed the idea that the physiologi-cal action of a substance was a function of itschemical composition and constitution (5). Afew decades later, in 1893, Richet showed thatthe cytotoxicities of a diverse set of simple or-ganic molecules were inversely related to theircorresponding water solubilities (6). At theturn of the 20th century, Meyer and Overtonindependently suggested that the narcotic (de-pressant) action of a group of organic com-pounds paralleled their olive oil/water parti-tion coefficients (7, 8). In 1939 Fergusonintroduced a thermodynamic generalizationto the correlation of depressant action withthe relative saturation of volatile compoundsin the vehicle in which they were administered(9). The extensive work of Albert, and Bell andRoblin established the importance of ioniza-

tion of bases and weak acids in bacteriostaticactivity (10–12). Meanwhile on the physicalorganic front, great strides were being made inthe delineation of substituent effects on or-ganic reactions, led by the seminal work ofHammett, which gave rise to the “sigma-rho”culture (13, 14). Taft devised a way for sepa-rating polar, steric, and resonance effects andintroducing the first steric parameter, ES (15).The contributions of Hammett and Taft to-gether laid the mechanistic basis for the devel-opment of the QSAR paradigm by Hansch andFujita. In 1962 Hansch and Muir publishedtheir brilliant study on the structure-activityrelationships of plant growth regulators andtheir dependency on Hammett constants andhydrophobicity (16). Using the octanol/watersystem, a whole series of partition coefficientswere measured, and thus a new hydrophobicscale was introduced (17). The parameter p,which is the relative hydrophobicity of a sub-stituent, was defined in a manner analogous tothe definition of sigma (18).

pX 5 log PX 2 log PH (1.1)

PX and PH represent the partition coefficientsof a derivative and the parent molecule, re-spectively. Fujita and Hansch then combinedthese hydrophobic constants with Hammett’selectronic constants to yield the linear Hanschequation and its many extended forms (19).

Log 1/C 5 as 1 bp 1 ck (1.2)

Hundreds of equations later, the failure of lin-ear equations in cases with extended hydro-phobicity ranges led to the development of theHansch parabolic equation (20):

Log 1/C 5 a z log P(1.3)

2 b~log P!2 1 cs 1 k

The delineation of these models led to explo-sive development in QSAR analysis and re-lated approaches. The Kubinyi bilinearmodel is a refinement of the parabolic modeland, in many cases, it has proved to be supe-rior (21).

1 Introduction 3

Log 1/C 5 a z log P(1.4)

2 b z log~b z P 1 1! 1 k

Besides the Hansch approach, other method-ologies were also developed to tackle struc-ture-activity questions. The Free-Wilson ap-proach addresses structure-activity studies ina congeneric series as described in Equation1.5 (22).

BA 5 O ai xi 1 u (1.5)

BA is the biological activity, u is the averagecontribution of the parent molecule, and ai isthe contribution of each structural feature; xi

denotes the presence Xi 5 1 or absence Xi 5 0of a particular structural fragment. Limita-tions in this approach led to the more sophis-ticated Fujita-Ban equation that used the log-arithm of activity, which brought the activityparameter in line with other free energy-re-lated terms (23).

Log BA 5 O GiXi 1 u (1.6)

In Equation 1.6, u is defined as the calculatedbiological activity value of the unsubstitutedparent compound of a particular series. Gi rep-resents the biological activity contribution ofthe substituents, whereas Xi is ascribed with avalue of one when the substituent is present orzero when it is absent. Variations on this ac-tivity-based approach have been extended byKlopman et al. (24) and Enslein et al. (25).Topological methods have also been used toaddress the relationships between molecularstructure and physical/biological activity. Theminimum topological difference (MTD)method of Simon and the extensive studies onmolecular connectivity by Kier and Hall havecontributed to the development of quantita-tive structure property/activity relationships(26, 27). Connectivity indices based on hydro-gen-suppressed molecular structures are richin information on branching, 3-atom frag-ments, the degree of substitution, proximity ofsubstituents and length, and heteroatom ofsubstituted rings. A method in its embryonicstate of development uses both graph bond

distances and Euclidean distances among at-oms to calculate E-state values for each atomin a molecule that is sensitive to conforma-tional structure. Recently, these electrotopo-logical indices that encode significant struc-tured information on the topological state ofatoms and fragments as well as their valenceelectron content have been applied to biologi-cal and toxicity data (28). Other recent devel-opments in QSAR include approaches such asHQSAR, Inverse QSAR, and Binary QSAR(29–32). Improved statistical tools such aspartial least square (PLS) can handle situa-tions where the number of variables over-whelms the number of molecules in a data set,which may have collinear X-variables (33).

1.2 Development of Receptor Theory

The central theme of molecular pharmacol-ogy, and the underlying basis of SAR studies,has focused on the elucidation of the structureand function of drug receptors. It is an en-deavor that proceeds with unparalleled vigor,fueled by the developments in genomics. It isgenerally accepted that endogenous and exog-enous chemicals interact with a binding siteon a specific macromolecular receptor. This in-teraction, which is determined by intermolec-ular forces, may or may not elicit a pharmaco-logical response depending on its eventual siteof action.

The idea that drugs interacted with specificreceptors began with Langley, who studied themutually antagonistic action of the alkaloids,pilocorpine and atropine. He realized thatboth these chemicals interacted with some re-ceptive substance in the nerve endings of thegland cells (34). Paul Ehrlich defined the re-ceptor as the “binding group of the protoplas-mic molecule to which a foreign newly intro-duced group binds” (35). In 1905 Langley’sstudies on the effects of curare on muscularcontraction led to the first delineation of crit-ical characteristics of a receptor: recognitioncapacity for certain ligands and an amplifica-tion component that results in a pharmacolog-ical response (36).

Receptors are mostly integral proteins em-bedded in the phospholipid bilayer of cellmembranes. Rigorous treatment with deter-gents is needed to dissociate the proteins fromthe membrane, which often results in loss of


integrity and activity. Pure proteins such asenzymes also act as drug receptors. Their rel-ative ease of isolation and amplification havemade enzymes desirable targets in structure-based ligand design and QSAR studies. Nu-cleic acids comprise an important category ofdrug receptors. Nucleic acid receptors (apta-mers), which interact with a diverse numberof small organic molecules, have been isolatedby in vitro selection techniques and studied(37). Recent binary complexes provide insightinto the molecular recognition process inthese biopolymers and also establish the im-portance of the architecture of tertiary motifsin nucleic acid folding (38). Groove-binding li-gands such as lexitropsins hold promise as po-tential drugs and are thus suitable subjects forfocused QSAR studies (39).

Over the last 20 years, extensive QSARstudies on ligand-receptor interactions havebeen carried out with most of them focusingon enzymes. Two recent developments haveaugmented QSAR studies and established anattractive approach to the elucidation of themechanistic underpinnings of ligand-receptorinteractions: the advent of molecular graphicsand the ready availability of X-ray crystallog-raphy coordinates of various binary and ter-nary complexes of enzymes with diverse li-gands and cofactors. Early studies with serineand thiol proteases (chymotrypsin, trypsin,and papain), alcohol dehydrogenase, and nu-merous dihydrofolate reductases (DHFR) notonly established molecular modeling as a pow-erful tool, but also helped clarify the extent ofthe role of hydrophobicity in enzyme-ligandinteractions (40–44). Empirical evidence indi-cated that the coefficients with the hydropho-bic term could be related to the degree of de-solvation of the ligand by critical amino acidresidues in the binding site of an enzyme. To-tal desolvation, as characterized by binding ina deep crevice/pocket, resulted in coefficientsof approximately 1.0 (0.9–1.1) (44). An exten-sion of this agreement between the mathemat-ical expression and structure as determined byX-ray crystallography led to the expectationthat the binding of a set of substituents on thesurface of an enzyme would yield a coefficientof about 0.5 (0.4–0.6) in the regression equa-tion, indicative of partial desolvation.

Probing of various enzymes by different li-gands also aided in dispelling the notion ofFischer’s rigid lock-and-key concept, in whichthe ligand (key) fits precisely into a receptor(lock). Thus, a “negative” impression of thesubstrate was considered to exist on the en-zyme surface (geometric complementarity).Unfortunately, this rigid model fails to ac-count for the effects of allosteric ligands, andthis encouraged the evolution of the induced-fit model. Thus, “deformable” lock-and-keymodels have gained acceptance on the basis ofstructural studies, especially NMR (45).

It is now possible to isolate membrane-bound receptors, although it is still a challengeto delineate their chemistry, given that sepa-ration from the membrane usually ensuresloss of reactivity. Nevertheless, great ad-vances have been made in this arena, and thethree-dimensional structures of some mem-brane-bound proteins have recently been elu-cidated. To gain an appreciation for mecha-nisms of ligand-receptor interactions, it isnecessary to consider the intermolecularforces at play. Considering the low concentra-tion of drugs and receptors in the human body,the law of mass action cannot account for theability of a minute amount of a drug to elicit apronounced pharmacological effect. The driv-ing force for such an interaction may be attrib-uted to the low energy state of the drug-receptor complex: KD 5 [Drug][Receptor] ⁄[Drug-Receptor Complex]. Thus, the biologicalactivity of a drug is determined by its affinityfor the receptor, which is measured by its KD,the dissociation constant at equilibrium. Asmaller KD implies a large concentration ofthe drug-receptor complex and thus a greateraffinity of the drug for the receptor. The latterproperty is promoted and stabilized by mostlynoncovalent interactions sometimes aug-mented by a few covalent bonds. The sponta-neous formation of a bond between atoms re-sults in a decrease in free energy; that is, DG isnegative. The change in free energy DG is re-lated to the equilibrium constant Keq.

DG° 5 2RT ln Keq (1.7)

Thus, small changes in DG° can have a pro-found effect on equilibrium constants.

1 Introduction 5

In the broadest sense, these “bonds” wouldinclude covalent, ionic, hydrogen, dipole-di-pole, van der Waals, and hydrophobic interac-tions. Most drug-receptor interactions consti-tute a combination of the bond types listed inTable 1.1, most of which are reversible underphysiological conditions.

Covalent bonds are not as important indrug-receptor binding as noncovalent interac-tions. Alkylating agents in chemotherapy tendto react and form an immonium ion, whichthen alkylates proteins, preventing their nor-mal participation in cell divisions. Baker’sconcept of active site directed irreversible in-hibitors was well established by covalent for-mation of Baker’s antifolate and dihydrofolatereductase (46).

Ionic (electrostatic) interactions are formedbetween ions of opposite charge with energiesthat are nominal and that tend to fall off withdistance. They are ubiquitous and becausethey act across long distances, they play aprominent role in the actions of ionizabledrugs. The strength of an electrostatic force isdirectly dependent on the charge of each ionand inversely dependent on the dielectric con-stant of the solvent and the distance betweenthe charges.

Hydrogen bonds are ubiquitous in nature:their multiple presence contributes to the sta-

bility of the (ahelix and base-pairing in DNA.Hydrogen bonding is based on an electrostaticinteraction between the nonbonding electronsof a heteroatom (e.g., N, O, S) and the elec-tron-deficient hydrogen atom of an 2OH, SH,or NH group. Hydrogen bonds are stronglydirectional, highly dependent on the net de-gree of solvation, and rather weak, having en-ergies ranging from 1 to 10 kcal/mol (47, 48).Bonds with this type of strength are of criticalimportance because they are stable enough toprovide significant binding energy but weakenough to allow for quick dissociation. Thegreater electronegativity of atoms such as ox-ygen, nitrogen, sulfur, and halogen, comparedto that of carbon, causes bonds between theseatoms to have an asymmetric distribution ofelectrons, which results in the generation ofelectronic dipoles. Given that so many func-tional groups have dipole moments, ion-dipoleand dipole-dipole interactions are frequent.The energy of dipole-dipole interactions canbe described by Equation 1.8, where m is thedipole moment, u is the angle between the twopoles of the dipole, D is the dielectric constantof the medium and r is the distance betweenthe charges involved in the dipole.

E 5 2m1m2cos u1cos u2/Dr3 (1.8)

Table 1.1 Types of Intermolecular Forces

Bond TypeBond Strength

(kcal/mol) Example

1. Covalent 40–140

2. Ionic (Electrostatic) 5

3. Hydrogen 1–10

4. Dipole–dipole 1

5. van der Waals 0.5–1

6. Hydrophobic 1


Although electrostatic interactions aregenerally restricted to polar molecules, thereare also strong interactions between nonpolarmolecules over small intermolecular dis-tances. Dispersion or London/van der Waalsforces are the universal attractive forces be-tween atoms that hold nonpolar molecules to-gether in the liquid phase. They are based onpolarizability and these fluctuating dipoles orshifts in electron clouds of the atoms tend toinduce opposite dipoles in adjacent molecules,resulting in a net overall attraction. The en-ergy of this interaction decreases very rapidlyin proportion to 1/r6, where r is the distanceseparating the two molecules. These van derWaals forces operate at a distance of about0.4–0.6 nm and exert an attraction force ofless than 0.5 kcal/mol. Yet, although individ-ual van der Waals forces make a low energycontribution to an event, they become signifi-cant and additive when summed up over alarge area with close surface contact of theatoms.

Hydrophobicity refers to the tendency ofnonpolar compounds to transfer from anaqueous phase to an organic phase (49, 50).When a nonpolar molecule is placed in water,it gets solvated by a “sweater” of water mole-cules ordered in a somewhat icelike manner.This increased order in the water moleculessurrounding the solute results in a loss of en-tropy. Association of hydrocarbon moleculesleads to a “squeezing out” of the structuredwater molecules. The displaced water becomesbulk water, less ordered, resulting in a gain inentropy, which provides the driving force forwhat has been referred to as a hydrophobicbond. Although this is a generally acceptedview of hydrophobicity, the hydration of apo-lar molecules and the noncovalent interac-tions between these molecules in water arestill poorly understood and thus the source ofcontinued examination (51–53).

Because noncovalent interactions are gen-erally weak, cooperativity by several types ofinteractions is essential for overall activity.Enthalpy terms will be additive, but once thefirst interaction occurs, translational entropyis lost. This results in a reduced entropy loss inthe second interaction. The net result is thateventually several weak interactions combineto produce a strong interaction. One can safely

state that it is the involvement of myriad in-teractions that contribute to the overall selec-tivity of drug-receptor interactions.

2 TOOLS AND TECHNIQUES OF QSAR

2.1 Biological Parameters

In QSAR analysis, it is imperative that thebiological data be both accurate and precise todevelop a meaningful model. It must be real-ized that any resulting QSAR model that isdeveloped is only as valid statistically as thedata that led to its development. The equilib-rium constants and rate constants that areused extensively in physical organic chemistryand medicinal chemistry are related to freeenergy values DG. Thus for use in QSAR, stan-dard biological equilibrium constants such asKi or Km should be used in QSAR studies.Likewise only standard rate constants shouldbe deemed appropriate for a QSAR analysis.Percentage activities (e.g., % inhibition ofgrowth at certain concentrations) are not ap-propriate biological endpoints because of thenonlinear characteristic of dose-response rela-tionships. These types of endpoints may betransformed to equieffective molar doses.Only equilibrium and rate constants passmuster in terms of the free-energy relation-ships or influence on QSAR studies. Biologicaldata are usually expressed on a logarithmicscale because of the linear relationship be-tween response and log dose in the midregionof the log dose-response curve. Inverse loga-rithms for activity (log 1/C) are used so thathigher values are obtained for more effectiveanalogs. Various types of biological data havebeen used in QSAR analysis. A few commonendpoints are outlined in Table 1.2.

Biological data should pertain to an aspectof biological/biochemical function that can bemeasured. The events could be occurring inenzymes, isolated or bound receptors, in cellu-lar systems, or whole animals. Because thereis considerable variation in biological re-sponses, test samples should be run in dupli-cate or preferably triplicate, except in wholeanimal studies where assay conditions (e.g.,plasma concentrations of a drug) precludesuch measurements.

2 Tools and Techniques of QSAR 7

It is also important to design a set of mole-cules that will yield a range of values in termsof biological activities. It is understandablethat most medicinal chemists are reluctant tosynthesize molecules with poor activity, eventhough these data points are important in de-veloping a meaningful QSAR. Generally, thelarger the range (.2 log units) in activity, theeasier it is to generate a predictive QSAR. Thiskind of equation is more forgiving in terms oferrors of measurement. A narrow range in bi-ological activity is less forgiving in terms ofaccuracy of data. Another factor that meritsconsideration is the time structure. Should aparticular reading be taken after 48 or 72 h?Knowledge of cell cycles in cellular systems orbiorhythms in animals would be advanta-geous.

Each single step of drug transport, binding,and metabolism involves some form of parti-tioning between an aqueous compartment anda nonaqueous phase, which could be a mem-brane, serum protein, receptor, or enzyme. Inthe case of isolated receptors, the endpoint isclear-cut and the critical step is evident. But inmore complex systems, such as cellular sys-tems or whole animals, many localized stepscould be involved in the random-walk processand the eventual interaction with a target.

Usually the observed biological activity is re-flective of the slow step or the rate-determin-ing step.

To determine a defined biological response(e.g., IC50), a dose-response curve is first es-tablished. Usually six to eight concentrationsare tested to yield percentages of activity orinhibition between 20 and 80%, the linear por-tion of the curve. Using the curves, the doseresponsible for an established effect can easilybe determined. This procedure is meaningfulif, at the time the response is measured, thesystem is at equilibrium, or at least understeady-state conditions.

Other approaches have been used to applythe additivity concept and ascertain the bind-ing energy contributions of various substitu-ent (R) groups. Fersht et al. have measuredthe binding energies of various alkyl groups toaminoacyl-tRNA synthetases (54). Thus theDG values for methyl, ethyl, isopropyl, andthio substituents were determined to be 3.2,6.5, 9.6, and 5.4 kcal/mol, respectively.

An alternative, generalized approach to de-termining the energies of various drug-recep-tor interactions was developed by Andrews etal. (55), who statistically examined the drug-receptor interactions of a diverse set of mole-cules in aqueous solution. Using Equation 1.9,a relationship was established between DGand EX (intrinsic binding energy), EDOF (energyof average entropy loss), and the DSr,t (energyof rotational and translational entropy loss).

DG 5 T DSr,t 1 nDOFEDOF 1 nXEX (1.9)

EX denotes the sum of the intrinsic bindingenergy of each functional group of which nX

are present in each drug in the set. UsingEquation 1.9, the average binding energies forvarious functional groups were calculated.These energies followed a particular trendwith charged groups showing stronger inter-actions and nonpolar entities, such as sp2, sp3

carbons, contributing very little. The applica-bility of this approach to specific drug-receptorinteractions remains to be seen.

2.2 Statistical Methods: LinearRegression AnalysisThe most widely used mathematical tech-nique in QSAR analysis is multiple regression

Table 1.2 Types of Biological Data Utilizedin QSAR Analysis

Source of Activity Biological Parameters

1. Isolated receptorsRate constants Log kcat; Log kuncat; Log kMichaelis–Menten

constantsLog 1/Km

Inhibition constants Log 1/Ki

Affinity data pA2; pA1

2. Cellular systemsInhibition constants Log 1/IC50

Cross resistance Log CRIn vitro biological data Log 1/CMutagenicity states Log TA98

3. “In vivo” systemsBiocencentration factor Log BCFIn vivo reaction rates Log I (Induction)Pharmacodynamic

ratesLog T (total clearance)


analysis (MRA). We will consider some of thebasic tenets of this approach to gain a firmunderstanding of the statistical proceduresthat define a QSAR. Regression analysis is apowerful means for establishing a correlationbetween independent variables and a depen-dent variable such as biological activity (56).

Yi 5 b 1 aXi 1 Ei (1.10)

Certain assumptions are made with regardto this procedure (57):

1. The independent variables, which in thiscase usually include the physicochemicalparameters, are measured without error.Unfortunately, this is not always the case,although the error in these variables issmall compared to that in the dependentvariable.

2. For any given value of X, the Y values areindependent and follow a normal distribu-tion. The error term Ei possesses a normaldistribution with a mean of zero.

3. The expected mean value for the variableY, for all values of X, lies on a straight line.

4. The variance around the regression line isconstant. The “best” straight line formodel Yi 5 b 1 aZi 1 E is drawn throughthe data points, such that the sum of thesquares of the vertical distances from thepoints to the line is minimized. Y repre-sents the value of the observed data pointand Ycalc is the predicted value on the line.The sum of squares SS 5 ( (Yobs 2 Ycalc)

2.

Yobs 5 aXi 1 b 1 Ei (1.11)

Ycalc 5 aXi 1 b (1.12)

E 5 Yobs 2 aXi 2 b (1.13)

Oi51

n

Ei2 5 O D2 5 SS

(1.14)

5 O ~Yobs 2 Ycalc!2

Thus, SS 5 Oi51

n

~Yobs 2 aXi 2 b!2 (1.15)

Expanding Equation 1.15, we obtain

SS 5 Oi51

n

~Yobs2 2 YobsaXi 2 Yobsb

2 YobsaXi 1 a2Xi2 1 aXib (1.16)

2 bYobs 1 abXi 1 b2)

Taking the partial derivative of Equation 1.14with respect to b and then with respect to a,results in Equations 1.17 and 1.18.

dSSdb 5 O

i51

n

2 2~Yobs 2 b 2 aXi! (1.17)

dSSda 5 O

i51

n

2 2Xi~Yobs 2 b 2 aXi! (1.18)

SS can be minimized with respect to b and aand divided by 22 to yield the normal Equa-tions 1.19 and 1.20.

Oi51

n

~Yobs 2 b 2 aXi! 5 0 (1.19)

Oi51

n

Xi~Yobs 2 b 2 aXi! 5 0 (1.20)

These “normal equations” can be rewritten asfollows:

b Oi51

n

Xi 1 a Oi51

n

Xi2 5 O

i51

n

XiYobs (1.21)

b 1 a Oi51

n

Xi 5 Oi51

n

Yobs (1.22)

The solution of these simultaneous equa-tions yields a and b. More thorough analysesof these procedures have been examined indetail (19, 58 – 60). The following simple ex-ample, illustrated by Table 1.3, will illus-trate the nuances of a linear regression anal-ysis.

2 Tools and Techniques of QSAR 9

For linear regression analysis, Y 5 ax 1 b

a 5 ~n z O xy 2 O x z O y!/n z O x2

2 ~O x!2 5 1.45

b 5 ~O y 2 a z O x!/n 5 4.869

r2 5 O xy 2 O x z O y/n)2/~O x2

2 ~O x!2/n) z ~O y2 2 ~O y!2/n!

5 0.875 [ r 5 0.935

s2 5 ~1 2 r2!

3 ~O y2 2 ~O y!2/n!/~n 2 k 2 1!

5 0.058 [ s 5 0.240

F 5 r2 z ~n 2 k 2 1!/k~1 2 r2! 5 28.52

The correlation coefficient r, the total vari-ance SST, the unexplained variance SSQ,and the standard deviation, are defined asfollows:

r2 5 1 2¥ D2

SST(1.23)

SST 5 O ~Yobs 2 Ymean!2

(1.24)5 O y2 2 ~O y!2/n

O D2 5 SSQ 5 O ~Yobs 2 Ycalc!2 (1.25)

s 5 Î ¥ D2

n 2 k 2 1 5 Î SSQn 2 k 2 1 (1.26)

The correlation coefficient r is a measure ofquality of fit of the model. It constitutes thevariance in the data. In an ideal situation onewould want the correlation coefficient to beequal to or approach 1, but in reality becauseof the complexity of biological data, any valueabove 0.90 is adequate. The standard devia-tion is an absolute measure of the quality of fit.Ideally s should approach zero, but in experi-mental situations, this is not so. It should besmall but it cannot have a value lower than thestandard deviation of the experimental data.The magnitude of s may be attributed to someexperimental error in the data as well as im-perfections in the biological model. A largerdata set and a smaller number of variablesgenerally lead to lower values of s. The F valueis often used as a measure of the level of sta-tistical significance of the regression model. Itis defined as denoted in Equation 1.27.

Fk22k1,n2k2 5~SS1 2 SS2!

SS2

~n 2 k2 2 1!

k2 2 k1(1.27)

A larger value of F implies a more significantcorrelation has been reached. The confidenceintervals of the coefficients in the equation re-veal the significance of each regression term inthe equation.

To obtain a statistically sound QSAR, it isimportant that certain caveats be kept inmind. One needs to be cognizant about col-linearity between variables and chance corre-lations. Use of a correlation matrix ensuresthat variables of significance and/or interestare orthogonal to each other. With the rapidproliferation of parameters, caution must beexercised in amassing too many variables for aQSAR analysis. Topliss has elegantly demon-strated that there is a high risk of ending upwith a chance correlation when too many vari-ables are tested (62).

Outliers in QSAR model generationpresent their own problems. If they are badlyfit by the model (off by more than 2 standarddeviations), they should be dropped from thedata set, although their elimination should benoted and addressed. Their aberrant behavior

Table 1.3 Antibacterial Activityof N*-(R-phenyl)sulfanilamides

Compound s(X) Observed BA (Y)

1. 4-CH3 20.17 4.662. 4-H 0 4.803. 4-Cl 0.23 4.894. 2-Cl 0.23 5.555. 2-NO2 0.78 6.006. 4-NO2 0.78 6.00

k 5 no. of variables 5 1n 5 no. of data points 5 6¥ X 5 1.85¥ Y 5 31.90¥ X 2 5 1.352¥ Y 2 5 171.45¥ XY 5 10.968


may be attributed to inaccuracies in the test-ing procedure (usually dilution errors) or un-usual behavior. They often provide valuableinformation in terms of the mechanistic inter-pretation of a QSAR model. They could be par-ticipating in some intermolecular interactionthat is not available to other members of thedata set or have a drastic change in mecha-nism.

2.3 Compound Selection

In setting up to run a QSAR analysis, com-pound selection is an important angle thatneeds to be addressed. One of the earliestmanual methods was an approach devised byCraig, which involves two-dimensional plots ofimportant physicochemical properties. Care istaken to select substituents from all fourquadrants of the plot (63). The Topliss opera-tional scheme allows one to start with twocompounds and construct a potency tree thatgrows branches as the substituent set is ex-panded in a stepwise fashion (64). Toplisslater proposed a batchwise scheme includingcertain substituents such as the 3,4-Cl2, 4-Cl,4-CH3, 4-OCH3, and 4-H analogs (65). Othermethods of manual substituent selection in-clude the Fibonacci search method, sequentialsimplex strategy, and parameter focusing byMagee (66–68).

One of the earliest computer-based and sta-tistical selection methods, cluster analysis wasdevised by Hansch to accelerate the processand diversity of the substituents (1). Newermethodologies include D-optimal designs,which focus on the use of det (X9X), the vari-ance-covariance matrix. The determinant ofthis matrix yields a single number, which ismaximized for compounds expressing maxi-mum variance and minimum covariance (69–71). A combination of fractional factorial de-sign in tandem with a principal propertyapproach has proven useful in QSAR (72). Ex-tensions of this approach using multivariatedesign have shown promise in environmentalQSAR with nonspecific responses, where theclusters overlap and a cluster-based design ap-proach has to be used (73). With strongly clus-tered data containing several classes of com-pounds, a new strategy involving localmultivariate designs within each cluster is de-scribed. The chosen compounds from the local

designs are grouped together in the overalltraining set that is representative of all clus-ters (74).

3 PARAMETERS USED IN QSAR

3.1 Electronic Parameters

Parameters are of critical importance in deter-mining the types of intermolecular forces thatunderly drug-receptor interactions. The threemajor types of parameters that were initiallysuggested and still hold sway are electronic,hydrophobic, and steric in nature (20, 75). Ex-tensive studies using electronic parametersreveal that electronic attributes of moleculesare intimately related to their chemical reac-tivities and biological activities. A search of acomputerized QSAR database reveals the fol-lowing: the common Hammett constants (s,s1, s2) account for 7000/8500 equations inthe Physical organic chemistry (PHYS) data-base and nearly 1600/8000 in the Biology(BIO) database, whereas quantum chemicalindices such as HOMO, LUMO, BDE, and po-larizability appear in 100 equations in the BIOdatabase (76).

The extent to which a given reaction re-sponds to electronic perturbation constitutesa measure of the electronic demands of thatreaction, which is determined by its mecha-nism. The introduction of substituent groupsinto the framework and the subsequent alter-ation of reaction rates helps delineate theoverall mechanism of reaction. Early work ex-amining the electronic role of substituents onrate constants was first tackled by Burckhardtand firmly established by Hammett (13, 14,77, 78). Hammett employed, as a model reac-tion, the ionization in water of substitutedbenzoic acids and determined their equilib-rium constants Ka. See Equation 1.28. Thisled to an operational definition of s, the sub-stituent constant. It is a measure of the size ofthe electronic effect for a given substituentand represents a measure of electronic chargedistribution in the benzene nucleus.

sX 5 log KX 2 log KH or(1.29)

log~KX/KH! 5 2pKX 1 pKH

Electron-withdrawing substituents are thus

3 Parameters Used in QSAR 11

characterized by positive values, whereas elec-tron-donating ones have negative values. Inan extension of this approach, the ionizationof substituted phenylacetic acids was mea-sured.

The effect of the 4-Cl substituent on the ion-ization of 4-Cl phenylacetic acid (PA) wasfound to be proportional to its effect on theionization of 4-Cl benzoic acid (BA).

log~K9Cl(PA)/K9H(PA)! } log~KCl(BA)/KH(BA)!

Since log~KCl(BA)/KH(BA)! 5 s,(1.31)

then logK9Cl

K9H5 r z s

r (rho) is defined as a proportionality or reac-tion constant, which is a measure of the sus-

ceptibility of a reaction to substituent effects.A positive rho value suggests that a reaction isaided by electron withdrawal from the reac-tion site, whereas a negative rho value impliesthat the reaction is assisted by electron dona-tion at the reaction site. Hammett also drewattention to the fact that a plot of log KA forbenzoic acids versus log k for ester hydrolysisof a series of molecules is linear, which sug-gests that substituents exert a similar effect indissimilar reactions.

logkX

kH} log

KX

KH5 r z s (1.32)

Although this expression is empirical in na-ture, it has been validated by the sheer volumeof positive results. It is remarkable becausefour different energy states must be related.

A correlation of this type is clearly mean-ingful; it suggests that changes in structureproduce proportional changes in the activa-tion energy DG‡ for such reactions. Hence, thederivation of the name for which the Hammettequation is universally known: linear free en-ergy relationship (LFER). Equation 1.32 hasbecome known as the Hammett equation andhas been applied to thousands of reactionsthat take place at or near the benzene ringbearing substituents at the meta and para po-sitions. Because of proximity and steric ef-fects, ortho-substituted molecules do not al-ways follow this maxim and are subject todifferent parameterizations. Thus, an ex-panded approach was established by Charton(79) and Fujita and Nishioka (80). Chartonpartitioned the ortho electronic effect into itsinductive, resonance, and steric contribu-tions; the factors a, b, and X are susceptibilityor reaction constants and h is the intercept.

Log k 5 asI 1 bsR 1 Xrv 1 h (1.33)

Fujita and Nishioka used an integrated ap-proach to deal with ortho substituents in datasets including meta and para substituents.

Log k 5 rs 1 dESortho 1 fFortho 1 C (1.34)

For ortho substituents, para sigma values

(1.28)

(1.30)


were used in addition to Taft’s ES values andSwain-Lupton field constants Fortho.

The reason for employing alternative treat-ments to ortho-substituted aromatic mole-cules is that changes in rate or ionization con-stants mediated by meta or para substituentsare mostly changes in (H‡ or DH° because sub-stitution does not affect DS‡ or DS°. Orthosubstituents affect both enthalpy and entropy;the effect on entropy is noteworthy becauseentropy is highly sensitive to changes in thesize of reagents and substituents as well asdegree of solvation. Bolton et al. examined theionization of substituted benzoic acids andmeasured accurate values for DG, DH, and DS(81). A hierarchy of different scenarios, underwhich an LFER operates, was established:

1. DH° is constant and DS varies for a series.2. DS° is constant and DH varies.3. DH° and DS° vary and are shown to be lin-

early related.4. Precise measurements indicated that cate-

gory 3 was the prevalent behavior in ben-zoic acids.

Despite the extensive and successful use inQSAR studies, there are some limitations tothe Hammett equation.

1. Primary s values are obtained from thethermodynamic ionizations of the appro-priate benzoic acids at 25°C; these are reli-able and easily available. Secondary valuesare obtained by comparison with anotherseries of compounds and are thus subject toerror because they are dependent on theaccuracy of a measured series and the de-velopment of a regression line using statis-tical methods.

2. In some multisubstituted compounds, thelack of additivity needs to be noted. Proxi-mal effects are operative and tend to distortelectronic contributions. For example,

O scalc~3,4,5-trichlorobenzoic acid!

5 0.97;

that is, 2sM 1 sP or 2~0.37! 1 0.23

Osobs~3,4,5-trichlorobenzoic acid! 5 0.95

Sigma values for smaller substituents aremore likely to be additive. However, in thecase of 3-methyl, 4-dimethylaminobenzoicacid, the discrepancy is high. For example,

O scalc~3-CH3, 4-N~CH3!2 benzoic acid!

5 20.90

O sobs~3-CH3, 4-N~CH3!2 benzoic acid!

5 20.30

The large discrepancy may be attributed tothe twisting of the dimethylamino substitu-ent out of the plane of the benzene ring,resulting in a decrease in resonance. Exnerand his colleagues have critically examinedthe use of additivity in the determination ofs constants (82).

3. Changes in mechanism or transition statecause discontinuities in Hammett plots.Nonlinear plots are often found in reac-tions that proceed by two concurrent path-ways (83, 84).

4. Changes in solvent may lead to dissimilar-ities in reaction mechanisms. Thus extrap-olation of s values from a polar solvent(e.g., CH3CN) to a nonpolar solvent such asbenzene has to be approached cautiously.Solvation properties will differ consider-ably, particularly if the transition state ispolar and/or the substituents are able tointeract with the solvent.

5. A strong positional dependency of sigmamakes it imperative to use appropriate val-ues for positional, isomeric substituents.Substituents ortho to the reaction centerare difficult to describe and thus one mustresort to a Fujita-Nishioka analysis (80).

6. Thorough resonance or direct conjugationeffects cause a breakdown in the Hammettequation. When coupling occurs betweenthe substituent and the reaction centerthrough the pi-electron system, reactivityis enhanced, diminished, or mitigated byseparation. In a study of X-cumyl chlorides,Brown and Okamoto noticed the strongconjugative interaction between lone-pair,


para substituents and the vacant r-orbitalin the transition state, which led to devia-tions in the Hammett plot (85). They de-fined a modified LFER applicable to thissituation.

LogkY

kH5 ~r 1 !~s 1 ! (1.35)

s1 was a new substituent constant that ex-pressed enhanced resonance attributes. Asimilar situation was noticed when a strongdonor center was present as a reactant orformed as a product (e.g., phenols and ani-lines). In this case, strong resonance interac-tions were possible with electron-withdrawinggroups (e.g., NO2 or CN). A scale for such sub-stituents was constructed such that

LogkY

kH5 ~r 2 !~s 2 ! (1.36)

One shortcoming of the benzoic acid sys-tem is the extent of coupling between the car-boxyl group and certain lone-pair donors. In-sertion of a methylene group between the core(benzene ring) and the functional group(COOH moiety) leads to phenylacetic acidsand the establishment of s0 scale from the ion-ization of X-phenylacetic acids. A flexiblemethod of dealing with the variability of theresonance contribution to the overall elec-tronic demand of a reaction is embodied in theYukawa-Tsuno equation (86). It includes nor-mal and enhanced resonance contributions toan LFER.

LogkY

kH5 r@s 1 r~s 1 2 s!# (1.37)

where r is a measure of the degree of enhancedresonance interaction in relation to benzoicacid dissociations (r 5 0) and cumyl chloridehydrolysis (r 5 1).

Most of the Hammett-type constants per-tain to aromatic systems. In evaluating anelectronic parameter for use in aliphatic sys-tems, Taft used the relative acid and base hy-drolysis rates for esters. He developed equa-tion 1.38 as a measure of the inductive effect

(s*) of a substituent R9 in the ester R9 COOR,where B and A refer to basic and acidic hydro-lysis, respectively.

s* 51

2.48 @log~k/kO!B 2 log~k/kO!A# (1.38)

The factor of 2.48 was used to make s* equi-scalar with Hammett s values. Later, a sI

scale derived from the ionization of 4-X-bicyclo[2.2.2]octane-1-carboxylic acids wasshown to be related to s* (87, 88). It is nowmore widely used than s*.

sI~X! 5 0.45s*~CH2X! (1.39)

Ionization is a function of the electronicstructure of an organic drug molecule. Albertwas the first to clearly delineate the relation-ship between ionization and biological activity(89). Now, pKa values are widely used as theindependent variable in physical organic reac-tions and in biological systems, particularlywhen dealing with transport phenomena.However, caution must be exercised in inter-preting the dependency of biological activityon pKa values because pKa values are inher-ently composites of electronic factors that areused directly in QSAR analysis.

In recent years, there has been a rapidgrowth in the application of quantum chemi-cal methodology to QSAR, by direct derivationof electronic descriptors from the molecularwave functions (90). The two most popularmethods used for the calculation of quantumchemical descriptors are ab initio (Hartree-Fock) and semiempirical methods. As in otherelectronic parameters, QSAR models incorpo-rating quantum chemical descriptors will in-clude information on the nature of the inter-molecular forces involved in the biologicalresponse. Unlike other electronic descriptors,there is no statistical error in quantum chem-ical computations. The errors are usuallymade in the assumptions that are establishedto facilitate calculation (91). Quantum chemi-cal descriptors such as net atomic changes,highest occupied molecular orbital/lowest un-occupied molecular orbital (HOMO-LUMO)energies, frontier orbital electron densities,and superdelocalizabilities have been shown


to correlate well with various biological activ-ities (92). A mixed approach using frontier or-bital theory and topological parameters havebeen used to calculate Hammett-like substitu-ent constants (93).

s 5 22.480DN 2 7.894DE

(1.40)2 0.605DX/DH z ~EAH/EAX!

1 0.009 ØSX 1 0.028 O p 1 0.279

n 5 150, r2 5 0.947,

s 5 0.079, F 5 789.9

In Equation 1.40, DN represents the extentof electron transfer between interacting ac-id-base systems; DE is the energy decrease inbimolecular systems underlying electrontransfer; DX ⁄DH z (EAH ⁄EAX) corresponds toelectron affinity and distance terms; andØSX factors the electrotopological state in-dex, whereas ( p is the number of all p-elec-trons in the functional group. Observedprincipal component analysis (PCA) cluster-ing of 66 descriptors derived from AM1 cal-culations was similar to that previously re-ported for monosubstituted benzenes (94,95). The advantages of quantum chemicaldescriptors are that they have definitemeaning and are useful in the elucidation ofintra- and intermolecular interactions andcan easily be derived from the theoreticalstructure of the molecule.

3.2 Hydrophobicity Parameters

More than a hundred years ago, Meyer andOverton made their seminal discovery on thecorrelation between oil/water partition coeffi-cients and the narcotic potencies of small or-ganic molecules (7, 8). Ferguson extended thisanalysis by placing the relationship betweendepressant action and hydrophobicity in athermodynamic context; the relative satura-tion of the depressant in the biophase was acritical determinant of its narcotic potency (9).At this time, the success of the Hammett equa-tion began to permeate structure-activitystudies and hydrophobicity as a determinantwas relegated to the background. In a land-mark study, Hansch and his colleagues de-

vised and used a multiparameter approachthat included both electronic and hydrophobicterms, to establish a QSAR for a series of plantgrowth regulators (16). This study laid the ba-sis for the development of the QSAR paradigmand also firmly established the importance oflipophilicity in biosystems. Over the last 40years, no other parameter used in QSAR hasgenerated more interest, excitement, and con-troversy than hydrophobicity (96). Hydropho-bic interactions are of critical importance inmany areas of chemistry. These include en-zyme-ligand interactions, the assembly of lip-ids in biomembranes, aggregation of surfac-tants, coagulation, and detergency (97–100).The integrity of biomembranes and the ter-tiary structure of proteins in solution are de-termined by apolar-type interactions.

Molecular recognition depends strongly onhydrophobic interactions between ligands andreceptors. Excellent treatises on this subjecthave been written by Taylor (101) and Blokzijland Engerts (51). Despite extensive usage ofthe term hydrophobic bond, it is well knownthat there is no strong attractive force be-tween apolar molecules (102). Frank andEvans were the first to apply a thermodynamictreatment to the solvation of apolar moleculesin water at room temperature (103). Their“iceberg” model suggested that a large en-tropic loss ensued after the dissolution of apo-lar compounds and the increased structure ofwater molecules in the surrounding apolar sol-ute. The quantitation of this model led to thedevelopment of the “flickering” cluster modelof Némethy and Scheraga, which emphasizedthe formation of hydrogen bonds in liquid wa-ter (104). The classical model for hydrophobicinteractions was delineated by Kauzmann todescribe the van der Waals attractions be-tween the nonpolar parts of two molecules im-mersed in water. Given that van der Waalsforces operate over short distances, the watermolecules are squeezed out in the vicinity ofthe mutually bound apolar surfaces (49). Thedriving force for this behavior is not that al-kanes “hate” water, but rather water that“hates” alkanes (105, 106). Thus, the gain inentropy appears as the critical driving forcefor hydrophobic interactions that are primar-ily governed by the repulsion of hydrophobic


solutes from the solvent water and the limitedbut important capacity of water to maintainits network of hydrogen bonds.

Hydrophobicities of solutes can readily bedetermined by measuring partition coeffi-cients designated as P. Partition coefficientsdeal with neutral species, whereas distribu-tion ratios incorporate concentrations ofcharged and/or polymeric species as well. Byconvention, P is defined as the ratio of concen-tration of the solute in octanol to its concen-tration in water.

P 5 @conc#octanol/@conc#aqueous (1.41)

It was fortuitous that octanol was chosen asthe solvent most likely to mimic the biomem-brane. Extensive studies over the last 35 years(40,000 experimental P-values in 400 differentsolvent systems) have failed to dislodge octa-nol from its secure perch (107, 108).

Octanol is a suitable solvent for the mea-surement of partition coefficients for manyreasons (109, 110). It is cheap, relatively non-toxic, and chemically unreactive. The hy-droxyl group has both hydrogen bond acceptorand hydrogen bond donor features capable ofinteracting with a large variety of polargroups. Despite its hydrophobic attributes, itis able to dissolve many more organic com-pounds than can alkanes, cycloalkanes, or ar-omatic hydrocarbons. It is UV transparentover a large range and has a vapor pressurelow enough to allow for reproducible measure-ments. It is also elevated enough to allow forits removal under mild conditions. In addition,water saturated with octanol contains only1023 M octanol at equilibrium, whereas octa-nol saturated with water contains 2.3 M ofwater. Thus, polar groups need not be totallydehydrated in transfer from the aqueousphase to the organic phase. Likewise, hydro-phobic solutes are not appreciably solvated bythe 1023 M octanol in the water phase unlesstheir intrinsic log P is above 6.0. Octanol be-gins to absorb light below 220 nm and thussolute concentration determinations can bemonitored by UV spectroscopy. More impor-tant, octanol acts as an excellent mimic forbiomembranes because it shares the traits of

amphiphilicity and hydrogen-bonding capabil-ity with phospholipids and proteins found inbiological membranes.

The choice of the octanol/water partition-ing system as a standard reference for assess-ing the compartmental distribution of mole-cules of biological interest was recentlyinvestigated by molecular dynamics simula-tions (111). It was determined that pure 1-oc-tanol contains a mix of hydrogen-bonded“polymeric” species, mostly four-, five-, andsix-membered ring clusters at 40°C. Thesesmall ring clusters form a central hydroxylcore from which their corresponding alkylchains radiate outward. On the other hand,water-saturated octanol tends to form well-de-fined, inverted, micellar aggregates. Long hy-drogen-bonded chains are absent and watermolecules congregate around the octanol hy-droxyls. “Hydrophilic channels” are formed bycylindrical formation of water and octanol hy-droxyls with the alkyl chains extending out-ward. Thus, water-saturated octanol has cen-tralized polar cores where polar solutes canlocalize. Hydrophobic solutes would migrateto the alkyl-rich regions. This is an elegantstudy that provides insight into the partition-ing of benzene and phenol by analyzing thestructure of the octanol/water solvation shelland delineating octanol’s capability to serve asa surrogate for biomembranes.

The shake-flask method, so-called, is mostcommonly used to measure partition coeffi-cients with great accuracy and precision andwith a log P range that extends from 23 to 16(112, 113). The procedure calls for the use ofpure, distilled, deionized water, high-purityoctanol, and pure solutes. At least three con-centration levels of solute should be analyzedand the volumes of octanol and water shouldbe varied according to a rough estimate of thelog P value. Care should be exercised to ensurethat the eventual amounts of the solute ineach phase are about the same after equilib-rium. Standard concentration curves usingthree to four known concentrations in watersaturated with octanol are usually estab-lished. Generally, most methods employ a UV-based procedure, although GC and HPLC mayalso be used to quantitate the concentration ofthe solute.


Generally, 10-mL stopped centrifuge tubes or200-mL centrifuge bottles are used. They are in-verted gently for 2–3 min and then centrifuged at1000–2000 g for 20 min before the phases are an-alyzed. Analysis of both phases is highly recom-mended, to minimize errors incurred by adsorp-tion to glass walls at low solute concentration. Forhighly hydrophobic compounds, the slow stirringprocedure of de Bruijn and Hermens is recom-mended (114). The filler probe extractor system ofTomlinson et al. is a modified, automated, shake-flask method, which is efficient, fast, reliable, andflexible (115).

Partition coefficients from different sol-vent systems can also be compared and con-verted to the octanol/water scale, as was sug-gested by Collander (116). He stressed theimportance of the following linear relation-ship: log P2 5 a log P1 1 b. This type of rela-tionship works well when the two solvents areboth alkanols. However, when two solvent sys-tems have varying hydrogen bond donor andacceptor capabilities, the relationship tends tofray. A classical example involves the relation-ship between log P values in chloroform andoctanol (117, 118).

Log PCHCl3 5 1.012 log Poct 2 0.513 (1.42)

n 5 72, r2 5 0.811, s 5 0.733

Only 66% of the variance in the data is ex-plained by this equation. However, a separationof the various solutes into OH bond donors, ac-ceptors, and neutrals helped account for 94% ofthe variance in the data. These restrictions ledSeiler to extend the Collander equation by incor-porating a corrective term for H-bonding in thecyclohexane system (119). Fujita generalizedthis approach and formulated Equation 1.43 asshown below (120).

log P2 5 a log P1 1 O bi z HBi 1 C (1.43)

P1 is the reference solvent and HBi is an H-bonding parameter. Leahy et al. suggested thata more sophisticated approach incorporatingfour model systems would be needed to ade-quately address issues of solute partitioning inmembranes (121). Thus, four distinct solventtypes were chosen—apolar, amphiprotic, proton

donor, and proton acceptor—and they were rep-resented by alkanes, octanol, chloroform, andpropyleneglycol dipelargonate (PGDP), respec-tively. The demands of measuring four partitioncoefficients for each solute has slowed progressin this particular area.

3.2.1 Determination of Hydrophobicity byChromatography. Chromatography providesan alternate tool for the estimation of hydro-phobicity parameters. Rm values derived fromthin-layer chromatography provide a simple,rapid, and easy way to ascertain approximatevalues of hydrophobicity (122, 123).

Rm 5 log~1/Rf 2 1! (1.44)

Other recent developments in chromatogra-phy techniques have led to the developmentof powerful tools to rapidly and accuratelymeasure octanol/water partition coefficients.Countercurrent chromatography is one ofthese methods. The stationary and mobilephases include two nonmiscible solvents (wa-ter and octanol) and the total volume of theliquid stationary phase is used for solute par-titioning (124, 125). Log Papp values of severaldiuretics including ionizable drugs have beenmeasured at different pH values using coun-tercurrent chromatography; the log P valuesranged from 21.3 to 2.7 and were consistentwith literature values (126).

Recently, a rapid method for the determi-nation of partition coefficients using gradientreversed phase/high pressure liquid chroma-tography (RP-HPLC) was developed. Thismethod is touted as a high-throughput hydro-phobicity screen for combinatorial libraries(127, 128). A chromatography hydrophobicityindex (CHI) was established for a diverse set ofcompounds. Acetonitrile was used as the mod-ifier and 50 mm ammonium acetate as the mo-bile phase (127). A linear relationship was es-tablished between Clog P and CHIN forneutral molecules.

Clog P 5 0.057 CHIN 2 1.107 (1.45)

n 5 52, r2 5 0.724, s 5 0.82, F 5 131

A more recent study using RP-HPLC for thedetermination of log P (octanol) values for


neutral and weakly acidic and basic drugs,revealed an excellent correlation betweenlog Poct and log KW values (129). Log Poct

values determined in this system are re-ferred to as Elog Poct. They were expressedin terms of solvation parameters.

Elog Poct 5 0.204 1 0.452 R2

(1.46)2 1.053p2H 2 0.041 O a2

H

2 3.410 O b2O 1 3.842VX

n 5 35, r2 5 0.960, s 5 0.244

In this equation, R2 is the excess molar re-fraction; p2

H is the dipolarity/polarizability;( a2

H and ( b2O are the summation of hydro-

gen bond acidity and basicity values, respec-tively; and VX is McGowan’s volume.

3.2.2 Calculation Methods. Partition coef-ficients are additive-constitutive, free energy-related properties. Log P represents the over-all hydrophobicity of a molecule, whichincludes the sum of the hydrophobic contribu-tions of the “parent” molecule and its sub-stituent. Thus, the p value for a substituentmay be defined as

pX 5 log PR 2 X 2 log PR 2 H (1.47)

pH is set to zero. The p-value for a nitrosubstituent is calculated from the log P of ni-trobenzene and benzene.

pNO2 5 log Pnitrobenzene 2 log Pbenzene

5 1.85 2 2.13 5 20.28

An extensive list of p-values for aromaticsubstituents appears in Table 1.4. Pi valuesfor side chains of amino acids in peptides havebeen well characterized and are easily avail-able (130–132). Aliphatic fragments valueswere developed a few years later. For a moreextensive list of substituent value constants,refer to the extensive compilation by Hanschet al. (133). Initially, the p-system was appliedonly to substitution on aromatic rings andwhen the hydrogen being replaced was of in-nocuous character. It was apparent from the

beginning that not all hydrogens on aromaticsystems could be substituted without correc-tion factors because of strong electronic inter-actions. It became necessary to determine p

values in various electron-rich and -deficientsystems (e.g., X-phenols and X-nitroben-zenes). Correction factors were introduced forspecial features such as unsaturation, branch-ing, and ring fusion. The proliferation ofp-scales made it difficult to ascertain whichsystem was more appropriate for usage, par-ticularly with complex structures.

The shortcomings of this approach pro-vided the impetus for Nys and Rekker to de-sign the fragmental method, a “reductionist”approach, which was based on the statisticalanalysis of a large number of measured parti-tion coefficients and the subsequent assign-ment of appropriate values for particular mo-lecular fragments (118, 134). Hansch and Leotook a “constructionist” approach and devel-oped a fragmental system that included cor-rection factors for bonds and proximity effects(1, 135). Labor-intensive efforts and inconsis-tency in manual calculations were eliminatedwith the debut of the automated systemCLOGP and its powerful SMILES notation(136–138). Recent analysis of the accuracy ofCLOGP yielded Equation 1.48 (139).

MLOGP 5 0.959 CLOGP 1 0.08 (1.48)

n 5 12,107, r2 5 0.973, s 5 0.299

The Clog P values of 228 structures (1.8%of the data set) were not well predicted. Itmust be noted that Starlist (most accurate val-ues in the database) contains almost 300charged nitrogen solutes (ammonium, pyri-dinium, imidazolium, etc.) and over 2200 inall, which amounts to 5% of Masterfile (data-base of measured values). CLOGP adequatelyhandles these molecules within the 0.30 stan-dard deviation limit. Most other programsmake no attempt to calculate them. For moredetails on calculating log Poct from structures,see excellent reviews by Leo (140, 141).

The proliferation of methodologies andprograms to calculate partition coefficientscontinues unabated. These programs arebased on substructure approaches or whole-molecule approaches (142, 143). Substructure


Table 1.4 Substituent Constants for QSAR Analysis

No. Substituent Pi MR L B1 B5 S-P S-M

1 1N(CH3)3 25.96 1.94 4.02 2.57 3.11 0.82 0.882 EtN(CH3)31 25.44 2.87 5.58 1.52 4.53 0.13 0.163 CH2N(CH3)31 24.57 2.40 4.83 1.52 4.08 0.44 0.404 CO22 24.36 0.61 3.53 1.60 2.66 0.00 20.105 1NH3 24.19 0.55 2.78 1.49 1.97 0.60 0.866 PR-N(CH3)31 24.15 3.33 6.88 1.52 5.49 20.01 0.067 CH2NH31 24.09 1.01 4.02 1.52 3.05 0.29 0.328 IO2 23.46 6.35 4.25 2.15 3.66 0.78 0.689 C(CN)3 22.33 1.86 3.99 2.87 4.12 0.96 0.97

10 NHNO2 22.27 1.07 4.50 1.35 3.66 0.57 0.9111 C(NO2)3 22.01 2.27 4.59 2.55 3.72 0.82 0.7212 SO2(NH2) 21.82 1.23 4.02 2.04 3.05 0.60 0.5313 C(CN)AC(CN)2 21.77 2.58 6.46 1.61 5.17 0.98 0.7714 CH2CAO(NH2) 21.68 1.44 4.58 1.52 4.37 0.07 0.0615 N(COCH3)2 21.68 2.48 4.45 1.35 4.33 0.33 0.3516 SO2CH3 21.63 1.35 4.11 2.03 3.17 0.72 0.6017 P(O)(OH)2 21.59 1.26 4.22 2.12 2.88 0.42 0.3618 SAO(CH3) 21.58 1.37 4.11 1.40 3.17 0.49 0.5219 N(SO2CH3)2 21.51 3.12 4.83 1.36 3.72 0.49 0.4720 CAO(NH2) 21.49 0.98 4.06 1.50 3.07 0.36 0.2821 CH(CN)2 21.45 1.43 3.99 1.85 4.12 0.52 0.5322 CH2NHCOCH3 21.43 1.96 5.67 1.52 4.75 20.05 0.0523 NHCAS(NH2) 21.40 2.22 5.06 1.35 4.18 0.16 0.2224 NH(OH) 21.34 0.72 3.87 1.35 2.63 20.34 20.0425 CHANNHCONHNH2 21.32 2.42 7.57 1.60 4.55 0.16 0.2226 NHCAO(NH2) 21.30 1.37 5.06 1.35 3.61 20.24 20.0327 CAO(NHCH3) 21.27 1.46 5.00 1.54 3.16 0.36 0.3528 2-Aziridinyl 21.23 1.19 4.14 1.55 3.24 20.10 20.0629 NH2 21.23 0.54 2.78 1.35 1.97 20.66 20.1630 NHSO2CH3 21.18 1.82 4.70 1.35 4.13 0.03 0.2031 P(O)(OCH3)2 21.18 2.19 5.04 2.42 3.25 0.53 0.4232 C(CH3)(CN)2 21.14 1.90 4.11 2.81 4.12 0.57 0.6033 N(CH3)SO2CH3 21.11 2.34 4.83 1.35 3.72 0.24 0.2134 SO2Et 21.10 1.81 4.92 2.03 3.49 0.77 0.6635 CH2NH2 21.04 0.91 4.02 1.52 3.05 20.11 20.0336 1-Tetrazolyl 21.04 1.83 5.28 1.71 3.12 0.50 0.5237 CH2OH 21.03 0.72 3.97 1.52 2.70 0.00 0.0038 N(CH3)COCH3 21.02 1.96 4.77 1.35 3.71 0.26 0.3139 NHCHO 20.98 1.03 4.22 1.35 3.61 0.00 0.1940 NHC(AO)CH3 20.97 1.49 5.09 1.35 3.61 0.00 0.2141 C(CH3)(NO2)2 20.88 2.17 4.59 2.55 3.72 0.61 0.5442 NHNH2 20.88 0.84 3.47 1.35 2.97 20.55 20.0243 OSO2CH3 20.88 1.70 4.66 1.35 4.10 0.36 0.3944 SO2N(CH3)2 20.78 2.19 4.83 2.03 4.08 0.65 0.5145 NHCAS(NHC2H5) 20.71 3.17 7.22 1.45 4.38 0.07 0.3046 SO2(CHF2) 20.68 1.31 4.11 2.03 3.70 0.86 0.7547 OH 20.67 0.29 2.74 1.35 1.93 20.37 0.1248 CHO 20.65 0.69 3.53 1.60 2.36 0.42 0.3549 CH2CHOHCH3 20.64 1.64 4.92 1.52 3.78 20.17 20.1250 CS(NH2) 20.64 1.81 4.10 1.64 3.18 0.30 0.2551 OCAO(CH3) 20.64 1.25 4.74 1.35 3.67 0.31 0.3952 SOCHF2 20.63 1.33 4.70 1.40 3.70 0.58 0.5453 4-Pyrimidinyl 20.61 2.18 5.29 1.71 3.11 0.63 0.3054 2-Pyrimidinyl 20.61 2.18 6.28 1.71 3.11 0.53 0.23


Table 1.4 (Continued)


55 P(CF3)2 20.59 1.99 4.96 1.40 3.86 0.69 0.6056 CH2CN 20.57 1.01 3.99 1.52 4.12 0.18 0.1657 CN 20.57 0.63 4.23 1.60 1.60 0.66 0.5658 COCH3 20.55 1.12 4.06 1.60 3.13 0.50 0.3859 CH2PAO(OEt)2 20.54 3.58 7.10 1.52 5.73 0.06 0.1260 PAO(OEt)2 20.52 3.12 6.26 2.52 5.58 0.60 0.5561 NHCOOMe 20.52 1.57 5.84 1.45 3.99 20.17 20.0262 NHCAO(NHC2H5) 20.50 2.32 7.29 1.45 3.98 20.26 0.0463 NHCAO(CH2Cl) 20.50 1.98 6.26 1.55 4.26 20.03 0.1764 NHCH3 20.47 1.03 3.53 1.35 3.08 20.70 20.2165 N(CH3)COCF3 20.46 1.95 5.20 1.56 3.96 0.39 0.4166 CAS(NHCH3) 20.46 2.23 5.00 1.88 3.18 0.34 0.3067 NHCAS(CH3) 20.42 2.34 5.09 1.45 4.38 0.12 0.2468 C(Et)(NO2)2 20.35 3.66 4.92 2.55 3.72 0.64 0.5669 CO2H 20.32 0.69 3.91 1.60 2.66 0.45 0.3770 C(OH)(CH3)2 20.32 1.64 4.11 2.40 3.17 0.60 0.4771 EtCO2H 20.29 1.65 5.97 1.52 3.31 20.07 20.0372 NO2 20.28 0.74 3.44 1.70 2.44 0.78 0.7173 CHANNHCSNH2 20.27 2.96 7.16 1.60 5.41 0.40 0.4574 NHCN 20.26 1.01 3.90 1.35 4.05 0.06 0.2175 CH2C(OH)(CH3)2 20.24 2.11 4.92 1.52 4.19 20.17 20.1676 CHACHCHO 20.23 1.69 5.76 1.60 3.46 0.13 0.2477 NHCH2CO2Et 20.21 2.69 7.91 1.35 5.77 20.68 20.1078 CH2OCH3 20.21 1.21 4.78 1.52 3.40 0.01 0.0879 NHCAOCH(CH3)2 20.18 2.43 5.53 1.35 4.09 20.10 0.1180 CH2OCAO(CH3) 20.17 1.65 5.46 1.52 4.46 0.05 0.0481 CH2N(CH3)2 20.15 1.87 4.83 1.52 4.08 0.01 0.0082 CH2SCN 20.14 1.81 6.63 1.52 3.41 0.14 0.1283 1-Aziridinyl 20.12 1.35 4.14 1.35 3.24 20.22 20.0784 NO 20.12 0.52 3.44 1.70 2.44 0.91 0.6285 ONO2 20.12 0.85 4.46 1.35 3.62 0.70 0.5586 SAO(C6H5) 20.07 3.34 4.62 1.40 6.02 0.44 0.5087 CH2SO2C6H5 20.06 3.79 8.33 1.52 3.78 0.16 0.1588 OCH3 20.02 0.79 3.98 1.35 3.07 20.27 0.1289 CAO(OCH3) 20.01 1.29 4.73 1.64 3.36 0.45 0.3690 H 0.00 0.10 2.06 1.00 1.00 0.00 0.0091 CAO(CF3) 0.02 1.12 4.65 1.70 3.67 0.80 0.6392 CHAC(CN)2 0.05 1.97 6.46 1.60 5.17 0.84 0.6693 SO2(F) 0.05 0.87 3.33 2.01 2.70 0.91 0.8094 COEt 0.06 1.58 4.87 1.63 3.45 0.48 0.3895 C(CF3)3 0.07 2.08 4.11 3.13 3.64 0.55 0.5596 NHOEt 0.08 1.50 4.83 1.35 3.42 20.61 20.2497 NHCAO(CF3) 0.08 1.43 5.62 1.79 3.61 0.12 0.3098 SCAO(CH3) 0.10 1.84 5.11 1.70 4.01 0.44 0.3999 CF3 0.10 0.50 3.30 1.99 2.61 0.54 0.43

100 OCH2F 0.10 0.72 4.57 1.35 3.07 0.02 0.20101 CHACHNO2(TR) 0.11 1.64 4.29 1.60 4.78 0.26 0.32102 CH2F 0.13 0.54 3.30 1.52 2.61 0.11 0.12103 F 0.14 0.09 2.65 1.35 1.35 0.06 0.34104 C(OMe)3 0.14 2.48 4.78 2.56 4.29 20.04 20.03105 SECF3 0.15 1.63 4.50 1.85 4.09 0.45 0.44106 NHCAO(OEt) 0.17 2.12 7.25 1.35 3.92 20.15 0.11107 CH2Cl 0.17 1.05 3.89 1.52 3.46 0.12 0.11108 N(CH3)2 0.18 1.56 3.53 1.35 3.08 20.83 20.16




109 CHF2 0.21 0.52 3.30 1.71 2.61 0.32 0.29110 CCCF3 0.22 1.41 5.90 1.99 2.61 0.51 0.41111 SO2C6H5 0.27 3.32 5.86 2.03 6.02 0.68 0.62112 COCH(CH3)2 0.29 1.98 4.84 1.99 4.08 0.47 0.38113 OCHF2 0.31 0.79 3.98 1.35 3.61 0.18 0.31114 CH2SO2CF3 0.33 1.75 5.35 1.52 4.07 0.31 0.29115 C(NO2)(CH3)2 0.33 2.06 4.59 2.58 3.72 0.20 0.18116 P(O)(OPR)2 0.35 4.05 7.07 2.52 6.90 0.50 0.38117 CH2SAO(CF3) 0.37 1.90 5.35 1.52 4.07 0.24 0.25118 OCH2CH3 0.38 1.25 4.80 1.35 3.36 20.24 0.10119 SH 0.39 0.92 3.47 1.70 2.33 0.15 0.25120 NANCF3 0.40 1.39 5.45 1.70 3.48 0.68 0.56121 CCH 0.40 0.96 4.66 1.60 1.60 0.23 0.21122 NACCl2 0.41 1.84 5.65 1.70 4.54 0.13 0.21123 SCCH 0.41 1.62 4.08 1.70 4.85 0.19 0.26124 SCN 0.41 1.34 4.08 1.70 4.45 0.52 0.51125 P(CH3)2 0.44 2.12 3.88 2.00 3.32 0.06 0.03126 NHSO2C6H5 0.45 3.79 8.24 1.35 3.72 0.01 0.16127 SO2NHC6H5 0.45 3.78 8.24 2.03 4.50 0.65 0.56128 CH2CF3 0.45 0.97 4.70 1.52 3.70 0.09 0.12129 NNN 0.46 1.02 4.62 1.50 4.18 0.08 0.37130 NNN 0.46 1.02 4.62 1.50 4.18 0.08 0.37131 4-Pyridyl 0.46 2.30 5.92 1.71 3.11 0.44 0.27132 NANN(CH3)2 0.46 2.09 5.68 1.77 3.90 0.44 0.27133 CAO(NHC6H5) 0.49 3.54 8.24 1.63 4.85 20.03 20.05134 2-Pyridyl 0.50 2.30 6.28 1.71 3.11 0.41 0.23135 OCH2CHACH2 0.51 1.61 6.22 1.35 4.42 0.17 0.33136 CAO(OEt) 0.51 1.75 5.95 1.64 4.41 20.25 0.09137 SAO(CF3) 0.53 1.31 4.70 1.40 3.70 0.45 0.37138 CHOHC6H5 0.54 3.15 4.62 1.73 6.02 0.69 0.63139 OCH2Cl 0.54 1.20 5.44 1.35 3.13 20.03 0.00140 SO2(CF3) 0.55 1.29 4.70 2.03 3.70 0.08 0.25141 CH3 0.56 0.57 2.87 1.52 2.04 0.96 0.83142 SCH3 0.61 1.38 4.30 1.70 3.26 20.17 20.07143 SCAO(CF3) 0.66 1.82 5.55 1.70 4.51 0.00 0.15144 COC(CH3)3 0.69 2.44 4.87 1.87 4.42 0.46 0.48145 CHANC6H5 0.69 3.30 8.50 1.70 4.07 0.32 0.27146 PAO(C6H5)2 0.70 5.93 5.40 2.68 6.19 0.42 0.35147 Cl 0.71 0.60 3.52 1.80 1.80 .530 .380148 NACHC6H5 0.72 3.30 8.40 1.70 4.65 0.23 0.37149 SeCH3 0.74 1.70 4.52 1.85 3.63 20.55 20.08150 SCH2F 0.74 1.34 4.89 1.70 3.41 0.00 0.10151 OCHACH2 0.75 1.14 4.98 1.35 3.65 0.20 0.23152 CH2Br 0.79 1.34 4.09 1.52 3.75 20.09 0.21153 CCCH3 0.81 1.41 5.47 1.60 2.04 0.14 0.12154 CHACH2 0.82 1.10 4.29 1.60 3.09 0.03 0.21155 Br 0.86 0.89 3.82 1.95 1.95 20.16 20.08156 NHSO2CF3 0.93 1.75 5.26 1.35 4.00 0.23 0.39157 OSO2C6H5 0.93 3.67 8.20 1.35 3.64 0.39 0.44158 1-Pyrryl 0.95 1.95 5.44 1.71 3.12 0.33 0.36159 N(CH3)SO2CF3 1.00 2.28 5.26 1.54 4.00 0.37 0.47160 SCHF2 1.02 1.38 4.30 1.70 3.94 0.44 0.46161 CH2CH3 1.02 1.03 4.11 1.52 3.17 0.37 0.33162 OCF3 1.04 0.79 4.57 1.35 3.61 20.15 20.07




163 OCH2CH2CH3 1.05 1.71 6.05 1.35 4.42 0.35 0.38164 CAO(C6H5) 1.05 3.03 4.57 1.92 5.98 20.25 0.10165 NHCO2C4H9 1.07 3.05 9.50 1.45 5.05 0.43 0.34166 SOEt 1.07 1.84 5.16 1.70 3.97 20.05 0.06167 N(CF3)2 1.08 1.43 4.01 1.52 3.58 0.03 0.18168 CHCl2 1.09 1.53 3.89 1.88 3.46 0.53 0.40169 CH2CHACH2 1.10 1.45 5.11 1.52 3.78 0.32 0.31170 CH2I 1.10 1.86 4.36 1.52 4.15 20.14 20.11171 NHOBu 1.10 2.43 6.88 1.35 4.87 0.11 0.10172 CClF2 1.11 1.07 3.89 1.99 3.46 20.51 20.34173 I 1.12 1.39 4.23 2.15 2.15 0.46 0.42174 Cyclopropyl 1.14 1.35 4.14 1.55 3.24 0.18 0.35175 C(CH3)ACH2 1.14 1.56 4.29 1.73 3.11 20.21 20.07176 NCS 1.15 1.72 4.29 1.50 4.24 0.05 0.09177 SCH2CHACH2 1.15 2.26 6.42 1.70 5.02 0.38 0.48178 N(Et)2 1.18 2.49 4.83 1.35 4.39 0.12 0.19179 OSO2CF3 1.23 1.45 5.23 1.35 3.24 20.72 20.23180 SF5 1.23 0.99 4.65 2.47 2.92 0.53 0.56181 OCHCl2 1.26 1.69 3.98 1.35 4.41 0.68 0.61182 CF2CF3 1.26 0.92 4.11 1.99 3.64 0.26 0.38183 C(OH)(CF3)2 1.28 1.52 4.11 2.61 3.64 0.52 0.47184 SCHACH2 1.29 1.77 5.33 1.70 4.23 0.30 0.29185 NHC6H5 1.37 3.00 4.53 1.35 5.95 0.20 0.26186 SCH(CH3)2 1.41 2.41 5.16 1.70 4.41 20.56 20.02187 SCF3 1.44 1.38 4.89 1.70 3.94 0.07 0.23188 OCAO(C6H5) 1.46 3.23 8.15 1.64 4.40 0.50 0.40189 COOC6H5 1.46 3.02 8.13 1.94 3.50 0.13 0.21190 Cyclobutyl 1.51 1.79 4.77 1.77 3.82 0.44 0.37191 OOBu 1.52 2.17 6.86 1.35 4.79 20.14 20.05192 CH(CH3)2 1.53 1.50 4.11 1.90 3.17 20.32 0.10193 CHBr2 1.53 1.68 4.09 1.92 3.75 20.15 20.04194 Pr 1.55 1.50 4.92 1.52 3.49 0.32 0.31195 C(F)(CF3)2 1.56 1.34 4.11 2.45 3.64 20.13 20.06196 C6H4(NO2)-p 1.64 3.17 7.66 1.71 3.11 0.05 0.09197 CH2OC6H5 1.66 3.22 8.19 1.52 3.53 0.13 0.10198 NANC6H5 1.69 3.13 8.43 1.70 4.31 0.07 0.06199 SO2CF2CF3 1.73 1.97 5.35 2.03 4.07 0.39 0.32200 CF2CF2CF2CF3 1.74 1.77 6.76 1.99 5.05 1.08 0.92201 1-Cyclopentenyl 1.77 2.21 5.24 1.91 3.08 0.52 0.47202 OCF2CHF2 1.79 1.08 5.23 1.35 3.94 20.05 20.06203 C6H4(OCH3)-p 1.82 3.17 7.71 1.80 3.11 0.25 0.34204 CH2SCF3 1.83 1.76 5.82 1.52 4.10 20.08 0.05205 C6H5 1.96 2.54 6.28 1.71 3.11 0.04 0.01206 C(CH3)3 1.98 1.96 4.11 2.60 3.17 20.01 0.06207 CCl3 1.99 2.01 3.89 2.64 3.46 20.20 20.10208 CH2Si(CH3)3 2.00 2.96 5.39 1.52 4.75 0.46 0.40209 CH2C6H5 2.01 3.00 4.62 1.52 6.02 20.21 20.16210 CH(CH3)(Et) 2.04 1.96 4.92 1.90 3.49 20.09 20.08211 C6H4F-p 2.04 2.53 6.87 1.71 3.11 20.12 20.08212 OC5H11 2.05 2.63 8.11 1.35 5.81 0.06 0.12213 N(C3H7)2 2.08 3.24 6.07 1.35 5.50 20.34 0.10214 OC6H5 2.08 2.77 4.51 1.35 5.89 20.93 20.26215 C6H4N(CH3)2-p 2.10 3.99 7.75 1.79 3.11 20.03 0.25216 Bu 2.13 1.96 6.17 1.52 4.54 20.56 20.06


methods are based on molecular fragments,atomic contributions, or computer-identifiedfragments (1, 106, 107, 144–147). Whole-mol-ecule approaches use molecular properties orspatial properties to predict log P values (148–150). They run on different platforms (e.g.,Mac, PC, Unix, VAX, etc.) and use differentcalculation procedures. An extensive, recentreview by Mannhold and van de Waterbeemdaddresses the advantages and limitations ofthe various approaches (143). Statistical pa-rameters yield some insight as to the effective-ness of such programs.

Recent attempts to compute log P calcula-tions have resulted in the development of sol-vatochromic parameters (151, 152). This ap-proach was proposed by Kamlet et al. andfocused on molecular properties. In its sim-plest form it can be expressed as follows:

Log Poct 5 aV 1 bp* 1 cbH 1 daH 1 e (1.49)

V is a solute volume term; p* representsthe solute polarizability; bH and aH are mea-sures of hydrogen bond acceptor strength and

hydrogen bond donor strength, respectively;and e is the intercept. An extension of thismodel has been formulated by Abraham andused by researchers to refine molecular de-scriptors and characterize hydrophobicityscales (153–156).

3.3 Steric Parameters

The quantitation of steric effects is complex atbest and challenging in all other situations,particularly at the molecular level. An addedlevel of confusion comes into play when at-tempts are made to delineate size and shape.Nevertheless, sterics are of overwhelming im-portance in ligand-receptor interactions aswell as in transport phenomena in cellular sys-tems. The first steric parameter to be quanti-fied and used in QSAR studies was Taft’s ES

constant (157). ES is defined as

ES 5 log~kX/kH!A (1.50)

where kX and kH represent the rates of acidhydrolysis of esters, XCH2COOR and CH3COOR,



217 Cyclopentyl 2.14 2.20 4.90 1.90 4.09 0.28 0.35218 CHI2 2.15 3.15 4.36 1.95 4.15 20.14 20.05219 SC6H5 2.32 3.43 4.57 1.70 6.42 0.26 0.26220 1-Cyclohexenyl 2.33 2.67 6.16 2.23 3.30 0.07 0.23221 OCCl3 2.36 2.18 5.44 1.35 4.41 20.08 20.10222 C(Et)(CH3)2 2.37 2.42 4.92 2.60 3.49 0.35 0.43223 CH2C(CH3)3 2.37 2.42 4.89 1.52 4.18 20.18 20.06224 SC6H4NO2-p 2.39 4.11 4.92 1.70 7.86 20.17 20.05225 SCF2CHF2 2.43 1.84 5.60 1.70 4.55 0.24 0.32226 C6H4Cl-p 2.61 3.04 7.74 1.80 3.11 20.07 20.04227 C6F5 2.62 2.40 6.87 1.71 3.67 0.12 0.15228 C5H11 2.63 2.42 6.97 1.52 4.94 0.27 0.26229 CCC6H5 2.65 3.32 8.88 1.71 3.11 20.15 20.08230 CBr3 2.65 2.88 4.09 2.86 3.75 0.16 0.14231 EtC6H5 2.66 3.47 8.33 1.52 3.58 0.29 0.28232 C6H4(CH3)-p 2.69 3.00 7.09 1.84 3.11 20.12 20.07233 C6H4I-p 3.02 3.91 8.45 2.15 3.11 20.03 0.06234 C6H4I-m 3.02 3.91 6.72 1.84 5.15 0.12 0.15235 1-Adamantyl 3.37 4.03 6.17 3.16 3.49 20.15 20.05236 C(Et)3 3.42 3.36 4.92 2.94 4.18 0.10 0.14237 CH(C6H5)2 3.52 5.43 5.15 2.01 6.02 0.06 0.13238 N(C6H5)2 3.61 5.50 5.77 1.35 5.95 0.01 0.08239 Heptyl 3.69 3.36 9.03 1.52 6.39 20.13 20.12240 C(SCF3)3 4.17 4.40 5.82 3.32 5.00 20.20 20.07241 C6Cl5 4.96 4.95 7.74 1.81 4.48 20.05 20.03


respectively. To correct for hyperconjuga-tion in the a-hydrogens of the acetate moi-ety, Hancock devised a correction on ES suchthat

ESC 5 ES 1 0.306~n 2 3! (1.51)

In Equation 1.51, n represents the num-ber of a-hydrogens and 0.306 is a constantderived from molecular orbital calculations(158). Unfortunately, the limited availabil-ity of ES and ES

C values for a great numberof substituents precludes their usage inQSAR studies. Charton demonstrated astrong correlation between ES and van derWaals radii, which led to his development ofthe upsilon parameter yX (159).

yX 5 rX 2 rH 5 rX 2 1.20 (1.52)

where rX and rH are the minimum van derWaals radii of the substituent and hydrogen,respectively. Extension of this approachfrom symmetrical substituents to nonsym-metrical substituents must be handled withcaution.

One of the most widely used steric param-eters is molar refraction (MR), which hasbeen aptly described as a “chameleon” pa-rameter by Tute (160). Although it is gener-ally considered to be a crude measure ofoverall bulk, it does incorporate a polariz-ability component that may describe cohe-sion and is related to London dispersionforces as follows: MR 5 4pNa ⁄ 3, where N isAvogadro’s number and a is the polarizabil-ity of the molecule. It contains no informa-tion on shape. MR is also defined by theLorentz-Lorenz equation:

MR 5 @~n2 2 1!/~n2 1 2!#

(1.53)3 ~MW/density!

MR is generally scaled by 0.1 and used in bio-logical QSAR, where intermolecular effectsare of primary importance. The refractive in-dex of the molecule is represented by n. Withalkyl substituents, there is a high degree ofcollinearity with hydrophobicity; hence, care

must be taken in the QSAR analysis of suchderivatives. The MR descriptor does not dis-tinguish shape; thus the MR value for amyl(OCH2CH2CH2CH2CH3) is the same as thatfor [OC(Et)(CH3)2]: 2.42. The coefficientswith MR terms challenge interpretation, al-though extensive experience with this param-eter suggests that a negative coefficient im-plies steric hindrance at that site and apositive coefficient attests to either dipolar in-teractions in that vicinity or anchoring of aligand in an opportune position for interaction(161).

The failure of the MR descriptor to ade-quately address three-dimensional shape is-sues led to Verloop’s development of STERI-MOL parameters (162), which define thesteric constraints of a given substituent alongseveral fixed axes. Five parameters weredeemed necessary to define shape: L, B1, B2,B3, and B4. L represents the length of a sub-stituent along the axis of a bond between theparent molecule and the substituent; B1 to B4represent four different width parameters.However, the high degree of collinearity be-tween B1, B2, and B3 and the large number oftraining set members needed to establish thestatistical validity of this group of parametersled to their demise in QSAR studies. Verloopsubsequently established the adequacy of justthree parameters for QSAR analysis: a slightlymodified length L, a minimum width B1, and amaximum width B5 that is orthogonal to L(163). The use of these insightful parametershave done much to enhance correlations withbiological activities. Recent analysis in ourlaboratory has established that in many cases,B1 alone is superior to Taft’s ES and a combi-nation of B1 and B5 can adequately replace ES

(164).Molecular weight (MW) terms have also

been used as descriptors, particularly in cellu-lar systems, or in distribution/transport stud-ies where diffusion is the mode of operation.According to the Einstein-Sutherland equa-tion, molecular weight affects the diffusionrate. The Log MW term has been used exten-sively in some studies (159–161) and an exam-ple of such usage is given below. In correlatingpermeability (Perm) of nonelectrolytes throughchara cells, Lien et al. obtained the followingQSAR (168):


Log Perm

(1.54)5 0.889 log P* 2 1.544 log MW

2 0.144Hb 1 4.653

n 5 30, r2 5 0.899,

s 5 0.322, F 5 77.39

In QSAR 54, Log P* represents the olive oil/water partition coefficient, MW is the molec-ular weight of the solute and defines its size,and Hb is a crude approximation of the totalnumber of hydrogen bonds for each mole-cule. The molecular weight descriptor hasalso been an omnipresent variable in QSARstudies pertaining to cross-resistance of var-ious drugs in multidrug-resistant cell lines(169). Î3 MW was used because it mostclosely approximates the size (radii) of thedrugs involved in the study and their inter-actions with GP-170. See QSAR 1.55.

Log CR 5 0.70Î3 MW

(1.55)2 1.01 log~b z 10Î3 MW 1 1!

2 0.10 log P 1 0.38I

2 3.08

n 5 40, r2 5 0.794, s 5 0.344

log b 5 26.851 optimum Î3 MW 5 7.21

3.4 Other Variables and Variable Selection

Indicator variables (I) are often used to high-light a structural feature present in some ofthe molecules in a data set that confers un-usual activity or lack of it to these particularmembers. Their use could be beneficial incases where the data set is heterogeneous andincludes large numbers of members with un-usual features that may or may not impact abiological response. QSAR for the inhibition oftrypsin by X-benzamidines used indicatorvariables to denote the presence of unusualfeatures such as positional isomers and vinyl/carbonyl-containing substituents (170). A re-cent study on the inhibition of lipoxygenasecatalyzed production of leukotriene B4 and5-hydroxyeicosatetraenoic from arachidonic

acid in guinea pig leukocytes by X-vinyl cat-echols led to the development of the followingQSAR (171):

Log 1/C

(1.56)

5 0.49~60.11!log P

2 0.75~60.22!log~b z 10logP 1 1!

2 0.62~60.18!D2

2 1.13~60.20!D3 1 5.50~60.33!

n 5 51, r2 5 0.801, s 5 0.269,

Log PO 5 4.61~60.49! Log b 5 24.33

The indicator variables are D2 and D3; forsimple X-catechols, D2 5 1 and for X-naphtha-lene diols, D3 5 1. The negative coefficientswith both terms (D2 and D3) underscore thedetrimental effects of these structural fea-tures in these inhibitors. Thus, discontinuitiesin the structural features of the molecules ofthis data set are accounted for by the use ofindicator variables. An indicator variable maybe visualized graphically as a constant thatadjusts two parallel lines so that they are su-perimposable. The use of indicator variablesin QSAR analysis is also described in the fol-lowing example. An analysis of a comprehen-sive set of nitroaromatic and heteroaromaticcompounds that induced mutagenesis in TA98cells was conducted by Debnath et al., andQSAR 1.57 was formulated (172).

Log TA98

(1.57)

5 0.65~60.16!log P

2 2.90~60.59!log~b z 10logP 1 1!

2 1.38~60.25! ELUMO

1 1.88~60.39!I1 2 2.89~60.81!Ia

2 4.15~60.58!

n 5 188, r2 5 0.810, s 5 0.886,

Log PO 5 4.93~60.35! Log b 5 25.48

TA98 represents the number of revertants pernanomole of nitro compound. ELUMO is theenergy of the lowest unoccupied molecular or-


bital and Ia is an indicator variable that signi-fies the presence of an acenthrylene ring in themutagens. I1 is also an indicator variable thatpertains to the number of fused rings in thedata set. It acquires a value of 1 for all conge-ners containing three or more fused rings anda value of zero for those containing one or twofused rings (e.g., naphthalene, benzene).Thus, the greater the number of fused rings,the greater the mutagenicity of the nitro con-geners. The ELUMO term indicates that thelower the energy of the LUMO, the more po-tent the mutagen. In this QSAR the combina-tion of indicator variables affords a mixedblessing. One variable helps to enhance activ-ity, whereas the other leads to a decrease inmutagenicity of the acenthrylene congeners.In both these QSAR, Kubinyi’s bilinear modelis used (21). See Section 4.2 for a description ofthis approach.

3.5 Molecular Structure Descriptors

These are truly structural descriptors becausethey are based only on the two-dimensionalrepresentation of a chemical structure. Themost widely known descriptors are those thatwere originally proposed by Randic (173) andextensively developed by Kier and Hall (27).The strength of this approach is that the re-quired information is embedded in the hydro-gen-suppressed framework and thus no exper-imental measurements are needed to definemolecular connectivity indices. For each bondthe Ck term is calculated. The summation ofthese terms then leads to the derivation of X,the molecular connectivity index for the mol-ecule.

Ck 5 ~didj!20.5 where d 5 s 2 h (1.58)

d is the count of formally bonded carbons andh is the number of bonds to hydrogen atoms.

1X 5 O Ck 5 O ~didj!k20.5 (1.59)

1X is the first bond order because it considersonly individual bonds. Higher molecular con-nectivity indices encode more complex at-tributes of molecular structure by consideringlonger paths. Thus, 2X and 3X account for alltwo-bond paths and three-bond paths, respec-

tively, in a molecule. To correct for differencesin valence, Kier and Hall proposed a valencedelta (dv) term to calculate valence connectiv-ity indices (175).

Molecular connectivity indices have beenshown to be closely related to many physico-chemical parameters such as boiling points,molar refraction, polarizability, and partitioncoefficients (174, 176). Ten years ago, the E-State index was developed to define an atom-or group-centered numerical code to representmolecular structure (28). The E-State was es-tablished as a composite index encoding bothelectronic and steric properties of atoms inmolecules. It reflects an atom’s electronegativ-ity, the electronegativity of proximal and dis-tal atoms, and topological state. Extensions ofthis method include the HE-State, atom-typeE-State, and the polarity index Q. Log Pshowed a strong correlation with the Q indexof a small set (n 5 21) of miscellaneous com-pounds (28). Various models using electroto-pological indices have been developed to delin-eate a variety of biological responses(177–179). Some criticism has been leveled atthis approach (180, 181). Chance correlationsare always a problem when dealing with sucha wide array of descriptors. The physico-chemical interpretation of the meaning ofthese descriptors is not transparent, althoughattempts have been made to address thisissue (27).

4 QUANTITATIVE MODELS

4.1 Linear Models

The correlation of biological activity withphysicochemical properties is often termed anextrathermodynamic relationship. Because itfollows in the line of Hammett and Taft equa-tions that correlate thermodynamic and re-lated parameters, it is appropriately labeled.The Hammett equation represents relation-ships between the logarithms of rate or equi-librium constants and substituent constants.The linearity of many of these relationshipsled to their designation as linear free energyrelationships. The Hansch approach repre-sents an extension of the Hammett equationfrom physical organic systems to a biologicalmilieu. It should be noted that the simplicity


of the approach belies the tremendous com-plexity of the intermolecular interactions atplay in the overall biological response.

Biological systems are a complex mix of het-erogeneous phases. Drug molecules usually tra-verse many of these phases to get from the site ofadministration to the eventual site of action.Along this random-walk process, they perturbmany other cellular components such as or-ganelles, lipids, proteins, and so forth. These in-teractions are complex and vastly different fromorganic reactions in test tubes, even though theeventual interaction with a receptor may bechemical or physicochemical in nature. Thus,depending on the biological system involved—isolated receptor, cell, or whole animal—one ex-pects the response to be multifactorial and com-plex. The overall process, particularly in vitro orin vivo, studies a mix of equilibrium and rateprocesses, a situation that defies easy separationand delineation.

Meyer and Overton were the first to attemptto get a grasp on biological responses by notingthe relationship between oil/water partition co-efficients and their narcotic activity. Fergusonrecognized that equitoxic concentrations ofsmall organic molecules was markedly influ-enced by their phase distribution between thebiophase and exobiophase. This concept wasgeneralized in the form of Equation 1.60 andextended by Fujita to Equation 1.61 (182, 183).

C 5 kAm (1.60)

Log 1/C 5 m Log~1/A! 1 constant (1.61)

C represents the equipotent concentration, kand m are constants for a particular system,and A is a physicochemical constant represen-tative of phase distribution equilibria such asaqueous solubility, oil/water partition coeffi-cient, and vapor pressure. In examining alarge and diverse number of biological systems,Hansch and coworkers defined a relationship(Equation 1.62) that expressed biological ac-tivity as a function of physicochemical param-eters (e.g., partition coefficients of organicmolecules) (19).

Log 1/C 5 a log P 1 b (1.62)

Model systems have been devised to elucidate

the mode of interactions of chemicals with bi-ological entities. Examples of linear modelspertaining to nonspecific toxicity are de-scribed. The effects of a series of alcohols(ROH) have been routinely studied in manymodel and biological systems. See QSAR 1.63–1.67.

4.1.1 Penetration of ROH into Phosphati-dylcholine Monolayers (184)

Log 1/C 5 0.87~60.01!log P(1.63)

1 0.66~60.01!

n 5 4, r2 5 0.998, s 5 0.002

4.1.2 Changes in EPR Signal of LabeledGhost Membranes by ROH (185)

Log 1/C 5 0.93~60.09!log P(1.64)

2 0.41~60.16!

n 5 6, r2 5 0.996, s 5 0.092

4.1.3 Induction of Narcosis in Rabbits byROH (184)

Log 1/C 5 0.72~60.16!log P(1.65)

1 1.35~60.12!

n 5 11, r2 5 0.924, s 5 0.142

4.1.4 Inhibition of Bacterial Luminescenceby ROH (185)

Log 1/C 5 1.10~60.07!log P(1.66)

1 0.16~60.12!

n 5 8, r2 5 0.996, s 5 0.103

4.1.5 Inhibition of Growth of Tetrahymenapyriformis by ROH (76, 186)

Log 1/C 5 0.82~60.04!Clog P(1.67)

1 0.89~60.10!

n 5 34, r2 5 0.982, s 5 0.173

In all cases, there is a strong dependency on

4 Quantitative Models 27

log Poct because all these processes involvetransport of alcohols through membranes.The low intercepts speak to the nonspecificnature of the alcohol-mediated toxic interac-tion. An equilibrium-pseudoequilibrium mod-eled by log P can be defined as shown in Fig.1.1.

The Hammett-type relationship for thisconceptual idea of distribution is

Log Pbio 5 a z log Poctanol 1 b (1.68)

This postulate assumes that steric, hydropho-bic, electronic, and hydrogen bonding factorsthat affect partitioning in the biophase arehandled by the octanol/water system. Giventhat the biological response (log 1/C) is propor-tional to log Pbio, then it follows that

Log 1/C 5 a z log Poctanol 1 constant (1.69)

Hansch and coworkers have amply demon-strated that Equation 1.69 applies not only tosystems at or near phase distribution equilib-rium but also to systems removed from equi-librium (184, 185).

4.2 Nonlinear Models

Extensive studies on development of linearmodels led Hansch and coworkers to note thata breakdown in the linear relationship oc-curred when a greater range in hydrophobic-ity was assessed with particular emphasisplaced on test molecules at extreme ends of thehydrophobicity range. Thus, Hansch et al.suggested that the compounds could be in-volved in a “random-walk” process: low hydro-phobic molecules had a tendency to remain inthe first aqueous compartment, whereashighly hydrophobic analogs sequestered in thefirst lipoidal phase that they encountered.This led to the formulation of a parabolicequation, relating biological activity and hy-drophobicity (187).

Log 1/C 5 2a~log P!2 1 b z log P

(1.70)1 constant

In the random-walk process, the compoundspartition in and out of various compartmentsand interact with myriad biological compo-nents in the process. To deal with this conun-drum, Hansch proposed a general, compre-hensive equation for QSAR 1.71 (188).

Log 1/C 5 2a~log P!2 1 b z log P(1.71)

1 rs 1 dES 1 constant

The optimum value of log P for a given systemis log PO and it is highly influenced by thenumber of hydrophobic barriers a drug en-counters in its walk to its site of action.Hansch and Clayton formulated the followingparabolic model to elucidate the narcotic ac-tion of alcohols on tadpoles (189).

4.2.1 Narcotic Action of ROH on Tadpoles

Log1/C 5 1.38~60.34!logP

(1.72)2 0.08~60.07!~LogP!2

1 0.52~60.34!

n 5 10, r2 5 0.990, s 5 0.210,

Log PO 5 8.69~5.78 2 43.43!

This is an example of nonspecific toxicitywhere the last step probably involves parti-tioning into a hydrophobic membrane. Log PO

represents the optimal hydrophobicity (as de-fined by log P) that elicits a maximal biologicalresponse.

Despite the success of the parabolic equa-tion, there are a number of worrisome limita-tions. This approach forces the data into asymmetrical parabola, with the result thatthere are usually deviations between the ex-perimental and parabola-calculated data. Sec-ond, the ascending slope is curved and incon-sistent with the observed linear data. Thus,the slope of a linear model cannot be comparedto the curved slope of the parabola. In 1973Franke devised a sophisticated, empirical

Octanol phase

Water phase

Poctanol

Bio phase

Aqueous phase

Pbio

Figure 1.1. Log Poctanol mirrors Log Pbio.


model consisting of a linear ascending partand a parabolic part (190). See Equations 1.73and 1.74.

Log 1/C 5 a z log P 1 c

~if log P , log PX!(1.73)

Log 1/C 5 2a~log P!2 1 b z log P 1 c

~if log P . log PX!(1.74)

The binding of drugs to proteins is linearlydependent on hydrophobicity up to a limitedvalue, log PX, after which steric hindrancecauses the linear dependency to alter to a non-linear one. The major limitation of this ap-proach involves the inclusion of highly hydro-phobic congeners that tend to causesystematic deviations between experimentaland predicted values.

Another cutoff model, which deals withnonlinearity in biological systems, is one de-fined by McFarland (191). It attempts to elu-cidate the dependency of drug transport onhydrophobicity in multicompartment models.McFarland addressed the probability of drugmolecules traversing several aqueous lipidbarriers from the first aqueous compartmentto a distant, final aqueous compartment. Theprobability P0,n of a drug molecule to accessthe final compartment n of a biological systemwas used to define the drug concentration inthis compartment.

Log CR 5 a z log P 2 2a z log~P 1 1!

(1.75)1 constant

The ascending and descending slopes areequal (51) and linear. However, a major draw-back of this model is that it forces the activitycurves to maximize at log P 5 0. These studieswere extended by Kubinyi, who developed theelegant and powerful bilinear model, which issuperior to the parabolic model and is exten-sively used in QSAR studies (192).

Log 1/C 5 a z log P 2 b z log~b z P 1 1!

(1.76)1 constant

where b is the ratio of the volumes of the or-

ganic phase and the aqueous phase. An impor-tant feature of this model lies in the symmetryof the curves. For aqueous phases of thismodel system, symmetrical curves with linearascending and descending sides (like a teepee)and a limited parabolic section around the hy-drophobicity optimum are generated. Unsym-metrical curves arise for the lipid phases. It ishighly compatible with the linear model andallows for quick comparisons of the ascendingslopes. It can also be used with other parame-ters such as MR and s, where it appears topinpoint a change in mechanism similar to thebreaks in linearity of the Hammett equation.The following example of the bilinear modelreveals the symmetrical nature of the curve.

4.2.2 Induction of Ataxia in Rats by ROH

Log 1/C 5 0.77~60.10!log P

(1.77)2 1.53~60.12!log~b z P 1 1!

1 1.68~60.12!

n 5 35, r2 5 0.887,

s 5 0.165, log PO 5 2.0

The bilinear model has been used to modelbiological interactions in isolated receptor sys-tems and in adsorption, metabolism, elimina-tion, and toxicity studies, although it has a fewlimitations. These include the need for at least15 data points (because of the presence of theadditional disposable parameter b and datapoints beyond optimum Log P. If the range invalues for the dependent variable is limited,unreasonable slopes are obtained.

4.3 Free-Wilson Approach

The Free-Wilson approach is truly a structure-activity-based methodology because it incor-porates the contributions made by variousstructural fragments to the overall biologicalactivity (22, 193, 194). It is represented byEquation 1.78.

BAi 5 Oj

ajXij 1 m (1.78)

Indicator variables are used to denote the pres-ence or absence of a particular structure feature.

4 Quantitative Models 29

Like classical QSAR, this de novo approach as-sumes that substituent effects are additive andconstant. BA is the biological activity; Xj is thejth substituent, which carries a value 1 ifpresent, 0 if absent. The term aj represents thecontribution of the jth substituent to biologicalactivity and m is the overall average activity. Thesummation of all activity contributions at eachposition must equal zero. The series of linearequations that are formulated are solved by lin-ear regression analysis. It is necessary for eachsubstituent to appear more than once at a posi-tion in different combinations with substituentsat other positions.

There are certain advantages to the Free-Wilson method that have been addressed(193–195). Any type of quantitative biologicaldata can be subject to such analysis. There isno need for any physicochemical constants.The molecules of a series may be structurallydissected in any way and multiple sites of sub-stitution are necessary and easily accommo-dated (196). Limitations include the largenumber of molecules with varying substituentcombinations that are needed for this analysisand the inability of the system to handle non-linearity of the dependency of activity on sub-stituent properties. Intramolecular interac-tions between the substituent are not handledvery well, although special treatments can beused to accommodate proximal effects. Ex-trapolation outside of the substituents used inthe study is not feasible. Another problem in-herent with this approach is that usually alarge number of variables is required to de-scribe a smaller number of compounds, whichcreates a statistical faux pas. Fujita and Banmodified this approach in two important ways(23). They expressed the biological activity ona logarithmic scale, to bring it into line withthe extrathermodynamic approach, as seen inthe following equation:

Log XC 5 O aiXi 1 m (1.79)

This allowed the derived substituent con-stants to be compared with other free energy-related parameters. The overall average inter-cept u took on a new look, as it were, akin to anintercept in other QSAR analyses.

Recent analyses of a Free-Wilson type haveincluded the in vitro inhibitory activity of aseries of heterocyclic compounds against K.pneumonia (197). Other applications of theFree-Wilson approach have included studieson the antimycobacterial activity of 4-alkyl-thiobenzanilides, the antibacterial activity offluoronapthyridines, and the benzodiazepinereceptor-binding ability of some non-benzodi-apzepine compounds such as 3-X-imidazo-[1,2-b]pyridazines, 2-phenylimidazo[1,2-a]pyri-dines, 2-(alkoxycarbony) imidazo[2,1-p]benzo-thiazoles, and 2-arylquinolones (198–200).

4.4 Other QSAR Approaches

The similarity in approaches of Hansch anal-ysis and Free-Wilson analysis allows them tobe used within the same framework. This isbased on their theoretical consistency and thenumerical equivalencies of activity contribu-tions. This development has been called themixed approach and can be represented by thefollowing equation:

Log 1/C 5 O ai 1 O cj Aj 1 constant (1.80)

The term ai denotes the contribution for eachith substituent, whereas Aj is any physicochem-ical property of a substituent Xj. For a thoroughreview of the relationship between Hansch andFree-Wilson analyses, see the excellent reviewsby Kubinyi (58, 195). A recent study of theP-glycoprotein inhibitory activity of 48propafenone-type modulators of multidrug re-sistance, using a combined Hansch/Free-Wilsonapproach was deemed to have higher predictiveability than that of a stand-alone Free-Wilsonanalysis (201). Molar refractivity, which has ahigh collinearity with molecular weight, was asignificant determinant of modulating ability. Itis of interest to note that molecular weight hasbeen shown to be an omnipresent parameter incross-resistance profiles in multidrug-resistancephenomena (167).

5 APPLICATIONS OF QSAR

Over the last 40 years, the glut in scientificinformation has resulted in the developmentof thousands of equations pertaining to struc-


ture-activity relationships in biological sys-tems. In its original definition, the Hanschequation was defined to model drug-receptorinteractions involving electronic, steric, andhydrophobic contributions. Nonlinear rela-tionships helped refine this approach in cellu-lar systems and organisms where pharmacoki-netic constraints had to be considered andtackled. They have also found increased utilityin addressing the complex QSAR of some re-ceptor–ligand interactions. In many cases theKubinyi bilinear model has provided a sophis-ticated approach to delineation of steric effectsin such interactions. Examples of ligand–re-ceptor interactions will be drawn from recep-tors such as the much-studied dihydrofolatereductases (DHFR), a-chymotrypsin and 5a-reductase (202–204).

5.1 Isolated Receptor Interactions

The critical role of DHFR in protein, purine, andpyrimidine synthesis; the availability of crystalstructures of binary and ternary complexes ofthe enzyme; and the advent of molecular graph-ics combined to make DHFR an attractive targetfor well-designed heterocyclic ligands generallyincorporating a 2,4-diamino-1,-3-diazapharma-cophore (205). The earliest study focused on theinhibition of DHFR by 4,6-diamino-1,2-dihydro-2,2-dimethyl-1R-s-triazines, the structure ofwhich is shown in Fig. 1.2 (202).

5.1.1 Inhibition of Crude Pigeon LiverDHFR by Triazines (202)

Log 1/IC50 5 2.21~61.00!p

(1.81)2 0.28~60.17!p2

1 0.84~60.76! D

1 2.58~61.30!

n 5 15, r2 5 0.861,

s 5 0.553, pO 5 4~3.6 2 6.0!

In all equations, n is the number of datapoints, r2 is the square of the correlation coef-ficient, s represents the standard deviation,and the figures in parentheses are for con-struction of the 95% confidence intervals. p

represents the hydrophobicity of the substitu-ent R and pO is the optimum hydrophobic con-tribution of the R substituent. D is an indica-tor variable that acquires a value of 1.0 when aphenyl ring is present on the nitrogen and avalue of zero for all other R. This is an exampleof a Hansch-Fujita-Ban analysis, where the in-dicator variable D establishes the contributionand thus the importance of a phenyl ring inDHFR inhibition. This equation has some lim-itations. Improper choice of N-substituentsled to a high degree of collinearity betweensize and hydrophobicity and in terms of elec-tronic contributions, spanned space was lim-ited and thus inadequate. A subsequent studyon the binding of these compounds to DHFRisolated from chicken liver was more reveal-ing.

5.1.2 Inhibition of Chicken Liver DHFR by3-X-Triazines (207)

Log 1/Ki

(1.82)5 1.01~60.14!p9

2 1.16~60.19!log~b z 10p9 1 1!

1 0.86~60.57!s 1 6.33~60.14!

n 5 59, r2 5 0.821, s 5 0.906,

p9O 5 1.89~60.36! log b 5 21.08

In this example, the R group on the 2-nitrogenwas restricted to an (3-X-phenyl) aromaticring (205). Accurate Ki values were obtainedfrom highly purified DHFR isolated fromchicken liver. In most cases, p9 representedthe hydrophobicity of the substituent exceptin certain instances where X 5 2OR or2CH2ZC6H4-Y. It was ascertained that alkoxysubstituents were not making direct hydro-

N

N

N

NH2, HCl

R

CH3

CH3H2N

Figure 1.2. 4,6-Diamino-1,2-dihydro-2,2-dimethyl-1R-s-triazines.

5 Applications of QSAR 31

phobic contact with the enzyme, given thattheir inhibitory activities were essentially con-stant from the methoxy to the nonyloxy sub-stituent. In the bridged substituents where Z5 O, NH, S, Se, the Y substituent again did notcontact the enzyme surface. Variation in Y ledto the same, constant biological activity. Thecoefficient with p9 suggests that the substitu-ent is engulfed in a hydrophobic pocket thathas an optimal p9O of 2. This value is consis-tent with that seen in the crude pigeon liverDHFR corrected for the presence of the phenylgroup (4.0 2 2.0 5 2). The 0.86 r value (coef-ficient with s) suggests that there could be adipolar interaction between the electron defi-cient phenyl ring and a region of positivelycharged electrostatic potential in the enzyme,perhaps an arginine, lysine, or histidine resi-due. Hathaway et al. developed a QSAR for theinhibition of human DHFR by 3-X-triazinesand obtained Equation 1.83 (208).

5.1.3 Inhibition of Human DHFR by 3-X-Triazines (208)

Log 1/Ki

(1.83)

5 1.07~60.23!p9

2 1.10~60.26!log~b z 10p9 1 1!

1 0.50~60.19!I 1 0.82~60.66!s

1 6.07~60.21!

n 5 60, r2 5 0.792, s 5 0.308,

p9O 5 2.0~60.87! log b 5 20.577

The enhanced activity of the “bridged” sub-stituents was corrected by the indicator vari-able I. Note that triazines bearing the bridgemoieties OCH2NHC6H4Y, OCH2OC6H4Y,and OCH2SC6H4Y had unusually high en-zyme binding activity. Note that theOCH2NHC6H5 bridge is present in the endog-enous substrate, folic acid. The bilinear depen-dency on hydrophobicity of the substituentsparallels that seen in the case of chicken liverDHFR. A similar QSAR was obtained forDHFR isolated from L1210 murine leukemiacells (209).

5.1.4 Inhibition of L1210 DHFR by 3-X-Tria-zines (209)

Log 1/Ki

(1.84)5 0.98~60.14!p9

2 1.14~60.20!log~b z 10p9 1 1!

1 0.79~60.57!s 1 6.12~60.14!

n 5 58, r2 5 0.810, s 5 0.264,

p9O 5 1.76~60.28! log b 5 20.979

The consistency in these models versus pro-karyotic DHFR is established by the coeffi-cient with the hydrophobic term, the optimump9 value, and the rho value. These numericalcoefficients can be contrasted sharply withthose obtained from fungal and protozoalDHFR. Inhibition constants were determinedfor 3-X-triazines versus Pneumocystis cariniiDHFR (210).

5.1.5 Inhibition of P. carinii DHFR by 3-X-Triazines (210)

Log 1/Ki

(1.85)

5 0.73~60.12!p9

2 1.36~60.35!log~b z 10p9 1 1!

2 0.78~60.42!IOR

1 0.28~60.21!MRY

1 6.48~60.23!

n 5 43, r2 5 0.840, s 5 0.435,

p9O 5 3.99~60.68! log b 5 23.925

In Equation 1.85, IOR is an indicator variablethat assumes a value of 1 when an alkoxy sub-stituent is present and 0 for all other substitu-ents. It is of interest to note that the Y sub-stituent on the second phenyl ring nowcontributes to activity. The MRY term sug-gests that it most probably accesses a polarregion of the active site of the enzyme. Thepositive coefficient with MRY suggests that anincrease in bulk and/or polarizability en-hances binding. The descending slope of the


bilinear equation is much steeper (1.36 2 0.735 0.63) than that seen with the mammalianand avian enzymes.

A similar model is obtained vs. the bifunc-tional protozoal DHFR from Leishmania ma-jor, which is coupled to thymidylate synthase(211).

5.1.6 Inhibition of L. major DHFR by 3-X-Triazines (211)

Log 1/Ki

(1.86)

5 0.65~60.08!p9

2 1.22~60.29!log~b z 10p9 1 1!

2 1.12~60.29!IOR

1 0.58~60.16!MRY

1 5.05~60.16!

n 5 41, r2 5 0.931, s 5 0.298,

p9O 5 4.54 log b 5 24.491

QSAR analysis on a limited set of 3-X-triazinesassayed by Chio and Queener versus Toxo-plasmosis gondii led to the formulation ofEquation 1.87 (202, 212).

5.1.7 Inhibition of T. gondii DHFR by 3-X-Triazines

Log 1/IC50 5 0.39~60.20!p9

2 0.43~60.19!MRY 1 6.65~60.30!(1.87)

n 5 17, r2 5 0.810, s 5 0.289

A quick comparison of QSAR 1.82–1.84 re-veals the strong similarity between the avianand mammalian models. In fact because of itsincreased stability, chicken liver DHFR hasoften been used as a surrogate for humanDHFR in enzyme-inhibition studies. The in-tercepts, coefficients with p93 and optimump9O for avian (6.33, 1.01, 1.9), human (6.07,1.07, 2.0), and mouse leukemia (6.12, 0.98,1.76) can be compared to the correspondingvalues for P. carinii (6.48, 0.73, 3.99) andLeishmania major (5.05, 0.65, 4.54). QSAR1.81 and 1.87 are not included in the compar-ison because crude pigeon enzyme was used in

the former and the testing for QSAR 1.87 wasconducted under different assay conditions; Ki

values were not determined. A noteworthy dif-ference between these models is the wide dis-parity in pO values. The binding site of theprotozoal and fungal species comprises an ex-tensive hydrophobic surface unlike the abbre-viated pockets in the mammalian and avianenzymes. The positive coefficients with theMRY terms suggests that added bulk on thebridged phenyl ring enhances inhibitory po-tency. The study versus T. gondii DHFR(QSAR 1.87) included a number of mostly small,polar substituents (NH2, NO2, CONMe2) onthe bridged phenyl and their activities wereconsiderably lower than the unsubstituted an-alog. Comparative QSAR can be useful, partic-ularly if the biological data are consistent(tested under the same assay conditions, ex-cellent purity of enzymes, substrates, inhibi-tors, buffers), and the choice of substituents isappropriate.

One of the major problems that arises withsome QSAR studies is extrapolation from be-yond spanned space. Predictive ability issound when one has probed an adequate rangein electronic, hydrophobic, and steric space. Atthe onset of the study, the training set shouldaddress these concerns. Lack of adequate at-tention to such issues can result in QSARmodels that are misleading. When examinedon its own, such a model may appear to with-stand statistical rigor and apparent transpar-ency but, on being subjected to lateral valida-tion, loopholes emerge. A brief study toillustrate this phenomenon is outlined below.

Four different QSAR were derived for theinhibition of DHFR from rat liver, human leu-kemia, mouse L1210, and bovine liver by 2,4-diamino, 5-Y, 6-Z-quinazolines (Fig. 1.3) (202,213–215). A comparison of their QSAR pre-sents an interesting study on the importanceof spanned space in delineating enzyme-recep-tor interactions.

N

N

Z

NH2 Y

H2N

X

Figure 1.3. 2,4-Diamino, 5-Y, 6-Z-quinazolines.


5.1.8 Inhibition of Rat Liver DHFR by 2,4-Diamino, 5-Y, 6-Z-quinazolines (213)

Log 1/IC50

5 0.78~60.12!p5

1 0.81~60.12!MR6

2 0.06~60.02!MR62 (1.88)

2 0.73~60.49!I1 2 2.15~60.38!I2

2 0.54~60.21!I3 2 1.40~60.41!I4

1 0.78~60.37!I6

2 0.20~60.12!MR6 z I

1 4.92~60.23!

n 5 101, r2 5 0.924, s 5 0.441,

MR6,O 5 6.4~60.8!

5.1.9 Inhibition of Human Liver DHFR by2,4-Diamino, 5-Y, 6-Z-quinazolines (214)

Log 1/Ki

(1.89)

5 22.87~60.16!I1

1 0.29~60.14!I2

2 0.38(60.11)MR6

2 0.29~60.06!pR

2 0.19~60.07!MRR 1 10.12~60.45!

n 5 47, r2 5 0.914, s 5 0.420

5.1.10 Inhibition of Murine L1210 DHFR by2,4-Diamino, 5-Y, 6-Z-quinazolines (214)

Log 1/IC50

(1.90)5 0.49~60.11!I2

2 1.23~60.25!I3

2 0.30~60.07!MR6

2 0.12~60.04!pR 1 9.36~60.27!

n 5 24, r2 5 0.817, s 5 0.235

5.1.11 Inhibition of Bovine Liver DHFR by2,4-Diamino, 5-Y, 6-Z-quinazolines (215)

Log 1/IC50 5 0.70~60.24!MR6

(1.91)1 4.72~60.59!

n 5 11, r2 5 0.823, s 5 0.420

These QSAR vary in size and the number ofvariables used to define inhibitory activity.Selassie and Klein have described a more thor-ough comparative analysis of these QSAR(202). A brief focus on the MR6 term revealsthat its coefficients vary remarkably in all foursets. QSAR 1.88 is a parabola with an opti-mum of 6.4. Because it is parabolic in nature,the coefficient of the ascending slope cannot becompared with the linear slopes in QSAR1.89–1.91. Figure 1.4 illustrates the problemswith QSAR 1.89–1.91, which failed to test an-alogs across the available space.

Figure 1.4 reveals that QSAR 1.89 and 1.90were sampled in the suboptimal MR6 range;thus, the negative dependency on MR6. On theother hand, QSAR 1.91 was focused on theascending portion of the curve and thus onlymolecules in the 0.1–3.4 range were tested.Thus, with a limited set of compounds, onegets a misleading picture of the biologicalinteractions.

Enzymatic reactions in nonaqueous sol-vents have generated a great deal of interest,fueled in part by the commercial application ofenzymes as catalysts in specialty synthesis.The increasing demand for enantiopure phar-maceuticals has accelerated the study of enzy-matic reactions in organic solvents containing

0 2 4 8 106

Inhi

bitio

n ac

tivity

MR 6

QSAR 88QSAR 89QSAR 90QSAR 91

Figure 1.4. Gaps in spanned space of MR6 for2,4-diamino-quinazolines.


little or no water (216). To investigate the sub-strate specificity of a-chymotrypsin in penta-nol, a series of X-phenyl esters of N-benzoyl-L-alanine (Fig. 1.5) were synthesized and theirbinding constants were evaluated in bufferand in pentanol (203). The following QSAR1.92 and 1.93 were derived in phosphatebuffer and pentanol.

5.1.12 Binding of X-Phenyl, N-Benzoyl-L-alaninates to a-Chymotrypsin in PhosphateBuffer, pH 7.4 (203)

Log 1/KM

(1.92)5 0.28~60.11!p 1 0.51~60.24!s 2

1 0.38~60.23!MR 1 3.70~60.24!

n 5 16, r2 5 0.834, s 5 0.198

5.1.13 Binding of X-Phenyl, N-Benzoyl-L-ala-ninates to a-Chymotrypsin in Pentanol (203)

Log 1/KM 5 0.25~60.09!p

(1.93)1 0.24~60.18!s 2

1 4.10~60.09!

n 5 17, r2 5 0.762, s 5 0.156

Outliers in QSAR 1.92 included the 4-t-butyland 4-OH analogs, whereas the 4-CONH2

analog was an outlier in QSAR 1.93. Theseresults were recently reanalyzed by Kim(217, 218) with respect to the role of enthal-pic and entropic contributions to ligandbinding with a-chymotrypsin. Use of the Fu-jiwara hydrophobic enthalpy parameter pH

and the hydrophobic entropy parameter pS

led to the development of QSAR 1.94 and1.95 (219).

5.1.14 Binding of X-Phenyl, N-Benzoyl-L-alaninates in Aqueous Phosphate Buffer (218)

Log 1/KM

(1.94)5 0.38~60.11!pH 1 0.19~60.07!pS

1 0.53~60.11!s 2

1 0.26~60.10!MR 1 3.77~60.11!

n 5 15, r2 5 0.806, s 5 0.200

5.1.15 Binding of X-Phenyl, N-Benzoyl-L-alaninates in Pentanol (218)

Log 1/KM

5 0.21~60.08!pH 1 0.31(60.05)pS (1.95)

1 0.20~60.08!s 2 1 4.16~60.04!

n 5 15, r2 5 0.787, s 5 0.160

The disappearance of the MR term in QSAR1.93 and 1.95 is significant. The MR term usu-ally relates to nonspecific, dispersive interac-tions in polar space. Thus, its presence inQSAR 1.92 and 1.94 suggests that substratesbearing polarizable substituents may displacethe ordered-category II water molecules. Inpentanol, the substrate may be faced with thetask of displacing pentanol, not water, fromthe enzyme and thus the MR term is no longerof consequence. QSAR 1.94 also indicates thatthe enthalpy term pH plays a more critical rolein binding than the entropy term pS. Notethat these roles are reversed in QSAR 1.95,suggesting that binding in pentanol is largelyan entropic-driven process. Similar resultswere obtained by Compadre et al. in a study onthe hydrolysis of X-phenyl-N-benzoyl-glyci-nates by cathepsin B in aqueous buffer andacetonitrile (220). Kim’s analysis provides anexcellent example of a study that focuses onmechanistic interpretation and clearly dem-onstrates that a thermodynamic approach inQSAR can provide pertinent informationabout the energetics of the ligand binding pro-cess.

H

N

O

O

X

O

Figure 1.5. X-Phenyl, N-benzoyl-L-alaninates.


5a-Reductase, a critical enzyme in malesexual development, mediates the reduction oftestosterone to dihydrotestosterone (DHT).Elevated levels of DHT in certain diseasestates such as benign prostatic hypertrophyand prostatic cancer drives the need for effec-tive inhibitors of 5a-reductase. A recent QSARstudy on inhibition of human 5a-reductase,type 1 by various steroid classes was carriedout by Kurup et al. (204, 221, 222). A few of themodels will be examined to demonstrate theimportance and power of lateral validation.The three classes of steroidal inhibitors aredepicted in Fig. 1.6.

5.1.16 Inhibition of 5-a-Reductase by 4-X,N-Y-6-azaandrost-17-CO-Z-4-ene-3-ones, I

Log 1/Ki

(1.96)5 0.42~60.22!Clog P

2 1.47~60.43!I 2 0.32~60.30! LY

1 6.88~60.13!

n 5 21, r2 5 0.829, s 5 0.406

outliers: X 5 Y 5 H, Z 5 NHCMe3;

X 5 Me, Y 5 H, Z 5 CH2CHMe2

5.1.17 Inhibition of 5-a-Reductase by 17b-(N-(X-phenyl)carbamoyl)-6-azaandrost-4-ene-3-ones, II

Log 1/Ki 5 0.35~60.09!Clog P

(1.97)1 0.26~60.11!B5ortho

1 5.08~60.58!

n 5 12, r2 5 0.942, s 5 0.154

outlier: 2,5-~CF3!2

5.1.18 Inhibition of 5-a-Reductase by 17b-(N-(1-X-phenyl-cycloalkyl)carbamoyl)-6-azaan-drost-4-ene-3-ones, III

Log 1/Ki 5 0.32~60.17!Clog P(1.98)

1 6.34~61.15!

n 5 5, r2 5 0.920, s 5 0.090

outlier: n 5 5, X 5 4-t-Bu

In all these equations, the coefficients with hy-drophobicity as represented by Clog P, suggestthat binding of these azaandrostene-ones oc-curs on the surface of the binding site wherepartial desolvation can occur. I is an indicatorvariable that pinpoints the negative effect of adouble bond at C-1. A bulky substituent onN-6 is detrimental to activity, whereas a largesubstituent in the ortho position on the aro-matic ring enhances activity (QSAR 1.97). Thebulky ortho substituents (mostly t-Bu) maydestroy coplanarity with the amide bridge byperhaps twisting of the phenyl ring and en-hancing its hydrophobic contact with the

N

C

O

X Y

NH

C

O

H

NH

X

NH

C

O

NH C

X

(CH2)n

(I)

(II)

(III)

O Z

O

O

Figure 1.6. Steroidal inhibitors of 5a-reductase.


binding site on the enzyme. Note that thelarger intercept in QSAR 1.98 versus QSAR1.97 suggests that hydrophobicity is more im-portant in this area.

5.2 Interactions at the Cellular Level

QSAR analysis of studies at the cellular levelallows us to get a handle on the physicochem-ical parameters critical to pharmacokineticsprocesses, mostly transport. Cell culture sys-tems offer an ideal way to determine the opti-mum hydrophobicity of a system that is morecomplex than an isolated receptor. ExtensiveQSAR have been developed on the toxicity of3-X-triazines to many mammalian and bacte-rial cell lines (202, 209). A comparison of thecytotoxicities of these analogs vs. sensitivemurine leukemia cells (L1210/S) and metho-trexate-resistant murine leukemia cells(L1210/R) reveals some startling differences.

5.2.1 Inhibition of Growth of L1210/S by3-X-Triazines (209)

Log 1/IC50

(1.99)

5 1.13~60.18!p

2 1.20~60.21!log~b z 10p 1 1!

1 0.66~60.23!IR

2 0.32~60.17!IOR

1 0.94~60.37!s 1 6.72~60.13!

n 5 61, r2 5 0.792, s 5 0.241,

pO 5 1.45~60.93! log b 5 20.274

5.2.2 Inhibition of Growth of L1210/R by3-X-Triazines (209)

Log 1/IC50

(1.100)5 0.42~60.05!p 20.15(60.05)MR

1 4.83~60.11!

n 5 62, r2 5 0.885, s 5 0.220

There is a radical difference between thesetwo QSAR. QSAR 1.99 is very similar to theone (QSAR 1.84) obtained versus the L1210

DHFR and it can be posited that the cytotox-icity in the sensitive cell line results from theinhibition of the enzyme. The intercepts sug-gest that slight interference with folate me-tabolism significantly affects growth. A com-parison of the sensitive and resistant QSARreveals a substantial difference in the coeffi-cients with p. The lack of many variables inQSAR 1.100 and its overall simplicity suggeststhat inhibition of the enzyme is not the criticalstep, but rather transport to the site of actionin these resistant cells may be of utmost im-portance. This particular cell line was resis-tant to methotrexate by virtue of elevated lev-els of DHFR and also overexpression ofglycoprotein, GP-170 (209). Thus, modifiedtransport through the dysfunctional mem-brane would severely curtail the partitioningprocess, resulting in a coefficient with p that isonly one-half (0.42) of what is normally seen.The negative coefficient with the MR term in-dicates that size plays a role, albeit a negativeone, in passage through the GP-170-fortifiedmembrane and to the site of action.

The QSAR paradigm has been shown to beparticularly useful in environmental toxicology,especially in acute toxicity determinations of xe-nobiotics (223). There has recently been an em-phasis on “transparent, mechanistically com-prehensive QSAR for toxicity,” a move that iswelcomed by many researchers in the field (224,225). Cronin and Schultz developed QSAR 1.101to describe the polar, narcotic toxicity of a largeset of substituted phenols. A number of phenolswith ionizable or reactive groups (e.g.,OCOOH,ONO2, ONO, ONH2, or ONHCOCH3) wereomitted from the final analysis (226).

5.2.3 Inhibition of Growth of Tetrahymenapyriformis (40 h)

Log 1/C

(1.101)5 0.67~60.02!Clog P

2 0.67~60.55! ELUMO 2 1.12

n 5 120, r2 5 0.893, s 5 0.271

Using Hammett s constants, Garg et al. re-derived QSAR 1.102 for the same set andQSAR 1.103 and 1.104 for the diverse set ofmulti-, di-, and monophenols, which were se-


questered into two subsets containing elec-tron-releasing and electron-attracting sub-stituents, respectively (227).

5.2.4 Inhibition of Growth of T. pyriformisby Phenols (using s) (227)

Log 1/C

(1.102)5 0.64~60.04!Clog P

1 0.61~60.12!s 1 1.84~60.13!

n 5 119, r2 5 0.896, s 5 0.265

5.2.5 Inhibition of Growth of T. pyriformisby Electron-Releasing Phenols (227)

Log 1/C 5 0.66~60.05!Clog P

1 1.63~60.15!(1.103)

n 5 44, r2 5 0.946, s 5 0.182

5.2.6 Inhibition of Growth of T. pyriformisby Electron-Attracting Phenols (227)

Log 1/C 5 0.63~60.07!Clog P

(1.104)1 0.54~60.16!Os

1 1.92~60.18!

n 5 100, r2 5 0.836, s 5 0.327

There is excellent agreement between QSAR1.101 and QSAR 1.104, in terms of the impor-tance of hydrophobicity and electron demand ofthe substituents: the coefficients with Clog P aresimilar and there is a good correspondence be-tween ELUMO and s. Nevertheless, separation ofthe phenols into subsets, based on their elec-tronic attributes, indicates that different mech-anisms of toxicity might be operative in this or-ganism, a phenomenon that has been duplicatedin mammalian cells (228). In a recent extensionof toxicity studies on aromatics, Cronin andSchultz used a two-parameter or response-sur-face approach to define toxicity (229). In addi-tion, indicator variables and group counts wereincluded to broaden the applicability of the ap-proach. An excellent comparison of the differentmodeling approaches (MLR, PLS, and Bayesian-regularized neural networks) in QSAR is alsomade (229).

5.2.7 Inhibition of Growth of T. pyriformisby Aromatic Compounds (229)

Log 1/IgC50

5 0.633log P 2 0.526ELUMO

1 0.721I2,4 AP 2 1.61Istrong acid

(1.105)

1 0.314OH-donor 2 1.39

n 5 268, r2 5 0.780, s 5 0.393

The indicator variables I2,4 AP and Istrong acid

suggest that 2- and 4-amino-substituted phe-nols enhance toxicity, whereas strong acidsdecrease toxicity, respectively. The H-bonddonor parameter may be correcting for theadded potency of amino phenols. The low r2

may be attributed to inherent variability inbiological data and to the commingling of datafrom four different studies. The wide varietyof compounds with different toxicity mecha-nisms, present in this combined study, wouldalso be a contributing factor to the low r2.Overall, this regression-based approach showsadequate predictability and is transparent,thus aiding in mechanistic interpretation.

5.3 Interactions In Vivo

The paucity of QSAR studies in whole animalsis understandable in terms of the costs, theheterogeneity of the biological data, and thecomplexity of the results. Nevertheless, in thefew studies that have been done, excellentQSAR have been obtained, despite the smallnumber of subjects in the data set (164). Oneparticular example is insightful. The renal andnonrenal clearance rates of a series of 11b-blockers, including bufuralol, tolamolol,propranolol, alprenolol, oxprenolol, acebutol,timolol, metoprolol, prindolol, atenolol, andnadolol were measured (230). The followingQSAR were formulated using those data (164).

5.3.1 Renal Clearance of b-AdrenoreceptorAntagonists

Log k 5 20.42~60.12!Clog P

1 2.35~60.24!(1.106)

n 5 10, r2 5 0.888, s 5 0.185


5.3.2 Nonrenal Clearance of b-Adrenore-ceptor Antagonists

Log k 5 1.94~60.61!Clog P

2 2.00~60.80!log~b z P 1 1! (1.107)

1 1.29~60.30!

n 5 10, r2 5 0.950, s 5 0.168,

Clog PO 5 2.6 6 1.5 log b 5 20.813

outlier: oxprenolol

It is apparent from QSAR 1.106 and 1.107,that the hydrophobic requirements of the sub-strates vary considerably. As expected, renalclearance is enhanced in the case of hydro-philic drugs, whereas nonrenal clearanceshows a strong dependency on hydrophobic-ity. Note that QSAR 1.107 is stretching thelimits of the bilinear model with only 10 datapoints! The 95% confidence intervals arealso large but, nevertheless, the equationsserve to emphasize the difference in clearancemechanisms that are clearly linked tohydrophobicity.

In formulating QSAR, it is useful to use awell-designed series to optimize a particularbiological activity. It is also important to en-sure that the ratio of compounds to parame-ters is 5, so that collinearity is minimizedwhile spanned space is maximized. A normaldistribution of biological data is necessary. Aviolation of these guidelines usually leads tostatistically insignificant QSAR or modelsthat defy predictability. One of our earliestworks on the inhibition of E. coli DHFR by2,4-diamino-5-X-benzyl pyrimidines led to thederivation of the following equation (231):

Log 1/Ki 5 21.13sR 1 5.54 (1.108)

n 5 10, r2 5 0.972, s 5 0.182

Most of the variance in these data was ex-plained by the Hammett through-resonanceconstant (sR). It implied that electron-re-leasing substituents enhanced inhibitory po-tency. Later, expanded and extensive stud-ies on this system revealed that inhibition ofthe bacterial enzyme was related to mostly

steric effects and there was no dependencyon electronic terms. Careful analysis of theinitial data revealed that it had a limitedrange in hydrophobicity and steric at-tributes. The lack of other QSAR to validatethe findings in QSAR 1.108 made it statisti-cally significant, at that time, but mechanis-tically weak. Most weaknesses in QSAR for-mulations usually violate the compound-to-parameter ratio rule (232, 233).

6 COMPARATIVE QSAR

6.1 Database Development

There are literally dozens of databases con-taining information about chemical struc-tures, synthetic methods, and reaction mech-anisms. The C-QSAR database is a databasefor QSAR models (164, 234). It was designed toorganize QSAR data on physical (PHYS) or-ganic reactions as well as chemical-biological(BIO) interactions, in numerical terms, tobring cohesion and understanding to mecha-nisms of chemical-biodynamics. The two data-bases are organized on a similar format, withthe emphasis on reaction types in the PHYSdatabase. The entries in the BIO database aresequestered into six main groups: macromole-cules, enzymes, organelles, single-cell organ-isms, organs/tissues, and multicellular organ-isms (e.g., insects). The combined databases orthe separate PHYS or BIO databases can besearched independently by a string search orsearching using the SMILES notation. ASMILES search can be approached in threeways: one can identify every QSAR that con-tains a specific molecule, one can use a MER-LIN search that locates all derivatives of agiven structure, or one can search on single ormultiple parameters. For a more thorough de-scription of the C-QSAR database and ways tosearch it, see Hansch et al. (234) and Hanschet al. (164). The net result of searching theQSAR database is to “mine” for models; onecould thus call it model-mining.

6.2 Database: Mining for Models

To enhance our understanding of ligand-re-ceptor interactions and bring coherence tothese relationships, there needs to be a con-

6 Comparative QSAR 39

certed effort not only to develop high-qualityregressions but also to create models that res-onate with those drawn from mechanistic or-ganic chemistry. A comprehensive, integrateddatabase C-QSAR allows us to do so; it con-tains over 16,000 examples drawn from all fac-ets of chemistry and biology. An example onthe toxicity of X-phenols will illustrate the use-fulness of this database (164, 228, 235–238).Recently, increasing numbers of QSAR forphenols have been based on Brown’s s1 term,an electronic term that was first designed torationalize electronic effects of substituentson electrophilic aromatic substitution. Studiesconducted at EPA gave early indications thatembryologic defects of rat embryos in vitrocould be correlated by s1, as seen in QSAR1.109109 (239).

6.2.1 Incidence of Tail Defects of Embryos(235)

Log 1/C 5 20.58~60.21!s 1

1 3.51~60.14!(1.109)

n 5 10, r2 5 0.832, s 5 0.189

Soon, this parameter was shown to correlateradical reactions in chemistry as well as chem-ical-biological interactions in an extensivecompilation (240). Another older study byRichard et al. on the inhibition of replicativeDNA synthesis in Chinese hamster ovary cellswas examined and led to the development ofEquation 1.110 (241). Again, there was a de-pendency on s1.

6.2.2 Inhibition of DNA Synthesis in CHOCells by X-Phenols (236)

Log 1/C 5 20.74~60.34!s 1

(1.110)2 1.02~60.41!CMR

1 6.97~61.16!

n 5 9, r2 5 0.915, s 5 0.305

These Brown r1 values were in line with thoseobtained from chemical and biological systems(228) see Table 1.5.

Cytotoxicity studies of X-phenols versusL1210 cells in culture led to an unusual result,which was baffling but reminiscent of Hammettplots related to changes in mechanism (228).

6.2.3 Inhibition of Growth of L1210 by X-Phenols

Log 1/IC50

(1.111)

5 20.83~60.18!s 1

1 0.74~60.28!s12

1 0.56~60.15!log P

2 0.45~60.21!log~b z P 1 1!

1 2.70~60.26!

n 5 39, r2 5 0.913, s 5 0.229,

Log PO 5 20.18 Log b 5 22.28

outliers: 4-C2H5,3-NH2

Sequestering of the data into two subsets with

Table 1.5 Rho Values for Chemical and Biochemical Reactions

Solvent Radical Reagent n r1 (s1)

Hydrogen Abstraction from Unhindered Phenols

1 CCl4 (CH3)3CO z 14 21.81 (60.77)2 Benzene (CH3)3CO z 12 20.82 (60.08)3 CCl4 (CH3)3CO z 5 20.82 (60.16)

X-phenols–Enzyme Systems

1 Horseradish peroxidase — 13 22.68 (60.78)2 Lactoperoxidase — 11 21.34 (60.55)


varying electronic attributes (s1 . 0 and s1 ,0) led to the derivation of the following equa-tions.

6.2.4 Inhibition of Growth of L1210 byElectron-Withdrawing Substituents (s1 > 0)

Log 1/IC50 5 0.62~60.16!Log P(1.112)

1 2.35~60.31!

n 5 15, r2 5 0.845, s 5 0.232,

outlier: 3-OH

6.2.5 Inhibition of Growth of L1210 byElectron-Donating Substituents (s1 < 0)

Log 1/IC50 5 21.58~60.26!s1

1 0.21~60.06!Log P (1.113)

1 3.10~60.24!

n 5 23, r2 5 0.898, s 5 0.191,

outliers: 3-NH2,4-NHAc

In QSAR 1.113, 62% of the variance is ac-counted for by s1 and 28% is explained bylog P. It appears that free-radical-mediatedtoxicity is responsible for the growth-inhibi-tory effects of the phenols. Homolytic bonddissociation energies related to the homolyticcleavage of the OH bond in the following reac-tion: (XOC6H4OH 1 C6H5O z 3 XOC6H4O z1 C6H5OH) have been used in lieu of s1 val-ues. The net result is similar, as seen in QSAR1.114 (242).

Log 1/IC50 5 20.21~60.03!BDE

1 0.21~60.04!Log P (1.114)

1 3.11~60.17!

n 5 52, r2 5 0.920, s 5 0.202,

outliers: 4-NHAc, 3-NH2, 3-NMe2

This data set contains a wide diversity of phe-nolic inhibitors, including a large number ofortho-substituted compounds, estrogenic phe-nols (b-estradiol, DES, nonyl phenol), andother antioxidants whose activities are well

predicted by this model. The model suggeststhat cytotoxicity is an outcome of phenoxyradical formation and subsequent interactionwith a relatively nonpolar receptor. The smallhydrophobic coefficient suggests that DNAcould be a likely target.

The appearance of the s1 parameter in alarge number of reactions and interactions in-volving X-phenols indicates that the phenoxyradical can be a potent, reactive intermediatein myriad reactions. The availability of a fast,easily retrievable computerized database tocorroborate this phenomenon was useful. Thisapproach of lateral validation was crucial inestablishing a QSAR model that was not onlystatistically significant but also mechanisti-cally interpretable.

6.3 Progress in QSAR

The last four decades have seen major changesin the QSAR paradigm. In tandem with devel-opments in molecular modeling and X-raycrystallography, it has impacted drug designand development in many ways. It has alsospawned 3D QSAR approaches that are rou-tinely used in computer-assisted molecular de-sign. In terms of ligand design, it shares centerstage with other approaches such as struc-ture-based ligand design and other rationaldrug design approaches including dockingmethods and genetic algorithms (243). Suc-cess stories in QSAR have been recently re-viewed (244, 245). Bioactive compounds haveemerged in agrochemistry, pesticide chemis-try, and medicinal chemistry.

Bifenthrin, a pesticide, was the product of adesign strategy that used cluster analysis(244) (Fig. 1.7). Guided by QSAR analysis, thechemists at Kyorin Pharmaceutical Companydesigned and developed Norfloxacin, a6-fluoro quinolone, which heralded the arrivalof a new class of antibacterial agents (246)(Fig. 1.7). Two azole-containing fungicides,metconazole (Fig. 1.8) and ipconazole werelaunched in 1994 in France and Japan, respec-tively (247). Lomerizine, a 4-F-benzhydryl-4-(2,3,4-trimethoxy benzyl) piperazine, was in-troduced into the market in 1999 afterextensive design strategies using QSAR (248)(Fig. 1.8). Flobufen, an anti-inflammatoryagent was designed by Kuchar et al. as a long-acting agent without the usual gastric toxicity

6 Comparative QSAR 41

(249) (Fig. 1.8). It is currently in clinical trial.Other examples of the commercial utility ofQSAR include the development of metamitronand bromobutide (250). In most of these exam-ples, QSAR was used in combination withother rational drug-design strategies, which isa useful and generally fruitful approach.

In addition to these commercial successes,the QSAR paradigm has steadily evolved intoa science. It is empirical in nature and it seeksto bring coherence and rigor to the QSARmodels that are developed. By comparingmodels one is able to more fully comprehendscientific phenomena with a “global” perspec-tive; trends in patterns of reactivity or biolog-ical activity become self-evident.

7 SUMMARY

QSAR has done much to enhance our under-standing of fundamental processes and phe-nomena in medicinal chemistry and drug de-sign (251). The concept of hydrophobicity andits calculation has generated much knowledgeand discussion as well as spawned a mini-in-dustry. QSAR has refined our thinking on se-lectivity at the molecular and cellular level.Hydrophobic requirements vary considerablybetween tumor-sensitive cells and resistantones. It has allowed us to design more selectiv-ity into antibacterial agents that bind to dihy-drofolate reductase. QSAR studies in thepharmacokinetic arena have established dif-ferent hydrophobic requirements for renal/nonrenal clearance, whereas the optimum hy-

drophobicity for CNS penetration has beendetermined by Hansch et al. (252). QSAR hashelped delineate allosteric effects in enzymessuch as cyclooxygenase, trypsin, and in thewell-defined and complex hemoglobin system(253, 254).

QSAR has matured over the last few de-cades in terms of the descriptors, models,methods of analysis, and choice of substitu-ents and compounds. Embarking on a QSARproject may be a daunting and confusing taskto a novice. However, there are many excellentreviews and tomes (1, 4, 19, 58–60) on thissubject that can aid in the elucidation of theparadigm. Dealing with biological systems isnot a simple problem and in attempting to de-velop a QSAR, one must always be cognizantof the biochemistry of the system analyzedand the limitations of the approach used.

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OCH3

N

N

F

OCH3

CH3O

F

CH2

CH2Me

HO Me

N

N

NH

Cl

CCH2CF

F

O

COOH

CH3

H

Figure 1.8. Lomerizine, Metconazole, and Flobufen.

CF3 ClO

O

CH3

N

F

N

HN

COOH

O

Et

Figure 1.7. Bifenthrin and Norfloxacin.


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