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Notice
ThisdocumenthasbeenreviewedinaccordancewiththeU.S.EnvironmentalProtectionAgencyspeerandadministrativereviewpoliciesandapprovedforpublication.Mentionoftradenamesorcommercialproductsdoesnotconsituteendorsementorrecommendationforuse.
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
PAGE
List of Tables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .ivList of Figures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .viAcknowledgments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .viiGlossary of Abbreviations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .viiiPreface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .ix
CHAPTER1 OVERVIEW . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1-1
1.1 GeneralTerminology.... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... .... ..... .1-11.2 UsesofGeophysicalMethods..................................1-31.3 GeneralCharacteristicsofGeophysicalMethods......................1-4
1.4 IntroductiontotheGeophysicalLiterature... ... ... .... ... .... ... ..1-14
1.3.1Airborne,Surface,andDownholeMethods.................1-4
1.3.2NaturalversusArtificialFieldSources......................1-91.3.3MeasurementofGeophysicalProperties......................1-9
1.4.1GeneralGeophysics..................................1-141.4.2GroundWaterandContaminatedSites.....................1-141.4.3EvaluationofLiteratureReferences.......................1-231.4.4UseofReferenceIndexTablesinThisGuide................1-241 4 5 Obtaining References 1 25
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TABLE OF CONTENTS (cont.)
PAGE
7.1.2ApplicationsofBoreholeMethods........................7-57.1.3GeophysicalWellLogSuites .... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ....7-8
7.1.4GuidetoMajorReferences ... ... ... ... .. ... .. ... ... ... .7-87.2 SpecialConsiderations.......................................7-137.2.1BoreholeversusInSituMethods.........................7-137.2.2Surface-Borehole/Source-Receiver Configurations . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-137.2.3TomographicImaging... ... ... .... ... ... .... ... ... ...7-16
7.3 MajorTypesofLoggingMethods..............................7-167.3.1Electrical andElectromagneticLoggingMethods . . .. . .. . .. . . .7-177.3.2NuclearLoggingMethods...............................7-20
7.3.3AcousticandSeismicLoggingMethods.....................7-207.4 MiscellaneousLoggingMethods.. ........ ......... ........ ...7-23
7.4.1LithologicandHydrogeologicCharacterization Logs . . . . . . . . . . 7-237.4.2WellConstructionLogs...............................7-25
7.5 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-35
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LISTOFTABLES
1-1 SummaryInformationonRemoteSensingandSurfaceGeophysicalMethods1-2 MajorSurfaceGeophysicalMethodsforStudyofSubsurfaceContamination1-3 ClassificationofSurfaceGeophysicalMethods1-4 GeneralTextonGeophysics1-5 Bibliographies,Reports,andSymposiaFocusingonApplicationofSurfaceGeophysical
Methods toGroundWaterandContaminatedSites1-6 ConferencesandSymposiaProceedingswithPapersRelevanttoSubsurface
CharacterizationandMonitoring
1-7 IndextoTextsandPapersonGeneralApplicationsofGeophysicstotheStudyofGroundWaterandContaminatedSites
2-1 UseofAirborneSensingTechniquesinHydrogeologicandContaminatedSiteStudies2-2 IndexforReferencesonAirborneRemoteSensingandGeophysicalMethods
3-1 IndextoGeneralReferencesonDCElectricalResistivityMethods3-2 IndextoReferencesonApplicationsofDCResistivityMethods3-3 IndextoReferencesonSpecializedDCElectricalResistivityandSelf-PotentialMethods3-4 IndextoReferencesonInducedPolarizationElectricalMethods
4-1 IndextoGeneralReferencesonElectromagneticInductionMethods4-2 IndextoReferencesonApplicationsofElectromagneticInductionMethods4-3 IndextoReferencesonTDEM,VLFResistivity,MetalDetection,andMagnetotelluric
Methods
5-1 Index to General References on Seismic Refraction
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7-12IndexforReferencesonAcousticandSeismicLoggingMethods
7-13 Index forReferences onMiscellaneousLoggingMethods7-14IndexforReferencesonApplicationsofBoreholeGeophysicsinHydrogeologicandContaminatedSiteInvestigations
A-1 Ground-WaterContaminationCaseStudiesUsingSurfaceGeophysicalMethodsA-2 Ground-WaterContaminationCaseStudiesUsingBoreholeGeophysicalMethods
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GLOSSARY OF ABBREVIATIONS
Method Abbreviations
AEM-airborneelectromagneticAFMAG - audiofrequency magneticAMT - audiomagnetotelluricATV - acoustic televiewerBH-boreholeCSAMT - controlled source audiomagnetotelluricCSP - continuous seismic proflingEh - Oxidation reduction
EM-electromagnetic(usedwhennotenoughinformationavailabletoclassifyfurther)EMI - electromagnetic inductionER - electrical resistivityGDT - geophysical diffraction tomographyGPR-groundpenetratingradarGR-gravityIP/CP - induced polarization/complex resistivityIR-infraredMAG - magneticMD-metaldetectionMT - MagnetotelluricS-seismic(usedwhennotenoughinformationavailabletoclassifyfurther)SASW-spectralanalysisofsurfacewavesSLAR-side-lookingairborneradarSP-Self-potential(surfaceandborehole)SRR - seismicrefractionSRL-seismicreflectionTC-telluriccurrent
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PREFACE
The Purpose of This Guide
The use of geophysical methods in the study of contaminated sites has gained wideacceptance in the last decade as a cost-effective means of performing preliminary sitecharacterizationandongoingmonitoring.Atthesametime,themultiplicityofavailablemethods,the use ofdiffering termstodescribe the samemethod,and the highdegree of technical proficiencyrequired for the application and interpretationof data from specificmethods often causes confusion
andmisunderstandinginthemindofthenongeophysicist.Thereis amoderately largebodyofscientificliteratureontheuse ofgeophysical techniques
forground-waterinvestigationsthatdatesbacktothelate1930s.However,withtheexceptionofperhapsadozenorsopaperspublishedinthe1970sontheuseofelectricalresistivitymethodsforidentifying contaminant plumes, the rapidly growing amount of literature on the use of geophysicalmethodsforcharacterizingandmonitoringcontaminatedsiteshasbeenpublishedsince1980.
Thepurposeofthisreferenceguideisfourfold:
1. Todescribebothcommonlyusedandlesscommongeophysicalmethodsinrelativelynontechnical terms for nongeophysicists involved in investigating and monitoringcontaminatedsites.Tothisend,importanttermsarehighlightedthefirsttimetheyareintroducedinthetext.
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used and less commonly used geophysical methods for nongeophysicists. This reference guide hasbeendesignedtoserveasacompaniontosections1and3ofEPAs Subsurface Field Characterizationand Monitoring Techniques: A Desk Reference Guide (U.S. EPA,1993),*whichcoverremote
sensing/surface geophysical and borehole geophysical methods, respectively. A number of thesummarytablesfromthatdocumentalsoareusedinthisreferenceguidetoreducetheneedtogobackandforthbetweenthedocuments.However,usersofthisguidewhoareinterestedinfurtherinformationaboutthelesscommonlyusedgeophysicalmethodsmaywanttorefertothesummarysheetsintheDeskReferenceGuidebeforeseekingoutparticularreferences.Table1-1(remotesensingandsurfacegeophysicalmethods)andTable7-1(boreholegeophysicalmethods)in thisguidecanbeusedtolocatediscussionsofspecificmethodsintheDeskReferenceGuide.
Thisreferenceguideisnot intended to provideguidanceonhow to use specific geophysicalmethods.EPAsGeophysics Advisor Expert System (Olhoeft,1992)*isrecommendedforpreliminaryassistancein identifyingthepotentialofcommonlyusedsurfacegeophysicalmethodsforsite-specificconditions.ThefollowingEPAdocumentsarerecommendedformoredetailedinformationontheuseof themorecommonlyusedgeophysicalmethodsat contaminatedsites:Geophysical Techniques
for Sensing Buried Wastes and Waste Migration (Bensonetal.,1984),*andA Compendium ofSuperfund Field Operations Methods, Part 2 (U.S.EPA,1987).*TheSocietyofExplorationGeophysiciststhree-volumeset,Geotechnical and Environmental Geophysics (Ward,1990a-c)*isa
goodcomprehensivesourceontheoryandapplicationsofgeophysicalmethodsinenvironmentalinvestigations.Othermajor general references aredescribed inTable 1-4forsurfacegeophysics andinTable7-1forboreholemethods.Nongeophysicistswhousethisreferenceguideshouldconsultseveralexpertswheneverindoubtaboutthecapabilitiesorappropriatenessofaspecificmethod(seeAppendix B).
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Figure l-la Theelectromagnetic spectrum: customarydivisions andportions usedforgeophysicalmeasurements(adaptedfromErd1yiandG1fi,1988).
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portionsoftheEMspectrum. Whilenondestructive testing (NDT)hasbeenusedtodescribe
geophysicalmethodsusedinthecontextofdetectingcontained,subsurfacehazardouswaste
(LordandKoerner1987),thetermusuallyisrestrictedtomethodsfortestingtheintegrityofmanufacturedmaterials.
Terminologyinthepublishedliterature,particularlyforelectricalandelectromagnetic
methods,canvaryconsiderably.Thiscanbedealtwithintwoways:(1)bybecomingfamiliar
withthevarietyoftermsthatareappliedtoasinglemethodand(2)byunderstandingthebasicprinciplesofdifferentmethodssothatamethodcanbeidentifiedbyreadingadescriptionofthe
equipmentandfieldtechniquesused(Nabighian,1988,1991).
1.2 Uses of Geophysical Methods
Thegreatestbenefitsofgeophysicalmethodscomefromusingthemearlyinthesite
characterizationprocesssincetheyaretypicallynondestructive,lessrisky,covermorearea
spatiallyandvolumetrically,andrequirelesstimeandcostthanusingmonitoringwells.Onthe
th h d t kill i i d i i t ti th d t t d b th th d d th i
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Locating buried wastes and other anthropogenic features through identification ofburiedmetaldrums,subsurfacetrenches,andotherfeatures(e.g.,cables,pipelines).
Theuseofsurfacegeophysicalmethodsforprospectingforgroundwaterusingelectrical
resistivitymethodsdatesfromthelate1920s.Areviewofgeophysicalmethodsforwater
exploration byBreusse (1963) focuses almost exclusively on electrical resistivitymethods.
Electricalresistivitycontinuedtobethemostcommonlyusedsurfacemethodforthestudyof
groundwateruntiltheearly1980swhenelectromagneticinductiongainedincreasingpopularity
for near-surface investigations. Thenextmostfrequentlyusedsurfacemethodforthestudyofgroundwaterhasbeenseismicrefraction,datingprimarilyfromthe1960salthoughthereare
scatteredreferencesintheliteraturebackto1949(seeTable5-2).
Earlysuccessesinthe1970susingelectricalmethods(i.e.,measurementofvariationsin
conductivityoritsreciprocal,resistivity)tolocatecontaminantplumesandmeasurethe
hydrogeologicpropertiesofaquifersledtotheadaptationofalargenumberofgeophysical
methodsinground-watercontaminationinvestigations.Then,inthelate1970stheavailabilityof
microcomputersrevolutionizedtheuseoffieldgeophysicsbyallowingonsiteprocessingofthe
vastamountofdatageneratedbymostof thesetechniques.Useofgeophysicalmethodsin
hydrogeologicstudiesbecamesowidespreadinthe1980sthattechniquessuchaselectromagnetic
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geophysicalmethodsarediscussedinChapter2. Surfacemethodsusuallyinvolvewave
generatorsandsensorsatornearthegroundsurface. Inthisreferenceguidesurfacemethods
arecoveredinfourchapters:electrical(Chapter3),electromagnetic(Chapter4),seismicandacoustic(Chapter5),andothersurfacemethods,includinggroundpenetratingradar,magnetic,
gravimetric,andthermalmethods(Chapter6).(Table1-1providesanoverviewof themajor
usesanddepthofpenetrationofairborneandsurfacegeophysicalmethods;sectionnumbersarc
providedindicatingwhereadditionaldiscussioncanbe foundinSubsurface Field
Characterization and Monitoring Techniques [U.S.EPA 1993]). Downhole methods, including
singleborehole,hole-to-hole,andsurface-to-boreholemethods,alsoarecovered(Chapter7),and
anumberofsummarytablesareprovidedonthecharacteristicsandusesofboreholegeophysical
methods.
Eachofthesethreemajorcategoriescomprisesnumerousspecifictechniques,anda
specifictechniquemayhaveanumberofvariants. Table1-2describessevenmajorsurfacegeophysical methods and their hydrogeologic applications. Electromagnetic induction (see
Section4.1)alsoiscommonlyusedinbothairborneanddownholestudies. Electrical resistivity
(seeSection3.2)alsoiscommonlyusedasadownholemethod,butcannotbeusedasan
airbornemethodbecauseit requiresgroundcontact. Ground penetrating radar (see Section
6 1) can be used from the air but is most commonly used on the ground surface and less
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Table1-1SummaryInformationonRemoteSensingandSurfaceGeophysicalMethods (allratingsareapproximateandforgeneralguidanceonly)
Technique Soils/ Leachate Buried NAPLs Penetration Costb SectioninGeology Wastes Depth(m)a U.SEPA(1993)
AirborneRemoteSensingandGeophysics
Visible Photograpby+ yes yesc possibyd yesc Surf.only L 1.1.1
InfraredPhotography+ yes yesc possiblyd yesc Surf.only L-M 1.1.1MultispectralImaging yes yesc no yesc Surf.only L 1.1.1UltravioletPhotography yes yes
cno yes
cSurf. only L 1.1.2
Thermal InfraredScanning yes yes(T) possiblyd possibly Surf. only M 1.1.3ActiveMicrowave(Radar)+ yes possibly no possibly 0.1-2 M 1.1.4Airborne Electromagnetics yes yes(C) yes possibly 0-100 M 1.1.5Aeromagnetics yes no yes no 10s-100s M 1.1.6
SurfaceElectricalandElectromagneticMethods
Self-Potential yes yes(C) yes no S ? L 1.2.1ElectricalResistivity+ yes yes(C) yes(M) possibly S60(km) L-M 1.2.2,9.1.1InducedPolarization yes yes(C) yes possibly Skm L-M 1.2.3ComplexResistivity yes yes(C) yes yes Skm M-H 1.2.3DielectricSensors yes yes(C) no possibly S2e L-M 6.2.3TimeDomainReflectometry yes yes (C) no yes S 2e M-H 6.2.4CapacitanceSensors yes yes(C) no possibly S 2e L-M 6.2.4Electromagnetic Induction+ yes yes(C) yes possibly S 60(200)/
c15(50) L-M 1.3.1TransientE1ectromagnetics yes yes(C) yes no S150 (2000+) M-H 1.3.2
MetalDetectors no yes no C/S0-3 L 1.3.3VLFResistivity yes yes(C) yes no C/S20-60 M-H 1.3.4Magnetotellurics yes yes(C) no no S1000+ M-H 1.3.5
SurfaceSeismicandAcousticMethods
SeismicRefraction+ yes yes no no Sl-30(200+) L-M 1.4.1ShallowseismicReflection+ yes no no no S10-30(2000+) M-H 1.4.2ContinuousSeismicProfiling yes no no no C1-100 L-M 1.4.3Seismic Shear/Surface Waves yes no no no S 2 10s 100s M H 1 4 4
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Table 1-2 Major Surface Geophysical Methods for Study of Subsurface Contamination
Method Description HydrogeologicApplications
Electromagneticinduction(EMI)(Section 4.1)
DC electricalResistivity(Section 3.2)
Seismic refraction
Usesatransmittercoiltogeneratecurrentsthatinduceasecondarymagneticfieldintheearththatismeasuredbyareceivercoil.Wellsuitedforarealsearches.
Measurestheresistivityofsubsurfacematerialsbyinjectinganelectricalcurrentintothegroundbyapairofsurfaceelectrodesandmeasuringtheresultingpotentialfield(voltage)betweenasecondpairofelectrodes.
Uses a seismic source (commonly
Canbeusedtomapawidevarietyofsubsurfacefeaturesincludingnaturalhydrogeologic conditions, delineationofcontaminantplumes,rateofplumemovement,buriedwastes,andotherartificialfeatures(e.g.,buried
drums, pipelines). Depth ofpenetrationistypicallyupto60metersbutdepthsto200+metersarepossible.a
Similartoelectricalconductivity(seeabove),exceptnotwidelyusedtodetectmetallicobjects,forwhichmagneticandEMImethodsaremore effective. Better for depthsoundingthanfrequencydomainEMI.
Can be used to define the thickness
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Table 1-2 (cont.)
Method Description HydrogeologicApplications
Ground Uses a transmitter coil to emit Canmapsoillayers,depthofpenetrating radar(GPR) (Section6.1)
high-frequencyradiowavesthatarereflectedoffsubsurfacechangesinelectricalproperties(typically density andwater-contentvariations)anddetected
bedrockburiedstreamchannels,rockfractures,cavitiesinnaturalsettings,buriedwastematerials.Maximumdepthofpenetrationunderfavorableconditionsisaround
byareceivingantenna. 25meters.100sofmeters
penetrationmaybepossibleinhighlyresistivematerials(saltorice).
Gravimetry(Section 6.3)
Usesoneormoreofseveraltypesofinstrumentsthatmeasuretheintensityoftheearths
Canbeusedtoestimatedepthofunconsolidatedmaterialoverbedrockandboundariesoflandfills,
gravitational field. whichhaveadifferentdensitythannaturalsoilmaterial.Microgravitysurveysmaybeabletodetectsubsurfacecavitiesandsubsidencevoids.
Thermal(Section6.4)
Uses temperature sensorsanomaliesinthesoilorsurface
Canbeusedtodelineateshallowground-waterflowsystems,buried
water. valleyaquifers,rechargeanddischargezones,zonesofhigh
bili l k b h
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advantage,butcanbeadisadvantageifafeatureoranomalyissosmallthatitescapesdetection
inalargersampledvolume. Datafromthesemethodscanbeacquiredintheformof(1)
profiles,whichrecordchangesinmeasuredpropertiesin a lineartransectalongthegroundsurface,or(2)soundings,whichmeasurevertical changesin themeasuredproperties.
Multipleparallelprofiles,usingmethodssuchaselectromagneticinductionandmagnetic
andgravitysurveys,createanarealviewofthepropertiesbeingmeasuredthatcanbedisplayed
two-dimensionallyascontoursofequalvalues (isopleths)orgraphicallytorepresentthedatathreedimensionally.Figurel-2a,bshowstwo-andthree-dimensionalportrayalsofthesame
data.Thethree-dimensionalperspectiveshowninFigure l-2b shouldnotbemistakenfora
physicalrepresentationofthesubsurface,suchasisprovidedbyseismicmethods(Chapter5)and
groundpenetratingradar (seeSection6.1).A three-dimensionalviewcanbeobtainedeitherby
(1)takingmultipleverticalsoundingsinatwo-dimensionalgridatthesurfaceor(2)multipleprofileswithdifferentdepthsofmeasurementalongthesametransect.Theterm resolution is
usedtodescribehowwellamethodcanmeasurechangesinfeatureshorizontally(lateral
resolution)andinsounding (verticalresolution).
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Figure1-2aWaysofpresentingarealgeophysicalmeasurements:anisoplethmapofelectricalconductivity measurement (from Benson et al. , 1984a).
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StationMeasurements
Continuous Measurements
Figure1-3 Discretesamplingversuscontinuousgeophysicalmeasurements(fromBensonetal.,1984a).
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measurementsissufficienttoportraytheslowlyvaryingcomponent,butfailedtodetectthe
highlylocalizedanomaliesthatareapparentinthecontinuousmeasurement.
1.4 Introduction to the Geophysical Literature
1.4.1 General Geophysics
Historically,geophysicalfieldmethodshavebeenprimarilythedomainofpetroleumand
mineralexplorationgeologists,andtextbookswrittenfromthisperspectiveremainimportant
sourceofinformationonbasictheoryandapplicationofgeophysicalmethodsinthestudyof
contaminatedsites.Table1-4lists21basicgeophysicstextsalongwiththemajormethods
coveredineach.Thereferencesectionofthischapterprovidesdetailedannotationsofmethods
coveredbyindividualtexts(abbreviationsintheseannotationsaredefinedintheGlossarytothisguide).Oldertextscanprovideusefulinformationonbasicprinciples,andevennewertextscan
becomerapidlyoutdatedwithrespecttospecificmethods.Informationonthelatest
developmentsingeophysicalmethodsismostlikelytoappearintheexploration-oriented
geophysical journals: Geophysics, Geophysical Prospecting, andGeoexploration (renamed
J l f A li d G h i 1992) 1Th d d b t t f th l ti f th
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Table 1-4 General Texts on Geophysics
Reference Topics
Beck (1981)
dAmaudGerkins(1989)
DobrinandSavit(1988)
EveandKeys(1954)
GrantandWest(1965)
GriffithsandKing(1981)
Exploration:electrical,selfpotential,inducedpolarization,gravity,magnetic, electromagnetic, seismic, radioactive, well logging.
ExplorationGeophysics:seismicrefractionandreflection,gravity,magnetic,selfpotential,telluriccurrent,magnetotelluriccurrents,electricalresistivity,inducedpolarization,electromagneticinduction(includingairborne),timedomainEM,radiometric.
Geophysicalprospecting:seismicrefractionandreflection, gravity, magnetic, electrical, electromagnetic.
Mineralexploration:magnetic,electrical,electromagnetic,gravity,
seismic, radioactive, geothermal.
Interpretationtheoryinappliedgeophysics:seismicrefractionandreflection, gravity, magnetic, electrical resistivity, electromagneticinduction.
Appliedgeophysicsforengineersandgeologists:l i l i i i l i i i f i d
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Table 1-5 Bibliographies, Reports, and Symposia Focusing on Application of Surface Geophysical
Methods to Ground Water and Contaminated Sites
Reference Description
Bibliographies
Handman (1983) Bibliographyofmore than 550USGSpublicationsonhydrologicandgeologic aspects ofwastemanagement. Index identifies15ongeophysicalmethods.
JohnsonandGnaedinger(1964)
Bibliographyprepared forASTMsymposium onsoil explorationcontainingover300referencesonairphotointerpretation,surfaceelectricalresistivityandseismicmethods,andboreholegeophysics.
LewisandHaeni(1987) Bibliographyonuse ofsurface geophysicalmethods for detectionoffractures in bedrockwith annotations to 31English-language referencesand12 foreign-language references.
Rehmetal.(1985) Section5covershydrogeologicapplicationsofsurfacegeophysics;BibliographyinSection 6containsover300 referenceson surfacemethods.
vanderLeeden(1991) Over100referencesongeophysicalmethodsrelevanttogroundwater.
Glossary
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Table 1-5 (cont.)
Reference Description
Texts/RePorts on Contaminated Site Applications
Aller(1984) EPAreportonmethodsfordeterminingthelocationofabandonedwells.Covers:airphotos,color/thermalIR,ER,EMI,GPR,MD,MAG,combustible gas detectors.
Bensonetal.(1984a,b) EPAreportfocusingofGPR,EMI,resistivity,seismicrefraction,andmetaldetectionforsensingburiedwastesandcontaminationmigration.
Costello(1980) U.S.ArmyToxicandHazardousMaterialsAgencyreportonsurfaceandborehole geophysical techniques.
EC&T(1990) U.S.ArmyToxicandHazardousMaterialsAgencymanual onconstruction environmental site survey and clearance procedures coveringGPR,EMI,magnetometry,metaldetection,andsoilgassurveys.
Frischknechtetal.(1983) Evaluationof geophysical methods for locating abandonedwells preparedbyU.S.GeologicalSurvey.
HRB-Singer (1971) Reportonuseofgeophysicalmethodsfordetectionofabandonedunderground mines. Methods evaluated: included induced polarization,selfpotential,andVLF.
Lord and Koerner (1987) EPA report evaluating metal detectors, electromagnetic induction, ground
Table 1-5 (cont.)
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Reference Description
TextsonGeologicandEntineeringApplications
Taylor(1984)
U.S.ArmyCorpsofEngineers (1979)
Ward(1990c)
Conferences/Symposia
Garland (1989)
Morley (1970)
NWWA(1984,1985,1986)*
ReportpreparedforU.S.BureauofMineevaluatingsurfacegeophysicalmethodsforcharacterizinghydrologicpropertiesoffracturedrock.
Manual ongeophysical techniquesfocusingon engineeringapplications.SurfacemethodsincludeSeismicrefractionandreflection,surfacewaves,sonar,ER,GR;boreholemethodsincludeseismic,electrical, nuclear.
Volume3 contains23papers ongeotechnical applicationsofgeophysicalmethods.
ProceedingsofsymposiumonexplorationgeophysicspublishedbytheOntarioGeologicalSurveywith77paperscoveringelectromagnetic,induced polarization, seismic, radiometric and remote sensing.
ProceedingsoftheCanadianCentennialConferenceonMiningandGroundwaterGeophysics(NiagaraFalls,1967).Containsstate-of-the-artreview papers on gravity, ground andairborne electromagneticmethods,inducedpolarization,andseismicmethods,and11papersongroundwater applications.
Proceedingsof conferenceson surface and borehole geophysicalmethodsi d t i ti ti Th 1984 1985 d 1986 di
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Informationonthelatestdevelopmentsinapplicationofgeophysicalmethodsinthe
investigationofgroundwaterandcontaminatedsitesismostlikelytoappearinthe
hydrogeologic journals GroundWater andGround Water Monitoring Review (renamed Ground
Water Monitoring and Remediation in 1993). Other important journals includeWater Resources
Research andJournal of Hydrology.2
The Symposium on the Application of Geophysics to Engineering and Environmental
Problems (SAGEEP), sponsoredbytheSocietyof EngineeringandMineralExploration
Geophysicists(SEMEG),hasbeenheldannuallysince1988andisanexceptionalsourceofinformationonhydrogeologicandcontaminatedsiteapplications.Eachvolumeofproceeding
includesseveralapplications-orientedreviewpapersandnumerouscasestudies.In1992,
SEMEG became the Environmental and Engineering Geophysical Society (EEGS), which
continuestosponsortheSAGEEP.
Another importantsourceofinformationonrecentdevelopmentsare anumberof
symposiumseriessponsoredbytheNationalWaterWellAssociation(NWWA)ortheaffiliated
AssociationofGroundWaterScientistsandEngineers(AGWSE),andtheHazardousMaterials
ControlResearchInstitute(HMCRI).NWWAchangeditsnametotheNationalGroundWater
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Table1-6ConferencesandSymposiaPrceedirrgswithPapersRelevanttoSubsurfaceCharacterizationandMonitoring
Sponsor Year Title
SEMEG 1988
1989199019911992
NWWA 19811982198319841985
19861987
19881989199019911992
NWWA/API 1984
19851986198719881989199019911992
[lst]SymposiumontheApplicationofGeophysicstoEngineeringandEnvironmentalProblems(SAGEEP)
[2nd](SAGEEP89)[3rd](SAGEEP90)[4th](SAGEEP91)[5th](SAGEEP92)
1stNationalGroundWaterQualityMonitoringSymposiumandExposition2ndNationalSymposiumonAquiferRestorationandGroundWaterMonitoring3rd4th5th
6th1stNationalOutdoorActionConferenceonAquiferRestoration,GroundWaterMonitoring,andGeophysical,Methods2nd3rd4thGWM25thGWM56thGWM11
[lst]ConferenceonPetroleumHydrocarbonsandOrganicChemicalsinGroundWaterPrevention,DetectionandRestoration[2nd][3rd][4th][5th][6th][7th]GWM4[8th]GWM8[9th]GWM14
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Materials Control Conference (titled Superfund from1987to1990andtheNational Conference
on Management of Uncontrolled Hazardous Waste Sites priorto1987)andNational Conference
on Hazardous Waste and Hazardous Materials usually include a few papers related togeophysicalmethods.MostofthepapersintheconferencesidentifiedinTable1-6areindexed
inthisreferenceguide.
TheAmericanSocietyforTestingandMaterials(ASTM)hassponsoredconferencesthat
presentseveralpapersonuseofgeophysicalmethodsatcontaminatedsites(CollinsandJohnson,1988)andforgeotechnicalinvestigations(PailletandSaunders,1990).SubcommitteeD-18.21
(GroundWaterandVadoseZoneInvestigations)ofASTMispreparinganumberofstandard
guidesonthemorecommonlyusedgeophysicalmethods(theseareidentifiedintheappropriate
subsectionsinU.S.EPA,1993).PapersfromCollinsandJohnson(1988)andanumberof
relevantpapersfromotherASTMpublicationsareindexedinthisguide.
Table1-5providesadditionalinformationonthreeconferencessponsoredbyNWWA
from1984to1986onsurfaceandboreholegeophysicalmethodsinground-waterinvestigations.
Theproceedingsdocumentofthe1967CanadianCentennialConferenceonMiningand
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consequentlythereismorelikelytobediversityofopinionconcerningconclusionsor
recommendationsinindividualpapers.Whennon-peer-reviewedpapersareconsidered,greater
weightcanbegiventothoseauthoredbyindividualsfromacademicinstitutionsorresearch-
orientedgovernmentagencies(e.g.,U.S.GeologicalSurvey,personnelfromEPAresearch
laboratories)thantopapersauthoredbyconsultantswhomayhaveaninterestinpromotinga
particularmethod.Finally,morerecentlypublishedpaperscangenerallybegivengreaterweight
thatearlierpublicationsbecausetheyaremorelikelytoaddressrecentdevelopmentsand
advancesingeophysicaltechniques.Asageneralrule,reviewofmultiplereferencesfromavarietyofsourcesthatdealwithaspecificmethodshouldhelpdeterminethemethods
appropriatenessforaspecificapplicationorforsite-specificconditions.Whenindoubt,oneor
moreexpertsshouldbeconsulted(seeSection1.5).
1.4.4 Use of Reference Index Tables in This Guide
Thisguidecontainsmanymorereferencesthanarementionedinthetext.Theywere
initiallycompiledusing:(1)theground-waterorientedbibliographieslistedinTable1-5;(2)
conferenceproceedingslistedinTable1-6;(3)referencesectionsinpapersgatheredinthefirst-
round review of references related specifically to geophysical applications to ground water and
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topicscovered;theseprecedethereferencesectionineachchapter(see,e.g.,Table1-7).
Althoughtheorganizationofinformationvariessomewhatfromchaptertochapter,general
referencesonthemethodalwaysappearfirst,followedbyreferencesdescribingapplicationsofthemethod.
Specificapplicationsareindexedseparatelysothatthesamereferencemayappearmore
thanonceintheindex.Forexample,inTable1-7theNWWAgeophysicsproceedingsarelisted
underthesubheadingsforbothcontaminatedsitesandgroundwaterunderthegeneralheadingoftexts/reports. Thissametablelists25papersongeneraluseofgeophysicalmethods
infivesubcategories(onlyacoupleofthesereferenceswereactuallycitedinthetext).
1.4.5 Obtaining References
Whenout-of-printEPAdocumentsandothergovernment-sponsoredpublicationsare
availablefromtheNationalTechnicalInformationService(NTIS,U.S.Departmentof
Commerce,Springfield,VA22161;800-336-4700),theNTISordernumberisprovidedwiththe
citation.WhenanNTISnumbercouldnotbefound(usuallyformorerecentpublications),the
sponsoring EPA office or EPA laboratory is identified and availability can be determined by
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Table 1-7 Index to Texts and Papers on General Applications of Geophysics to the Study of Ground
Water and Contaminated Sites
Topic References
Texts/Reports
General Geophysics Beck(1981),dArnaudGerkins(1989),DobrinandSavit(1988),EveandKeys(1954),Garland(1989),GrantandWest(1965),GriffithandKing(1981),Hansenetal.(1967),Heiland(1940,1968),Howell(1959),Jakosky (1950), Kearey andBrooks (1991),Milsom (1989),Nettleton(1940),Parasnis (1975,1979),RobinsonandCoruh(1988), Sharma
(1986),Sheriff(1968,1989,1991),Telfordetal.(1990),Valley(1965),VanBlaricom(1980),Ward(1990a)
GroundWater ErdlyiandGlfi(1988),KarousandMare(1988),Merely(1970),NWWA(1984,1985,1986),Redwineetal.(1985),Rehmetal.(1985),Taylor(1984),U.S.EPA(1987a),USGS(1980),Ward(1990b),Zohdyetal. (1974); Bibliographies:Handman (1983), Johnson andGnaedinger(1964),LewisandHaeni(1987),Rehmetal.(1985),vanderLeeden(1991)
Contaminated Sites Aller(1984),Bensonetal.(1984a,b),Cleff(1991hydrocarbondetection),Costello(1980),EC&Tetal.(1990),Frischknechtetal.(1983),HRBSinger(1971),LordandKoerner(1987),NWWA(1984,1985,1986),OBrienandGere(1988),Olhoeft(1992a),Pitchfordetal.(1988),SEGEM(1988-present),Technos(1992),ThomasandDixon(1989),U.S.DOE(1990),U.S.EPA(1987b,1992),VanEeckhoutandCalef(1992),WailerandDavis(1984),Ward(1990b)
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Table 1-7 (cont.)
Topic References
PapersonGeneralUseofGeophysicalMethods(cont.)
Monitoring Reganetal.(1987),TuttleandChapman(1989),Wrubleetal.(1986)
Site Assessment Benson(1991),BensonandYuhr (1992),Cichowiczetal.(1981),Evansetal. (1982),EvansandSchweitzer(1984),EmilssonandSimonson(1989),Flatmanetal.(1986),Frenchetal.(1988),Hatheway(1982),HoekstraandHoekstra(1990),JohnsonandJohnson(1986),MacLeodandDobush(1990),McGinnisetal.(1988),McKownandSandness(1981),Nelson (1988),Nichol andCain(1992),Olhoeft(1992b),Olssonetal.(1984),TuttleandChapman(1989),Wrubleetal.(1987)
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fromtheoriginatingorganization(seeAppendixB.2foraddresses):ASTM,NGWA/NWWA,
EEGS/SEMEG,SEG,SPWLA.
TheNGWAsNationalGround-WaterInformationCenter(6375RiversideDrive,Dublin,
OH;614-761-1711)isprobablytheonlylibraryinthecountrywithacompletesetofthe
NWWA/NGWAconferenceseries.Similarly,theHazardousMaterialsResearchInstitute(9300
ColumbiaBoulevard, Silver Spring,MD 20910-1702; 301-587-9390) maintains a complete
collectionofitsconferenceseries.Copiesofspecificconferenceproceedingscanoftenbefound
inthelibrariesmaintainedbyEPAregionalofficeandEPAlaboratoriesorinuniversitylibraries
(seeAppendixB.3).
Beginningin1990,NWWA(nowNGWA)beganpublishingtheproceedingsofitsvarious
conferences under the title Ground Water Management: A Journal for Rapid Dissemination of
GroundWater Research.Asubscription($140formembersand$192.50fornonmembers)consistsof6couponsthatcanberedeemedforpublishedproceedings(largerproceedingsmay
require2coupons).
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Collins,A.G.andA.I.Johnson(eds.).1988.Ground-WaterContamination:FieldMethods.ASTMSTP963,AmericanSocietyforTestingandMaterials,Philadelphia,PA,485pp.[Includes5papersongeophysicalmethods]
Costello,R.L.1980.IdentificationandDescriptionofGeophysicalTechniques.USATHAMAReportDRXTH-TE-CR-80084. U.S.ArmyToxicandHazardousMaterialsAgency, AberdeenProvingGround,MD,215pp.[ER,GPR,SRR,BH][SupersededbyEC&Tetal.,1990]
dArnaudGerkins,J.C.1989.FoundationsofExplorationGeophysics.Elsevier,NY,667pp.[SRR,SRL,GR,MAG,SP,TC,MT,IP,ER,EMI,TDEM,radiation]
Dobecki,T.L.andP.R.Romig.1985.GeotechnicalandGroundWaterGeophysics.Geophysics
50(12):2621-2636.
Dobrin,M.B.andC.H.Savit.1988.IntroductiontoGeophysicalProspecting,4thed.McGraw-Hill,NewYork,867pp.[EarliereditionsbyDobrin:1960,1965,1976].[SRR,SRL,CSP,GR,MAG,ER,SP,IP,EMI]
Ellyett,C.D.andD.A.Pratt.1975.AReviewofthePotentialApplicationsofRemoteSensingTechniquestoHydrogeologicalStudiesinAustralia.AustralianWaterResourcesCouncilTechnicalPaperNo.13,Canberra.
Emilsson,G.R.andJ.C.B.Simonson.1989.IntegratedGeophysicalandGeologicTechniques:ImportantFirstStepsintheInvestigationofaSuperfundSiteinSoutheasternPennsylvania.In:Proc.(2nd)Symp.ontheApplicationofGeophysicstoEngineeringandEnvironmentalProblems,Soc.Eng.andMineralExplorationGeophysicists,Golden,CO,pp.354-367.
EnvironmentalConsulting&Technology(EC&T),Inc.,Technos,Inc.,andUXBInternational,Inc.1990.Construction Site Environmental Survey and Clearance Procedures Manual. U.S. Army Toxic and
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French,R.B.,T.R.Williams,andA.R.Foster.1988.GeophysicalSurveysataSuperfundSite,WasteProcessing,Washington. In:Proc.(lst)Symp.ontheApplicationofGeophysicstoEngineeringandEnvironmentalProblems,Soc.Eng.andMineralExplorationGeophysicists,Golden,CO,pp.747-753.
Frischknecht,F.C.,L.Muth,R.Grette,T.Buckley,andB.Kornegay.1983.GeophysicalMethodsforLocatingAbandonedWells.U.S.GeologicalSurveyOpen-FileReport83-702,211pp.
Garland,G.D.(ed.).1989.ProceedingsofExploration87.SpecialVolume3,OntarioGeologicalSurvey,Toronto,Canada,914pp.[77paperscoveringsurface,borehole,andairborneEM,IP,remotesensing, radiometric,and seismicmethods]
Grant,F.S.andG.F.West.1965.InterpretationTheoryinAppliedGeophysics.McGraw-Hill,NewYork,583pp.[ER,EM,SRL,SRR,GR,MAG,EMI]
Griffiths,D.H.andR.F.King.1981.AppliedGeophysicsforEngineersandGeologists:TheElementsofGeophysicalProspecting,2nded.PergamonPress,NewYork,230pp.[Firstedition1965][ER,EM,SRR,SRL,GR,MAG]
Hancock,J.C.andP.A.Wintz.1966.SignalDetectionTheory.McGraw-Hill,NewYork,247pp.
Handman,E.H.1983.HydrologicandGeologicAspectsofWasteManagementandDisposal:ABibliographyofPublicationsbyU.S.GeologicalSurveyAuthors.U.S. Geological SurveyCircular907,40pp.[15referencesongeophysics]
H D A W E H i i h J R C H l R E M D ll G R R J S S d S H
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HRB-Singer,Inc.1971.DetectionofAbandonedUndergroundCoalMinesbyGeophysicalMethods.Project14010,ReportEHN.PreparedforU.S.EPAandPADept.ofEnv.Res.[VLF,IP,SP].
Jakosky,J.J.1950.ExplorationGeophysics. TrijaPublishingCo.,LosAngeles,1195pp.[S,ER,MAG,
GR]
Johnson,A.I.andJ.P.Gnaedinger. 1964.Bibliography.In:SymposiumonSoilExploration,ASTMSTP351,AmericanSocietyforTestingandMaterials,Philadelphia,PApp.137-155.[airphotointerpretation(90refs);ERandseismic(60refs);electricalboreholelogging(48refs);nuclearboreholelogging(40refs),boreholecamera(13refs);neutronmoisturemeasurement(50refs)]
Johnson,W.J.andD.W.Johnson.1986.PitfallsofGeophysicsinCharacterizingUndergroundHazardousWaste.In:Proc.7thNat.Conf.onManagementofUncontrolledHazardousWasteSites,HazardousMaterialsControlResearchInstitute,SilverSpring,MD,pp.227-232.[EMI,ER,GPR,MAG,SRR]
Karous,M.andS.Mare.1988.GeophysicalMethodsinStudyingFractureAquifers.CharlesUniversity,Prague,93pp.[ER,EMI,SP,SRR,borehole]
Kearey,P.andM.Brooks.1991.AnIntroductiontoGeophysicalExploration,2nded.BlackwellScientificPublications,Boston,MA296pp.[Firstedition1984][SRR,SRL,GR,MAG,ER,SP,IP,EMI,VLF,AFMAG,TC,MT,AEM]
Lewis,M.R.andF.P.Haeni.1987.TheUseofSurfaceGeophysicalTechniquestoDetectFracturesinBedrockAnAnnotatedBibliography.U.S. Geological SurveyCircular 987. [31Englishlanguageand12 foreign language references]
LordJr.,A.E.andR.M.Koerner.1987.NondestructiveTesting(NDT)TechniquestoDetectContainedSubsurfaceHazardousWaste.EPA/600/2-87/078(NTISPB88-102405),99pp.[17methods;EMI,
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Milsom,J.1989.FieIdGeophysics.HalstedPress,NewYork,182pp.
Morely,L.W.(ed.)1970.MiningandGroundwaterGeophysics/1967.EconomicGeologyReport26.GeologicalSurveyofCanada,Ottawa,Canada.[ER,EM,SRR,BH]
Nabighian,M.N.(ed.).1988.ElectromagneticMethodsinAppliedGeophysics,Vol.1,Theory.SocietyofExplorationGeophysicists,Tulsa,OK528pp.
Nabighian,M.N.(ed.).1991.ElectromagneticMethodsinAppliedGeophysics,Vol.2,PartsAandB,
Applications.SocietyofExplorationGeophysicists,Tulsa,OK,PartA,pp.1-520,PartB,pp.521992.
NationalWaterWellAssociation(NWWA).1971.GeophysicsandGroundWater:APrimer:Part1,AnIntroductiontoGroundWaterGeophysics;Part2,AppliedUseofGeophysics.WaterWellJournalPart1:25(7):43-60;Part2:25(8):35-50.
NationalWaterWellAssociation(NWWA).1984.NWWA/EPAConferenceonSurfaceandBorehole
GeophysicalMethodsinGroundWaterInvestigations(SanAntonio,TX).NationalWaterWellAssociation, Dublin, OH.
NationalWaterWellAssociation(NWWA).1985.NWWAConferenceonSurfaceandBoreholeGeophysicalMethodsinGroundWaterInvestigations(FortWorth,TX).NationalWaterWellAssociation, Dublin, OH.
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Olhoeft,G.R.1992a.GeophysicsAdvisorExpertSystem,Version2.0.U.S.GeologicalSurveyOpenFileReport92-526,21pp.plusfloppydisk.AlsoavailablefromU.S.EPAEnvironmentalMonitoringSystemsLaboratory,POBox93478,LasVegas,NV,89193-3478;replacesVersionLO(EPA/600/489/023),releasedin1989.[ER,EMI,complexresistivity,SRR,SRL,GPR,GR,radiometric,soilgas]
Olhoeft,G.R.1992b.SiteCharacterizationTools.In:SubsurfaceRestorationConference,ThirdInt.Conf.onGroundWaterQualityResearch(June21-24,1992,Dallas,TX),NationalCenterforGroundWaterResearch,RiceUniversity,Houston,TX,pp.29-31.
Olsson,O.,0.Duran,A.Jamtlid,andL.Stenburg.1984.GeophysicalInvestigationsinSwedenfortheCharacterizationof a Site forRadioactiveWasteDisposalAnOverview. Geoexploration 22:187201.
Paillet,F.L.andW.R.Saunders(eds.).1990.GeophysicalApplicationsforGeotechnicalInvestigations.ASTMSTP1101,AmericanSocietyforTestingandMaterials,Philadelphia,PA118pp.[2peer-reviewedpapersonsurfaceand5onboreholegeophysics]
Pamsnis,D.S.1975.MiningGeophysics,2nded,revisedandupdated.Elsevier,NewYork,395pp.[secondeditiondated1973];[MAG,SP,EMI,TDEM,TC,ER,IP,GR,SRR,SRL,radiometric,BH]
Parasnis,D.S.1979.PrinciplesofAppliedGeophysics,3rded.ChapmanandHall,NewYork,269+pp.[earliereditionsdated1962,1972];[MAG,GR,ER,IP,EM,S]
Peterson,R.,J.Hild,andP.Hoekstra.1989.GeophysicalStudiesfortheExplorationofGroundwaterintheBasinandRangeofNorthernNevada.In:Proc.(2nd)Symp.ontheApplicationofGeophysicstoEngineeringandEnvironmentalProblems,Soc.Eng.andMineralExplorationGeophysicists,Golden,CO,pp.425-435.
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Robinson,E.S.andC.Coruh.1988.BasicExplorationGeophysics. JohnWiley&Sons,NewYork,562pp.[SRR,SRL,GR,MAG,ER,IP,SP,TC,EMI,BH]
Schwarz,S.D.1988.ApplicationofGeophysicalMethodstoGroundwaterExplorationintheToltRiverBasin,WashingtonState.In:Proc.(lst)Symp.ontheApplicationofGeophysicstoEngineeringandEnvironmentalProblems,Soc.Eng.andMineralExplorationGeophysicists,Golden,CO,pp.652-657.
Sharma,P.V.1986.GeophysicalMethodsinGeology,2ndedElsevier,NewYork,428pp.[Firstedition1976][S,GR,MAG,ER,geothermal]
Sheriff,R.E.1968.GlossaryofTermsUsedinGeophysicalExploration.Geophysics33(l):181-228.
Sheriff,R.E.1989.GeophysicalMethods.PrenticeHall,EnglewoodCliffs,NJ,605pp.[GR,MAG,ER,EM,SRR,geothermal,radiometric,BH]
Sheriff,R.E.1991.EncyclopedicDictionaryofExplorationGeophysics,3rded.SocietyofExplorationGeophysicists,Tulsa,OK,376pp.[lsted.1973,2nd1984]
Society ofExploration Geophysicists (SEG). Various dates. Annual Meeting Technical Program:Expanded Abstracts and Biographies. SEG,Tulsa,OK.[Publicationforthe61stannualmeeting
in1991isa2-volumesettotaling1707pages]*
Society of Engineering andMineral ExplorationGeophysicists/Environmental and EngineeringGeophysicalSociety(SEMEG/EEGS).1988-present. SymposiumontheApplicationofGeophysicstoEngineeringandEnvironmentalProblems[lst,1988;2nd1989;3rd,1990;4th,1991;5th,1992].EEGS,EnglewoodCO.*
Taylor, R.W. 1984. Evaluation of Geophysical Surface Methods for Measuring Hydrological Variables in
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U.S.ArmyCorpsofEngineers.1979.GeophysicalExploration. EngineerManualEM1110-1-1802,DepartmentoftheArmy,Washington,DC,313pp.[SRR,SRL,SASW,sonar,ER,GR,BH]
U.S.DepartmentofEnergy(DOE).1990.BasicResearchforEnvironmentalRestoration.DOE/ER
0482T,WashingtonDC,156pp.[Discussesneedforgeophysics]
U.S.EnvironmentalProtectionAgency(EPA).1987a.SurfaceGeophysicalTechniquesforAquiferandWellhead Protection AreaDelineation. EPA/440/6-87/016 (NTIS PB88-229505).
U.S.EnvironmentalProtectionAgency(EPA).1987b.ACompendiumofSuperfundFieldOperationsMethods,Part2.EPA/540/P-87/001 (OSWERDirective9355.0-14) (NTISPB88-181557), 644pp.[Remotesensing,EMI,ER,SRR,SRL,MAG,GPR,BH]
U.S.EnvironmentalProtectionAgency(EPA).1992.DenseNonaqueousPhaseLiquids-AWorkshopSummary,Dallas,Texas,April16-18,1991.EPA/600/R-92/030, 81pp. [Section4.2providesbriefdescriptionofgeophysicaltechniques]
U.S.EnvironmentalProtectionAgency(EPA).1993.SubsurfaceFieldCharacterizationandMonitoringTechniquesADeskReferenceGuide,VolumeI:SolidsandGroundWater.EPA/625/R-93/O03a.AvailablefromEPACenterforEnvironmentalResearchInformation,Cincinnati,OH.[Section1covers remote sensingandsurfacegeophysicalmethods,Section3 covers boreholegeophysicalmethods]
U.S.GeologicalSurvey(USGS).1980.GeophysicalMeasurements.In:NationalHandbookofRecommendedMethodsforWaterDataAcquisition,Chapter2(GroundWater),OfficeofWaterDataCoordination,Reston,VApp.2-24to2-76.[TC,MT,AMT,EMI,ER,IP,SRR,GR,BH]
Valley,S.C.(ed.).1965.HandbookofGeophysicsandSpaceEnvironments.McGraw-Hill,NewYork.
VanBlaricom,R.1980.PracticalGeophysicsfor theExplorationGeologist.NorthwestMining
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Wruble,D.T.,J.J.VanEe,andL.G.McMillion.1986.RemoteSensingMethodsforWasteSiteSubsurfaceInvestigationsandMonitoring.In:HazardousandIndustrialSolidWasteTestingandDisposal:SixthVolume,R.A.Conway,etal.(eds.),ASTMSTP933,AmericanSocietyforTesting
andMaterials,Philadelphia,PApp.243-256.[Airphotos,multispectral,thermalIR,surfacegeophysics]
Zohdy,A.A.,G.P.Eaton,andD.R.Mabey.1974.ApplicationofSurfaceGeophysicstoGround-WaterInvestigations.U.S.Geological Survey Techniques ofWater-Resource Investigations TWRI 2-D1,116pp.[ER,GR,MAG,SRR]
*AddressesinAppendixB.2.
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CHAPTER 2
AIRBORNE REMOTE SENSING AND GEOPHYSICS
Hydrogeologistshaveusedthetermremotesensing looselytoapplytoallairborne
sensingmethods(EllyettandPratt,1975).Explorationgeophysicistsusuallyusetheterm
airbornegeophysics to refertomagnetic,gravimetric,andelectromagneticmeasurementstaken
fromecmventionalaircraftandtheyrestrictthetermremotesensingtoobservationsof
electromagneticradiationfromsatellitesandhigh-altitudeaircraft(Regan,1980). 1Figure2-1
showstheportionoftheelectromagneticspectrumthatismostcommonlyusedforremote
sensing.
Airborne sensing andmethodsaremorecommonlyusedinregionalinvestigationswhere
largeareasmustbeevaluated, rather than for site-specificstudies.Table2-1 summarizes
informationonhydrogeologicapplicationsforfiveairbornesensingtechniquesthatwere
evaluatedbyEllyettandPratt(1975)fortheirpotentialvalueinhydrogeologicalinvestigations.
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Table 2-1 Use of Airborne Sensing Techniques in Hydrogeologic and Contaminated Site Studies
Method Description Applications
Visibleandnearinfrared
Photographicultraviolet
Thermalinfrared
Side-lookingairborneradar(SLAR)
Low frequencyairborne
Aerialphotographs(blackandwhite,color,falsecolor,infraredmultispectral).Imaginglimitedtosurfacefeatures.
Aerial photographs using specialfilmand filters for sensing reflectedultraviolet radiation.
Scannersusedtodetectinfraredradiationbeyondtherangeofinfrared photography.
Createsacontinuousradarimage(reflectedradiofrequencypulses)ofthegroundsurface.
Usesalowfrequencyelectromagnetic wave transmitter
Airphotointerpretationofgeologicandsurfacehydrologicfeatures,fracturetraceanalysis,soilmoisturepatterns,andvegetation(infrared).
Mappingofoilspillsonsurfacewaterbodiessometimesusedforgeologicmappingofcarbonateformations.
Routinelyusedtodetectground-waterdischargeintorivers,lakes,andthesea;detects variations in soil moisturecontent(seepagefromleachfieldsandundergroundstoragetanks),evaporation,andthermalproperties.
Similarapplicationstoairphotos;candistinguishgrainsizeinalluviumifthereisnointerferencefromvegetation.Canalsobeusedforfixturetraceanalysis.
Detectsvariationsinsoilandreektypes;variations in ground water salinity;
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2.1 Visible and Near-Infrared Aerial Photography
Aerialphotographs,whichrecordthevisibleportionoftheelectromagneticspectrum,are
byfarthemostcommonformofremotesensingandarebasictoanygeologicorhydrogeologic
investigation.Muchinformationcanbeobtainedfromstereopairsofblack-and-white(alsocalled
panchromatic)airphotos,whichprovideathree-dimensionalimageofthesurfacewhenviewed
withastereoscope. Patternsofvegetation,variationsingreytonesinsoilandrockdrainage
patterns,andlinearfeaturesallowpreliminaryinterpretationsofgeology,soils,andhydrogeology.
Variousstandardtextsareavailableforguidanceinairphotointerpretationmethods(Avery,1968;Dennyetal.,1968;Lueder,1959Ray,1960).Allairphotointerpretationsshouldbefield
checkedandrevisedwheregroundtruthingindicatesfeaturesthatweremissedorincorrectly
delineated.
Usingphotogrammetrictechniquestodeveloptopographiccontoursfromstereoscopic
(overlapping)aerialphotographsisoftenthecheapestwaytoproducereasonablyaccurate
topographicmaps(1or2footcontourintervals)forsite-specificinvestigations.However,such
mapsmaynotbesufficientlyaccurateforlocatingtheelevationsofboreholesandmonitoring
wellsforwaterlevelmeasurementandsubsurfacemapping.
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scatteredintheatmosphereandresultinalowcontrastimage,especiallywhendustorhazeispresent.
Multiband (alsocalledmultispectral) images,usemultiplelensesandfilterstorecordsimultaneousexposuresofdifferentportionsofthevisibleandnear-infraredspectrumofthesameareaontheground.Imagescanalsoberecordedelectronically using a multispectral scanning system.
Airphotosoftenreveallinearfeaturescalled fracture tracesthat indicatezonesof
relativelyhigherpermeabilityinthesubsurface. Fracture-traceanalysisusingairphotoscanprovidepreliminaryinformationonpossible preferentialmovement ofcontaminants.Fetter
(1980,pp.406-411)providesausefulintroductiontofracture-traceanalysis.Sonderegger(1970)
describesuseofpanchromatic,color,andinfraredphotographytolocatefracturetracesasanaid
tothe interpretationof theoccurrenceandmovementof groundwaterin limestoneterraine.
Parizek(1976)providesathoroughreviewoftheNorthAmericanliteratureonfracture-traceandlineamentanalysis.DiNitto(1983)recommends thatairphotofracture-traceanalysisbe
supplemented,ifpossible,bysurfaceanalysisofbedrockfractureorientations.
A i l h t h l b I bl t l i d ti i ti h i l
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remotesensingtoolinthestudyofdirecthydrogeologicalindicators.Huntley(1978)evaluated
thermalinfraredimageryasameansofdetectingshallowaquifersandconcludedthatitisnotpracticaltoestimateground-waterdepthdirectly.Theuseofthermalinfraredimageryto
estimatesoilmoisture(JacksonandSchmugge1986;Jacksonetal.1982Price,1980;U.S.
GeologicalSurvey1982)andevaporation(Price,1980;Ottleetal.,1989U.S.GeologicalSurvey
1982)isreasonablywellestablished.MeierhoffandWeil(1991)reporteduseofthermalinfrared
asoneofseveralmethodstolocateundergroundstoragetanksata50-acresite.ThethermalIR
imagerysuccessfullylocatedtheonlyconfirmedleakingUSTatthesiteandalsoidentified
severalareasofburiedpipeandmetallicdebris.Table2-2listsapproximately30referenceson
hydrogeologicandcontaminatedsiteapplicationsofthermalIR.
Airbornegeophysicalmethodssuchasside-lookingairborneradar(SLAR),airborne
electromagnetic (AEM)methods,and aeromagnetics havenotbeenusedwidelyinground-water
contaminationstudies,althoughthepotentialexistsfortheiruseinregionalwaterqualitystudies.
AspecialfeatureofSLARisitsabilitytodistinguishgrainsizeinalluvium.Thistechnique
requiresunvegetatedsurfaces,aconditionthatismostlikelytooccurinaridareas(Ellyettand
P tt 1975)
Table 2-2 Index for References on Airborne Remote Sensing and Geophysical Methods
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Table 2 2 Index for References on Airborne Remote Sensing and Geophysical Methods
Topic References
Remote Sensing Texts Colwell(1983),Dury(1990),Holz(1973),Kondratyev(1969),Rees(1990),Reeves(1968,1975),Regan(1980),Sabins(1978),Ulabyetal.(1982-microwave),Verstappen(1977),WatsonandRegan(1983);Hvdrologic/ContaminationApplications:BurgyandAlgaz(1974), Deutschetal.(1979),EllyettandPratt(1975),Goodison(1985),Lund(1978),Reeves(1968),Scherz(1971),ScherzandStevens(1970),Sers(1971),Thomsonetal.(1973)
Aerial Photography
Photo-Interpretation Avery(1968),Ciciarelli(1991),Dennyetal.(1968),Dury(1957),JohnsonandGnaedigner(1964-bibliography),LattmanandRay(1965),LillesandandKiefer (1979),Lueder (1959),Miller andMiller (1961),Ray(1960),SCS(1973),Strandberg(1967),Wolfe(1974-photogrammetry)
Fracture-Trace Analysis DiNitto(1983),Fetter(1980),Henry(1992),JansenandTaylor(1988),Lattman(1958),LattmanandMatzke(1961),LattmanandNicholsen(1958),LattmanandParizek(1964),Mabeeetal.(1990),Parizck(1976),Setzer (1966), Sonderegger (1970), Trainer (1967), Trainer andEllison(1967),WiseandMcCrory,(1982),Wobber(1967),Zeiletal.(1991)
Ultraviolet PhillipsonandSangrey(1977),Redwineetal.(1985)
Color Infrared Aller (1984-abandoned wells), Estes et al. (1978), Farrell (1985), Lee
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Davis,E.M.andW.J.Fosbury.1973.ApplicationofSelectedMethodsofRemoteSensingforDetectingCarbonaceousWaterPollution.In:RemoteSensingandWaterResourcesManagement,AWRAProc.No.17,AmericanWaterResources Association, pp. 419-432. [Multispectral, IR]
Denny,C.S.,C.R.Warren,D.H.Dow,andW.J.Dale.1968.ADescriptiveCatalogofSelectedAerialPhotographsofGeologicFeaturesoftheUnitedStates.U.S.GeologicalSurveyProfessionalPaper590,135pp.
Deutsch,M.,D.R.Wiosnet,andA.Ranjo(eds.).1979.SatelliteHydrology(FifthAnnualWilliamT.PecoraMemorialSymp.ofRemoteSensing).AmericanWaterResourcesAssociation,Minneapolis,MN,730pp.
DiNitto,R.G.1983.EvaluationofVariousGeotechnicalandGeophysicalTechniquesforSite
CharacterizationStudiesRelativetoPlannedRemedialActionMeasures.In:Proc.(4th)Nat.Conf.onManagementofUncontrolledHazardousWasteSites,HazardousMaterialsControlResearchInstitute,SilverSpring,MD,pp.130-134.
Dury, G.H. 1957.Map Interpretation. Pitman, London.
Dury,S.A.1990.AGuidetoRemoteSensing:InterpretingImagesoftheEarth.OxfordUniversityPress,NewYork,208pp.
Ellyett,C.D.andD.A.Pratt.1975.AReviewofthePotentialApplicationsofRemoteSensingTechniquestoHydrogeologicalStudiesinAustralia.AustralianWaterResourcesCouncilTechnicalPaperNo.13,Canberra.
EnglandA.W.andG.R.Johnson. 1977.MicrowaveBrightnessSpectraofLayeredMedia.Geophysics42(3):514-521.
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Fitterman,D.F.(ed.).1990.DevelopmentsandApplicationsofModernAirborneElectromagneticSurveys.U.S.GeologicalSurveyBulletin1925,216pp.
Frischknecht,F.C.1990.ApplicationofGeophysicalMethodstotheStudyofPollutionAssociatedwithAbandonedandInjectionWells.In:Proc.ofaU.S.GeologicalSurveyWorkshoponEnvironmentalGeochemistry,B.R.Doe (ed.),U.S.Geological SurveyCircular1033,pp. 73-77.[Aeromagnetic,TDEM]
Frischknecht,F.C.andP.V.Raab.1984.LocationofAbandonedWellsbyMagneticSurveys.In:Proc.1stNat.Conf.onAbandonedWells-ProblemsandSolution,EnvironmentalandGroundwaterInstitute,UniversityofOklahoma,Norman,OK, pp.186-215.[Aeromagnetic]
Frischknecht,F.C.,R.Gette,P.V.Raab,andJ.Meredith.1985.LocationofAbandonedWellsbyMagneticSurveys-AcquisitionandInterpretationofAeromagneticDataforFiveTestAreas.U.S.GeologicalSurveyOpen-FileReport85-614-A,64pp.
Goodison,B.E.(ed.).1985.HydrologicalApplicationsofRemoteSensingandRemoteDataTransmission. Int.Ass.HydrologicalSciencesPub.No.145.
Hanna,W.F.(ed.).1990.GeologicalApplicationsofModernAeromagneticSurveys.U.S.GeologicalSurveyBulletin1924,106pp.
Henry,E.C.1992.Topography,FractureTraces,GeologyandWellCharacteristicsoftheUnionvilleandWestChester7.5MinuteQuadrangles,ChesterCountyPennsylvania.In:GroundWaterManagement13:621-645(Proc.ofFocusConf.onEasternRegionalGroundWaterIssues).
Hill,J.M.andE.J.Dantin.1984.AerialMonitoringofHazardousWasteSitesinLouisiana.In:Proc.(lst)Nat.Conf.onHazardousWastesandEnvironmentalEmergencies,HazardousMaterialsControl Research Institute Silver Spring MD pp 108-112
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Jackson,T.J.,T.J.Schmugge,andJ.R.Wang.1982.PassiveMicrowaveSensingofSoilMoistureUnderVegetative Canopies. WaterResourcesResearch18(4):1137-1142.
Jackson,T.J.,T.J.Schmugge,andP.ONeil.1985.RemoteSensingofSoilMoisturefromanAircraftPlatformUsingPassiveMicrowaveSensors.In:HydrologicalApplicationsofRemoteSensingandRemoteSensingDataTransmission,B.E.Goodison(ed),Int.Ass.HydrologicalSciencesPub.No.145,pp.529-540.
Jansen,J.andR.Taylor.1988.SurfaceGeophysicalTechniquesforFractureDetection.In:Proc.SecondConf.onEnvironmentalProblemsinKarstTerranesandTheirSolutions(Nashville,TN),NationalWaterWellAssociation,Dublin,OH,pp.419-441.[EMI,VLF,thermal,fracturetrace]
Johnson,A.I.andJ.P.Gnaedinger. 1964.Bibliography.In:SymposiumonSoilExploration,ASTMSTP351,AmericanSocietyforTestingandMaterials,Philadelphia,PA, pp.137-155. [90referencesonairphotointerpretation]
Kennedy,C.J.andJ.S.Wogec.1991.UseofForwardLookingInfraredThermographyforSiteAssessmentWork.GroundWaterManagement6:745-750(EnvironmentalSiteAssessmentConference).
Kondratyev,K.Y.1969.RadiationintheAtmosphere.AcademicPress,NewYork,912pp.Landers,R.W.andH.V.Johnson.1978.PhotoInterpretationKeysforHazardousSubstancesSpill
Conditions.In:ControlofHazardousMaterialSpills,InformationTransfer,Inc.,Rockville,MD,pp.124-127.
Lattman,L.H.1958.TechniqueofMappingGeologicFractureTracesandLineamentsonAerial5 5
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LordJr.,A.E.,S.Tyagi,andR.M.Koerner. 1980NondestructiveTesting(NDT)MethodsAppliedtoEnvironmentalProblemsInvolvingHazardousMaterialSpills.In:Proc.Nat.Conf.onControlof
HazardousMaterialsSpills(Louisville,KY),VanderbiltUniversity,Nashville,TN,pp.174-179.[Reviewof17methods, including thermal infrared]
LordJr.,A.E.andR.M.Koerner.1987.NondestructiveTesting(NDT)TechniquestoDetectContainedSubsurface HazardousWaste. EPA/600/2-87/078 (NTIS PB88-102405), 99pp. [17 methodsincludingthermalinfrared;EMI,GPR,MAG,MDbest]
Lueder,D.R.1959.AerialPhotographicInterpretation:PrinciplesandApplications.McGraw-Hill,NewYork,462pp.
Lund,T.1978.SurveillanceofEnvironmentalPollutionandResourcesbyElectromagneticWaves.NatoAdvancedStudyInstitutesSeriesC,Volume45.ReidelPublishingCo.,Boston,MA,402pp.[9papersonland/watersensingusingmicrowaveandthermal IR]
Mabee,S.B.,K.C.Hardcastle,andD.U.Wise.1990.CorrelationofLineamentsandBedrockFractureFabricImplicationsforRegionalFractured-BedrockAquiferStudies,PreliminaryResultsfromGeorgetown, Maine. In:GroundWaterManagement3:283-297(7thNWWAEasternGWConference).[SLAR,airphotos]
Mattick,R.E.,F.H.Olmsted,andA.A.R.Zohdy.1973.GeophysicalStudiesintheYumaArea,ArizonaandCalifornia.U.S.GeologicalSurveyProfessionalPaper726-D,36pp.[SRR,ER,GR,SRL,Aeromagnetic]
Meierhoff,M.L.andG.J.Weil.1991.UndergroundStorageTankDetectionwithInfraredThermography.GroundWaterManagement6:751-756(EnvironmentalSiteAssessmentConference).
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Phillipson,W.R.andD.A.Sangrey.1977.AerialDetectionTechniquesforLandfillPollutants.In:Proc.3rdSolidWasteResearchSymp.(ManagementofGasLeachatefromLandfills),EPA/600/977/026(PB272595),pp.104-114.
Plume,R.W.1988.UseofAeromagneticDatatoDefineBoundariesofaCarbonate-RockAquiferinEast-CentralNevada.U.S.GeologicalSurveyWaterSupplyPaper2330,10pp.
Poe,G.A.,A.C.Stogryn,andA.T.Edgerton.1971.DeterminationofSoilMoistureContentwithAirborneMicrowaveRadiometry.FinalReport1684FR-1.Aerojet-GeneralCorporation,ElMonte,CA169pp.[ThermalIR]
Price,J.C.1980.ThePotentialofRemotelySensedThermalInfraredDatatoInferSurfaceSoilsMoistureandEvaporation.WaterResourcesResearch16(4):787-795.
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Redwine,J.etal.1985.GroundwaterManualfortheElectricUtilityIndustry,Volume3:GroundwaterInvestigationsandMitigationTechniques.EPRICS-3901.ElectricPowerResearchInstitute,PaloAlto,CA.[Remotesensing,SRR,SRL,ER,SP,EMI,GPR,GR]
Rees,W.G.1990.PhysicalPrincipleofRemoteSensing.CambridgeUniversityPress,NewYork,247pp.
Reeves,R.G.1968.IntroductiontoElectromagneticRemoteSensingwithEmphasisonApplicationstoGeologyandHydrology.AGIShortCourseLectureNotes.AmericanGeologicalInstitute,Washington, DC.
Reeves,R.G.(ed.).1975.ManualofRemoteSensing.AmericanSocietyofPhotogrammetry,FallsChurch,VA2144pp.[2nded.Colwell(1983)]
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Scherz,J.P.1971.MonitoringWaterPollutionbyMeansofRemoteSensingTechniques.RemoteSensingProgramReportNo.3.UniversityofWisconsin,Madison,WI,27pp.
Scherz,J.P.andA.R.Stevens.1970.AnIntroductiontoRemoteSensingforEnvironmentalMonitoring.
RemoteSensingProgramReportNo.1,UniversityofWisconsin,Madison,WI,80pp.
Schmugge,T.andR.J.Gurney.1986.ApplicationsofRemoteSensinginHydrology.In:ComputationalMethodsinWaterResources,M.A.Celiaetal.(eds.),Elsevier,NewYork,Vol.1,pp.383-388.
Schmugge,T.J.,T.J.Jackson,andH.L.McKim.1980.SurveyofMethodsforSoiIMoistureDetermination.WaterResourcesResearch16:961-979.[Includesactivemicrowavemethods]
Sers,S.W.1971.RemoteSensinginHydrologyASurveyofApplicationswithSelectedBibliographyand
Abstracts.TexasA&MUniversityRemoteSensingCenter,CollegeStation,TX,530pp.
Setzer,J.1966.HydrologicSignificanceofTectonicFracturesDetectableonAirphotos.GroundWater4(4):23-27.
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Shelton,G.A.1984.HazardousWasteSiteCharacterizationUsingRemoteSensing:AnEPARegional
OfficeView.In:Proc.(1st)Nat.Conf.onHazardousWastesandEnvironmentalEmergencies,HazardousMaterialsControlResearch Institute,Silver Spring,MD,pp. 113-116.
Sitton,M.D.andW.L.Baer.1984.GraphicallyIntegratingAerialPhotographyandHydrogeologicDatainEvaluatingGroundwaterPollutionSources,Southington,CT.In:Proc.(lst)Nat.Conf.onHazardousWastesandEnvironmentalEmergencies,HazardousMaterialsControlResearchInstitute,SilverSpring,MD,pp.198-200.
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Svoma,J.andA.Pysek.1985.PhotographicDetectionofGroundwaterPollution.In:HydrologicalApplicationsofRemoteSensingandRemoteSensingDataTransmission,B.E.Goodison(cd.),Int.Ass.HydrologicalSciencesPub.No.145,pp.561-567.
Thomson,K.P.B.,R.KLane,andS.C.Csallany(eds.).1973.RemoteSensingandWaterResourcesManagement.AWRA,ProceedingsSeriesNo.17,AmericanWaterResourcesAssociation,Urbana,IL,436pp.
Trainer,F.W.1967.MeasurementoftheAbundanceofFractureTracesonAerialPhotographs.U.S.GeologicalSurveyProfessionalPaper575-C,pp.C184-C185.
Trainer,F.W.andR.L.Ellison.1967.FractureTracesintheShenandoahValley,Virginia.Photogramm.
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Ulaby,F.T.,R.KMoore,andA.KFung.1982.MicrowaveRemoteSensing:3Vols.Addison-Wesley,ReadingMA.
U.S.EnvironmentalProtectionAgency(EPA).1986.TestMethodsforEvaluatingSolidWaste,3rded.,Vol. II FieldManual Physical/ChemicalMethods. EPA/530/SW-846 (NTISPB88-239223); Firstupdate,3rded.,EPA/530/SW-846.3-l(NTISPB89-148076);availableassubscriptionfromU.S.Government PrintingOffice(GPOstockno. 955-001-00000-1). [2ndeditionpublished in1982
(NTIS PB87-120291); Revised Chapter 11 (Ground-Water Monitoring), covering remote sensingandgeophysicalmethods,shouldbeavailablein1993]
U.S.EnvironmentalProtectionAgency(EPA).1987.ACompendiumofSuperfundFieldOperationsMethods, Part 2.EPA/540/P-87/001 (OSWERDirective9355.0-14) (NTISPB88-181557),644pp.[remotesensing,EMI,ER,SRR,SRL,MAG,GPR,BH]
U S Geological Survey (USGS) 1982 Evaporation and Transpiration In: National Handbook of
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CHAPTER 3
SURFACE GEOPHYSICS: ELECTRICAL METHODS
No other surface geophysical methods have been used more widely than electrical and
electromagnetic methods in the study of ground water and contaminated sites. Only downhole
logging methods are more confusing in their classification and terminology to the uninitiated (see
Chapter7).Termssuchas geoelectrical, geoelectromagnetie, andresistivity survey may beusedin the literature to apply to one or more of a variety of geophysical methods. The same method
may be called by different names.
3.1 Electrical versus Electromagnetic Methods
Usually the term electrical applies to methods in which electrical currents are injected
into the ground by the use of direct contact electrodes. Electrical methods operate using direct
current (DC) or frequencies that are so low (perhaps 10 Hz) that there are no
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3.1.1 Types of Electrical Methods
AsnotedinChapter1,electricalandEMmethodscanbebroadlyclassifiedaccordingtowhetherthefieldsourceforwhichasubsurfaceresponseismeasuredisnaturalorartificial(see
Table1-3).ThethreemajortypesofelectricalmethodsareDC electrical resistivity and induced
polarization(includingcomplexresistivity),whichinvolveartificialfieldsources,and self-
potential,whichinvolvesthemeasurementofnaturalelectricalcurrentsinthesubsurface.
Theprincipalmethodusedinthestudyofgroundwaterandcontaminatedsitesuntil
about10yearsagowasDCelectricalresistivity.Sincethe1980s,electromagneticinduction
methodshavegainedincreasingpopularityandnowaregenerallythepreferredmethodfor
ground-watercontaminationstudies.
3.1.2 Subsurface Properties Measured
Electricalandelectromagneticmethodsalsocanbeclassifiedbythesubsurfaceproperties
they measure These involve three major phenomena and properties associated with rocks and
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1000milliSiemens/meter).ByconventionERandVLF(Section4.4)measurementsaretypically
reportedinunitsofresistivity.Electromagneticinduction(Section4.1)andtimedomain
electromagneticmeasurements(Section4.2)aretypicallyreportedinunitsofconductivity.The
publishedliteratureonERandEMmethods,however,doesnotalwaysfollowtheseconventions;
thusEMmeasurementsmaybe reported intermsof resistivityorERmeasurementsin termsof
conductivity.Themethodused tomeasuresubsurfaceproperties(inductionforEM,andcurrent
injectionbyelectrodesforER)willindicatethetechnique,butnotnecessarilytheunitsinwhich
themeasurementsarereported.EMandERmethodsarebyfarthemostwidelyusedsurfacegeophysicaltechniquesinground-watercontaminationstudies(seeTables3-1and3-2forER,
andTables4-1and4-2forEMI).
3.2 Direct Current Electrical Resistivity
Thedirectcurrent(DC),alsocalled galvanic, electric resistivity method measures the
resistancetoflowofelectricityinsubsurfacematerial.DCmethodsinvolvetheplacementof
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Figure3-1 Diagram showingbasicconcept ofresistivitymeasurement (fromBenson etal., 1984).
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Wenner Electrode Array
Lee-Partitioning Electrode Array
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SoundingcurvesprovideslightlygreaterprobingdepthandresolvingpowerthanWennersoundingsforequalABelectrodespacing.
LessmanpowerandtimeisrequiredformakingsoundingsthanforaWennerarray.
Whenwideelectrodespacingsareused,straycurrentsinindustrialareasandtelluriccurrentsaremorelikelytoaffectmeasurementswiththeWernerarray.
TheSchlumbergerarrayismoresensitiveinmeasuringlateralvariationsin
resistivity.
TheWennerarrayismoresusceptibletodriftingorunstablepotentialdifferencescreatedbydrivingelectrodesintotheground.
Schlumbergersoundingcurvescanbemorereadilysmoothed.
TheWennerarray,however,holdsseveraladvantagesovertheSchlumbergerarray,includingsimplicityoftheapparentresistivityformula,relativelysmallcurrentvaluesrequiredto
producemeasurablepotentialdifferences,andavailabilityofalargealbumoftheoreticalmaster
curvesfortwo-,three-,andfour-layerearthmodels(MooneyandWetzel,1956).
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Perpendicular
Radial
Equatorial
Parallel
Axial or Polar
Figure3-3 Dipole-dipolearrays.Theequatorialarray isbipole-dipolebecauseABis large(fromZohdyetal.,1974).
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Figure3-4a Resistivitysoundingsandprofiles: isoplethsof resistivitysoundingdata showingextent
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Figure3-5aSpecializedDCresistivityelectrodeconfigurations:layoutofazimuthalresistivityarray(Carpenteretal.,1991).
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Figure3-5cSpecializedDCresistivityelectrodeconfigurations:tri-potentialelectrodearray(KirkandRauch,1977b).
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withthemethodthanfromanyinherentproblems,andmorewidespreadusefortheapplications
mentionedaboveisprobablymerited.
Tomographic imagingisarelativelynewDCresistivitymethodinwhichagridof
electrodesis establishedon theground surface.Controlledcurrentsareintroduced into asubset
ofelectrodesinaprescribedsequenceandtheelectricalresponseof theotherelectrodesis
measured.Thesesignalsareprocessedusingtomographictheorytocreateathree-dimensional
imageofthesubsurface(seeSection7.2.3).Highverticalandhorizontalresolutionofcontaminantplumeshavebeenobtainedinthelaboratory,butgridedgeeffectshavecreated
difficultiesinfieldapplications(Tamburietal.,1988).
3.4Self-Potential
Self-potentialinvolvesthemeasurementofnaturalelectricalpotentialsdevelopedlocally
inthesubsurfacebyelectrochemicalorelectrofiltrationprocesses.Severaltypesofnatural
potentialsmaybemeasuredbythismethod. Spontaneous polarization isanaturalvoltage
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Avariantofself-potentialinwhichcurrentisinjectedintothegroundtoenhancethe
streamingpotentialeffecthasbeendevelopedtodetectleaksinlinedponds(Figure3-6b).
Geomembranelinershavehighresistivityandwillproviderelativelyuniformpotentialreadingsbetweentwoelectrodes.Ifthelinerispunctured,fluidflowthroughtheleakcreatesa
conductivepathfortheflowofinjectedcurrentandproducesanomalouspotentialreadingsin
thevicinityoftheleak.
3.5 Induced Polarization and Complex Resistivity
Induced polarization (IP) is anelectrical method thatmeasures electrochemical responses
ofsubsurfacematerial(primarilyclays)toaninjectedcurrent.IntimedomainIPsurveys,the
rateatwhichvoltagedecaysaftercurrentinjectionstopsismeasured,whileinfrequencydomain
IPsurveys,theeffectoffrequencyonelectricalresistivityismeasured.Frequencydomainmeasurementsaremoreprecisewheninducedpolarizationeffectsincreasewithdepth;time
domainarebetterwheninducedpolarizationeffectsdecreasewithdepth(PatellaandSchiavone,
1977)$
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Figure3-6aSelf-potentialmeasurements:apparatusandgraphofmeasurementoverafissuredzoneof limestoneillustratingnegativestreamingpotentialcausedbyground-water seepage(O il d B l k 1979)
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conventionalIP,buttheinstrumentationforsignaldetectionandanalysisismorecomplexand
consequentlycostsareevenhigher.Complexresistivityhasthepotentialadvantageofbeingable
todetectorganiccontaminantplumeswhereDCmethodsarerelativelyunsuccessfulinthisapplication(Pitchfordetal.,1988;Olhoeft,1990,1992).Nonethelesscomplexresistivity
methodsarestillmoreorlessattheresearchstageofdevelopmentandinstrumentationisnot
widelyavailable.Becauseofthe largerfrequencyspectrum,complexresistivityis themethod
mostsusceptibleto interferencefromculturalmaterials(e.g.,buriedmetalliccontainers,cables,
pipelines)oftheelectricalmethods.
Table3-1IndextoGeneralReferencesonDCElectricalResistivityMethods
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Topic References
Textbooks/Reports
Electrical Resistivity BhattacharyaandPatra(1968),Goldman(1990-nonconventionalmethods),Keller andFrishcknecht (1970),Kofoed (1979),Kunetz (1966),Mooney(1980),PatraandMallick(1980),Soiltest,Inc.(1968);seealsoTable 1-4 for identificationof general geophysics textscoveringelectricalmethods
Interpretation Texts: Kalenov(1957),MooneyandWetzel (1956),OrellanaandMooney(1966,1972),VanNostrandandCook(1966),Verma(1980);ComputerPrograms:Basokur(1900),Davis (1979),Sheriff(1992),Zohdy(1974a,b),ZohdyandBisdorf(1975);Papers:CookandVanNostrand(1954),Frangos(1990),Kecketal.(1981),Radstakeetal.(1991),Zohdy(1964,1974c,1975,1989)
GeoelectricProperties Parkhomenko(1967),Wait(1982),Wheatcraftetal.(1984)
OtherTexts Bensonetal.(1984),KirkandWarner(1981-cavitydetection),Redwineetal.(1985),Rehmetal.(1985),U.S.EPA(1987),LordandKoerner(1987),Pitchfordetal.(1988),USGS(1980),Zohdyetal.(1974)
GeneralPapers
Table3-2IndextoReferencesonApplicationsofDCResistivityMethods
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Topic References
Ground-WaterApplications
General
U.S.CaseStudies
Bays (1946,1950),BaysandFolks(1944),Benson(1991),BernardandValla (1991),Breusse (1963),Buhle(1953),ButlerandLlopis(1985),Cook et al. (1992-recharge), Harmon andHajicek (1992-streamaquifer connections),Henriet(1976),Kelly(1961),Kellyetal. (1989),Marketal.(1986),Meidav(1964)),Paver(1945),RingstadandBugenig(1984),Shields andSopper(1969watershedhydrology), Stewartetal.
(1983),Stickeletal.(1952),UrishandFrohlich(1990),VanDam(1976),WorkmanandLeighton(1937),Worthington(1975a),WorthingtonandGriffiths(1975)
Ackermann(1976-permafrostareas),Adamsetal.(1971),Bisdorf(1990),Bisdorf andZohdy(1979),BuhleandBrueckmann(1964),CarpenterandBassarab(1964),CherkauerandTaylor(1988),DudleyandMcGinnis(1962), FosterandBuhle(1951),Frohlich(1973,1974),
Gabanksietal.(1984),Hoekstraetal.(1975permafrost),JoinerandScarborough(1969),Joineretal.(1967,1968),KentandSendlein(1972),Lee(1937),Matticketal.(1973),MerkelandKaminski(1972),Page(1968),PoolandHeigold(1981),Priddy(1955),Rijoet al.(1977),Samuelson(1987),StewartandWood(1986),Stewartetal.(1985),Stiermanetal.(1986),Taylor(1992),Tucci(1984),Underwoodetal.(1984) W tl d (1953) W t t l (1990) Wil t l (1970)
Table 3-2 (cont.)
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Topic References
Geologic Characterization Applications
General
Glacial Deposits
Karst
FracturedRock
Permafrost
Benson(1991),CookandNostrand(1954-filledsinks),EmilssonandMorin(1989buriedchannel),GhatgeandPasicznyk(1986-bedrocktopography),Hawley(1943faultlocation),Hubbert(1944-faults),Page(1968), Smith (1974-buried valley), Spicer (1952), Tucci (1986),Wantland(1952depthweatheredrock),Wilcox(1944--sandandgravel)
Denneetal.(1984-glacialburiedvalleys),Hackett(1956),McGinnisandKempton(1961),Reed(1985),Reedetal.(1983),Samuelson(1987),ShoepkeandThomsen(1991),Stiermanetal.(1986),Urish(1981)
FillerandKuo(1989),FretwellandStewart(1981),FrohlichandSmith(1974), Joiner andScarborough (1969),KirkandWerner(1981),RiitziandAndolesk(1992),RodriguezandWellner(1988),SmithandRandazzo(1986,1989),StewartandWood(1986),Watsonetal.(1990)
Adamsetal.(1988),BernardandValla(1991),Burdick(1982),JohnsonandSaylor(1987),Pfeifferetal.(1990),SmithandRandazzo(1989),RitziandAndolesk(1992),Williamsetal.(1990)
Hoeckstraet al. (1975)
Table 3 2 (cont )
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Table3-2(cont.)
Topic References
ContaminatedSiteApplications(cont.)
Contaminant Plumes Brickell(1984),Greenhouseetal.(1985),KeanandRogers(1981),LeBrecqueetal.(1984a,b),SchneiderandGreenhouse(1992-perchloroethylene), Tamburi et al. (1985,1988-tomographicimaging),Urish(1984-radioactiveplume)
Industrial/HazardousWaste Sites
AllenandRogers(1989),Bradley(1986),Cichowiczetal.(1981),EvansandSchweitzer(1984),Gilmer andHelbling (1984),Harman (1986),HitchcockandHarman(1983),Hortonetal.(1981),Kolmer(1981),Peaseetal.(1981),Petersonetal.(1986),RudyandCaolie(1984),SaundersandStanford(1984),ShoepkeandThomsen(1991),StellarandRoux(1975),SlaineandGreenhouse(1982),StearnsandDialmann(1986), Stierman(1981), StiermanandRuedisili (1988),Walther etal.
(1983),WhiteandBrandwein(1982),Williamsetal.(1984)
LandfillLeachate Allen(1984-papermill),Carpenter(1990),Carpenteretal.(1990a-landfillstructure),CartwrightandMcComas(1968),EvansandSchweitzer(1984),GreenhouseandHarris(1983),Kecketal.(1981),Kelly(1976a),Kellyetal.(1988),Klefstadetal.(1975),Laineetal.(1985) R b t t l (1989) R (1978) R d d C li (1984)
Table3-3IndextoReferencesonSpecializedDCElectricalResistivityandSelf-PotentialMethods
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Topic References
Specialized DC Resistivity Methods
Azimuthal Resis tiv ity ContaminatedSites:JansenandTaylor(1989);Carpenteretal.(1990b,1991fractured landfillcover);FracturedRock Jansen (1990),Ritzi andAndolesk (1992), Taylor (1984), Taylor and Jansen (1988), Taylor andFleming (1988), Jansen and Taylor (1989), Leonard-Mayer (1984a,b),Zohdy(1970a); Other: SauckandZabik(1992)
Tri-potential Carpenter (1955), Habberjam (1969-cavity detection), Kirk and Rauch(1977afracture detection; 1977b-karst hydrogeology),Ogden andEddy(1984-fractures/caves), Ogden et al. (1991 -USTs) - -
Tomographic Imaging Tamburi et al. (1985, 1988)
Self-Potential
Genera l Ahmed (1963), Corwin (1990), HRB Singer (1971abandoned mines),Bogoslovky and Ogilvy (1972-fissured media; 1977landslides), LordandKoerner (1980, 1987), Ogilvy andBogoslovsky (1979), Ogilvy andKuzima (1972)
Ground-WaterMonitoring Gilkeson and Cartwright (1983), Lange et al. (1986), Redwine et al.(1985), Rehm et al. (1985)
Table3-4IndextoReferencesonInducedPolarizationElectricalMethods
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Topic References
Texts BaizerandLund(1983),BertinandLoeb(1976),Bottcher(1952),Finketal.(1990),Sumner(1976),Wait(1959,1982)
Papers Bleil(1953),FrischeandvonButtlar (1957),KeevilandWard(1962),MaddenandCantwell(1967),MarshallandMadden(1959),Seigel(1959),Sumner(1979),Taylor(1985),Vogelsang(1974),Ward(1980,1988)
FrequencyDomain Barker(1974),Hallof(1964),PatellaandSchiavone(1977),Zongeetal.(1972)
TimeDomain Bertin (1968), Patella andSchiavone (1977),RoyandShikhar (1973),Zongeetal.(1972)
ComplexResistivity Cleff(1991),Olhoeft(1984,1990,1992),OlhoeftandKing(1991),Wheatcraftetal.(1984)
Subsurface Response Barker (1975),Olhoeft (1985)
GroundWater Adamsetal.(1975),Bodmeretal.(1968),Mohamed(1970),OgilvyandKuzima(1972),RoyandEliot(1980),Vacquieretal.(1957),Worthington(1975b);TextswithBriefDiscussions:Rehmetal.(1985),U.S.GeologicalSurvey(1977)
3.6 References
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See Glossary for meaning of method abbreviations.
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Cartwright,K.andM.R.McComas.1968.GeophysicalSurveysintheVicinityofSanitry LandfillsinNortheasternIllinois.GroundWater6(5):23-30.[ER,thermal]
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