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George Estevez Cruz
Ingl 4208
Prof. Mazak
4/30/2012
The use of code-switching in ads and business signs
Introduction:
In the island of Puerto Rico, the effects of the presence of the English language greatly
influence the manner in which Puerto Ricans communicate. Whether communication is done
verbally or written, under certain circumstances English and/or Spanish are used. As I have
travelled throughout the city of Mayaguez, I noticed that most business signs and advertisements
in these establishments were written in one of the possible combinations: English, Spanish, or
both. Curiosity on why this occurred arose in my mind. My question is why the names and ads
that are placed on these establishments have this mixture of languages. Are there certain types
of businesses that need to be named in the English language? Are some names borrowings? As
of now, some of these questions are unanswered. As I go along my research, these questions will
be answered.
Literature Review:
Garcia mentions that a bilingual community must translanguage in order to
construct meaning. People sometimes translanguage extensively, using their language for
different modalities. In this research, you will see how the major modality in which
translanguaging is done is written or read. Again, the focus of this research is on the
languages used in signs and advertisements. Garcia says that domains respond to
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communicative and affective intent as well as to the situation and the interlocutor.
Depending on the domain and situation will reflect language used by bilinguals. Baker
defines this as functional bilingualism. This basically explains how Zentella states that
the order of the sentence constituents immediately adjacent to and on both sides of the
switch point must be grammatical with respect to both languages involved
simultaneously. This demonstrates that there are some common points that, in this case,
English and Spanish have. These common points refer to how a bilingual speaker can
join to words or constituents from two languages and still share common grammatical
functions. This is an important point for my research since the combination of the two
languages within these signs shows some sort of grammatical relationship. Later on,
Zentella proves this point stating that: Given this requirement, there is a greater
propensity for switches between languages that have similar grammar at points in their
syntax that are most alike. As I have said before, it seems as if both languages have
syntactical/grammatical similarities. Bilingual speaker uses both languages under certain
circumstances.
Canagarajah states in the beginning of her essay that: competence doesnt consist
of separate competencies for each language, but a multi-competence that functions
symbiotically for the different languages in ones repertoire After reading Garcias
work on the subject, I am convinced that bilinguals use both languages depending on the
circumstances.
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Canagarajah then states that every bilingual has multilingual competence and
adopt multilingual practices in our competence. Even the so-called monolinguals
shuttle between codes, registers and discourses. This is evidence of what Baker and
Garcia mentions which relates to domains and targets. Baker says that language
competence not only includes linguistic competence but also competence in different
social and cultural situations with different people. Garcia says that bilinguals usually
have differentiated that use and competence in the language in which they translanguage.
Canagarajah says that making opportunities for critical analysis helped students develop
their translanguaging proficiency further. Garcia says that people must translanguage in
order to construct meaning.
Remember that advertising is a social practice. It reaches out to future clients.
Wardhaugh (2006) states that certain social situations may require that one code be used
rather than another, even though that second code is known to all participants but the first
only to some. In some cases throughout this investigation, the first code (Spanish) is
known and the second code (English) is partially known. There some instances in which
both codes are used and are effective on attracting consumers.
Melissa Maier Bishop examines how language codeswitching interacts with the
context language of the medium to influence certain outcomes related to advertising
effectiveness. She investigates how message recall, the perception of advertiser cultural
sensitivity and expectations concerning empathy and responsiveness of a service provider
can be enhanced through the use of codeswitching in communication among bilingual
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individuals. (5) The Spanish/English codeswitching that occurs among Hispanics that
are bilinguals in the U.S. is investigated, with testing among Mexican-American youths.
This bit of information is important to my research since some of the patterns are
expected to appear.
Maier cites to Becker (1997), Psycholinguists have found that bilingual speakers
use codeswitching as a communication resource to achieve their communicative
intentions (28). She suggests that social motivations may also play a part in conscious
codeswitching. Maier cites Myers-Scotton (1993) saying that all codeswitching is based
on an underlying negotiation principle. In terms of social negotiation, individuals may
use codeswitching to convey specific identity for themselves. Identity is used in a very
general sense; I do not mean to imply that code choices can fashion new persons out of
speakers. What they can do is negotiate particular identity for the speaker in relation to
other participants in the exchange. Maier expresses that in terms of communication,
individuals may use codeswitching to negotiate meaning that is better or more easily
expressed using multiple languages rather than remaining within a single language. What
I understand from this section is that the codes used in the signs and advertisements are
used to appeal to the consumer. That is, they try to communicate to the consumer what
they are advertising. The domain is what seems to decide the code used. My theory is
that the use of codeswitching in signs and ads are communicative tools used socially to
meet the demands of the consumer or social individual.
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According to Rose Nash, Puerto Rico is unique in having both English and
Spanish as official languages. According to the government Policy of bilingualism,
English is required to be taught as a subject in all schools from the first grade through
university level. She states that The close contact of Puerto Rican Spanish and American
English since the turn of the century has greatly intensified in recent years, largely
because of the ever-increasing number of Newyorricans (New York Puerto Ricans) who
have returned to the island to live, bringing with them the language and culture of
Spanish Harlem. (223) This is interesting since this is true for that time period. Today,
there are many that come from Pennsylvania, New Jersey, California, Chicago, and
Florida among others. Nash also says that in the metropolitan areas of Puerto Rico,
where Newyorricans play an influential role in the economic life of the island, there has
arisen a hybrid variety of language, often given the slightly derogatory label of Spanglish,
which coexists with less mixed forms of standard English and standard Spanish and has
at least one of the characteristics of an autonomous language: a substantial number of
native speakers. The emerging language retains the phonological, morphological, and
syntactic structure of Puerto Rican Spanish. However, much of its vocabulary is English-
derived. This is important for my research since some of the evidence presented
demonstrate that the samples taken use morphological and syntactical structures of the
English and Spanish language.
Krishna and Ahluwaliah examine the role of language choice in advertisements
directed to bilinguals in the global market. Advertising is complex since they need to
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choose a language for advertising their product to a certain population. According to
Krishna and Ahluwaliah, the use of English in ads has come to suggest a social stereotype
a symbol of modernity, progress, sophistication, and a cosmopolitan identity.
According the authors, there are language associations for different product categories.
When and which associations brought out by the marked languages are likely to influence
ad evaluations. The authors site Bearden and Etzel (1982) who claim that products can be
broadly categorized as necessities versus luxuries. Necessities are possessed by
everybody, while luxuries have an element of exclusivity associated with them. This
information is useful for me since I can now categorize each sign (whether business,
road, etc.) into two additional categories. These are luxury and necessity. Many of the
signs I have seen were of necessity. Some include auto parts stores, gasoline stations, and
even bakeries among others. There some such as barber shops which will need to be
taken under consideration since a hair-cut can sometimes be a necessity or luxury
depending on the circumstances the individual is under.
Theoretical Frame:
In this research, there are several terms which are necessary to be familiarized with.
Before beginning to understand this investigation, it is very important to understand what
translanguaging is. To translanguage is to engage un multiple discursive practices in which
bilinguals engage in order to make sense of their bilingual world. (Garcia 45). Most linguists
can agree that bilingualism is the ability to use two languages with equal proficiency.
Bilingualism is the ability to use one or more languages in different situations, contexts or
domains. Garcia (2008) states that bilingualism is when a bilingual person that languages
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differently and that has diverse and unequal experience with each of the two languages. The
experience she is talking about depends on the circumstances the bilingual speaker is in at the
moment. Baker (2006) says that bilingualism is the ability to use one or more language. Both
authors understand that bilingualism involves two languages which are used under different
situations. Baker also mentions that ownership of two or more languages is not as simple as
having wheels This is very similar two Garcias model, additive. There is no 1+1=2 with it;
each language is used under different circumstances. Baker also says that bilinguals can be
analyzed by the dimension use. The definition she gives is: the domains where each language
is acquired and used are varied. Domains are going to be an important part of my research and
therefore must be defined. Domains are simply language contexts. (Baker 2006) These language
contexts include shopping, religious meetings, schools, and many other situations that involve
social activities. Depending on the domain and situation will reflect the language used by
bilinguals. Baker defines this linguistic phenomenon as functional bilingualism. This term
describes how the bilingual speaker uses both languages under certain circumstances. In my
investigation, instances of the usage of two languages under certain circumstances are defined.
Methodology:
Setting: The location of the data collected is on the former Calle Post in Mayaguez
Puerto Rico. The road is now called Emeterio Betances. This street is heavily
filled with businesses. The starting point was located in front of San Antonio
Hospital and ended at National Lumber and Hardware. This street is heavily filled
with all sorts of businesses.
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Data Collection Methods: I travelled for one mile down that street. With the camera on
my phone, I was able to take pictures of the signs and advertisements located in
each business. I took several shots of each sample just in case the pictures taken
were blurry. After sorting through the samples, I decided to focus only on the
pictures that contained the mixture of both English and Spanish which is regarded
as code-switching. Out of thirty four (34) pictures taken, only nine (9) will
be taken under consideration for analysis. The pictures chosen are the ones that
display a large amount of patterns and information waiting to be extracted.
Data Analysis: In this investigation, I looked at the pictures I have selected and
analyzed the code-switching that occurred within the pictures. After
looking for patterns within these pictures, I have found that there was one
case of borrowing, some cases were kept in the original language, and
came up with a descriptive formula which describes the creation of the
business name.
Results:
Image 1: In this picture, the business was named after the owner whose name is in Spanish
whereas the second half of the title which provides the information of what service they offer is
written in English.
Image 2: These ads are taken from Ahorro Muebles. This is a furniture store. The signs that are
displayed advertise famous brands for televisions, mattresses, refrigerators, and stoves. As you
can see in a couple of the brands mentioned, the mottos they have are kept in English. It is safe to
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assume that these are accepted to be written in English since these brands are known worldwide
along with their slogan.
Image 3: This is a picture of a gasoline station within the area investigated. The name of this
gasoline station is written in English. Some of the services offered are written in both Spanish
and English. They advertise that they have a food mart, they are open twenty four hours, and
also have a food mart. Other services offered such as ice, lottery, and automatic transactions are
written in Spanish. In the center, above the lottery sign, they say they have an ATM machine.
The abbreviation ATM is written in English; in Spanish it would be ATH.
Image 4: In this business, the name as well as what they sell are mostly written in Spanish. On
the left hand sign of the establishment, they are saying that they specialize on auto parts. These
include American and foreign parts. What is interesting in this shot is that they posted a sign
advertising that they sell Interstate batteries. This poster, as it can be seen is located next to the
door, right hand side.
Image 5: This is the last place that has had a picture taken of. This business is of interest since
the name of the business begins with the Spanish word Ferreteria. If one were to translate, the
translation would be hardware store. In this shot, it is safe to assume that the use of both
Spanish and English under one title serves to advertise to speakers of both languages that they
sell those certain materials and tools.
Image 6: business focuses on auto detailing. As it can be seen in the title, which is written in
English, they are experts in cleaning cars. What is interesting is that the sign under the name of
the business display their offers written in Spanish with a word that could be considered
borrowed. In this case, the word borrowed is "vacuum".
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Image 7: In this sign, there is a mixture of both Spanish and English. Piquin is Spanish
nickname whereas auto kool is in English. Please note that Kool is written with a K and
not a c. Most businesses that deal with air conditioning choose a name (whether the owners
first name, etc.) and add alongside of it auto kool. The phrase auto kool is automatically
stored in the mind and defined as a place that works with air conditioning in automobiles.
Image 8: This sign was taken in one of the businesses described earlier (La Garita Auto Parts).
The sign advertises brakes for all types of automobiles. When businesses advertise products, they
do so in the language that has been set as what I would call as a default language. As we have
seen in other pictures, such as Interstate batteries, they are advertised in English.
Image 9: This ad of Crossco Paints is located in Ferreteria National Lumber and Hardware. The
sign is advertising the types of products Crossco has to offer to the public. The products they
offer are not translated.
Image 10: In this auto parts store, the owner decided to name the business with a mixture of
Spanish and English. As with other businesses, the first half is written in Spanish, something
that seems to reflect the culture of the area. The second half of the title of the business is written
in English. It is also safe to assume that the owner wants to reach out and do business with
clients who speak either/both languages. Whether the employees are proficient enough to attend
clients in either language have not yet been determined. Further studies and interviews are
required.
In Image 1, there was a mixture of Spanish and English. In Image 2, the mottos they have
are kept in English. It is safe to assume that these are accepted to be written in English since
these brands are known worldwide along with their slogan. Image 3 displays the services offered
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which are written in both languages. They advertise that they have a food mart, they are open
twenty four hours, and also have a food mart. Other services offered such as ice, lottery, and
automatic transactions are written in Spanish. In terms of ice, they would have had to have
written it in Spanish since clients could confuse the word with Icee is a brand known to make
water ice. In the center, above the lottery sign, they say they have an ATM machine. The
abbreviation ATM is written in English; in Spanish it would be ATH. The abbreviation
ATM in this case is considered to be a borrowing from the English language. In Image 5, the
name as well as what they sell are mostly written in Spanish. In this image, the American brands
are advertised in English. This is the last place that has had a picture taken of. This business is of
interest since the name of the business begins with the Spanish word Ferreteria. If one were to
translate, the translation would be hardware store. In this shot, it is safe to assume that the use
of both Spanish and English under one title serves to advertise to speakers of both languages that
they sell those certain materials and tools.
In Image 6, what is interesting is that the sign under the name of the business display their offers
written in Spanish with a word that could be considered borrowed. In this case, the word
borrowed is vacuum.
In Image 7, they advertise products and do so in the language that has been set as what I would
call as a default language. As we have seen in other pictures, such as Interstate batteries, they are
advertised in English.
In Image 8, products they offer are not translated. In Image 9, as with other businesses, the first
half is written in Spanish, something that seems to reflect the culture of the area. The second half
of the title of the business is written in English. It is also safe to assume that the owner wants to
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reach out and do business with clients who speak either/both languages. Whether the employees
are proficient enough to attend clients in either language have not yet been determined. Further
studies and interviews are required. There seems to be a general formula to explain the creation
of these names or ads. The formula is as follows: Name of Business= Name (Lg. 1) + Service
provided (Lg. 2).
Conclusion:
Through this investigation, there were many interesting findings. In most businesses, they
were named after the owner whose name is in Spanish whereas the second half of the title which
provides the information of what service they offer which is written in English. There were some
cases that the languages were completely opposite. When businesses advertise products, they do
so in the language that has been set as what I would call as a default language. The mottos of
English written brands were kept in English. It is safe to assume that these are accepted to be
written in English since these brands are known worldwide along with their slogan. Therefore,
this phenomenon relates to maintaining prestige. Some of the services offered were written in
both Spanish and English. Some services offered in the pictures taken in this investigation, such
as ice, lottery, and automatic transactions were written in Spanish. The abbreviation ATM was
written in English. There was one case of a borrowing. Borrowings are common since many
English words do not have actual translations into Spanish. Most names of businesses contained
what seems to be a reflection the culture of the area. Individuals used codeswitching to convey
specific identity for themselves. Throughout the investigation, most businesses contained signs
and advertisements that contained both languages. It is safe to assume that the owner wants to
reach out and do business with clients who speak either/both languages. It is also safe to assume
that the use of codeswitching in signs and ads are communicative tools used socially to meet the
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demands of the consumer or social individual. Finally, all of the signs and ads which contained
codeswitching and/or borrowings were products or services that can be broadly categorized as
necessities versus luxuries. Necessities are possessed by everybody, while luxuries have an
element of exclusivity associated with them. I can safely say that all of the advertisements and
services presented in the signs were of great necessity.
There are some aspects of this investigation that needs to improve to receive qualitative
and quantitative results. In order to be sure of any assumptions made in this investigation, one
would need to investigate the entire town. Each section or neighborhood would need to be
labeled as well as the habitants. A copy of the census would be needed. This information would
enable the investigator to know how many bilinguals live in the section of the town among other
important information that would give better results and understanding. An interview with the
owner of each business is necessary to understand why the owner chose the name, chose the
language which advertisements were displayed, as well as whether they are bilinguals or
monolinguals. I would apply this to every town on the island in order to make concrete
conclusions.
Appendix: The following pictures follow the order which they are rpesented in the results.
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Works Cited
Baker, C. (2006). Foundations of bilingual education and bilingualism (4th ed.). Clevedon:
Multilingual Matters.
Cangarajah, S. (2011). Translanguaging in the classroom: Emerging issues for research and
pedagogy. Apply Linguistics Review, 2011, -1.
Garcia, O. (2009). Bilingual education in the 21st century: a global perspective. Oxford: Wiley-
Blackwell Pub.
Krishna, A., & Ahluwaliah, R. (2008, December). Language Choice in Advertising to
Bilinguals: Asymmetric Effects for Multinationals versus Local Firms. Journal of
Consumer Research, 35, 1-14. doi: 10.1086/592130
Maier Bishop, Melissa. (2006). The Role of Language Codeswitching in increasing Advertising
Effectiveness among Mexican-American Youth. (Doctoral dissertation).
Retrieved from
Nash, R. (1970). Spanglish: Language Contact in Puerto Rico. American Speech, Vol. 45, (3/4),
223-233. Retrieved 3 26, 2012, from http://www.jstor.org/stable/454837
Wardhaugh, R. (2006). An Introduction to Sociolinguistics. Malden: Basil Blackwell Ltd
Zentella, A.C. (1997). Growing up bilingual. Oxford: Blackwell publishers.