First
Things
First
Essays on the Buddhist Path
ṬhānissaroBhikkhu
(GeoffreyDeGraff)
2
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3
Acknowledgements
Manypeoplehavereadearlierversionsoftheseessaysandhavekindly
offeredsuggestionsforimprovements.Inparticular,Iwouldliketothank
themonkshereatthemonastery,aswellasAddieOnsanit,Nathaniel
Osgood,BalajiRamasubramanian,DaleSchultz,IsabellaTrauttmansdorff,
andBarbaraWright.Anymistakesthatremain,ofcourse,aremyown
responsibility.
Someoftheseessays,inearlierincarnations,haveappearedinTricycle,
Buddhadharma,andLion’sRoar.Iwouldliketothanktheeditorsofthese
journalsfortheirhelpinmakingthewritingclearerandmorecoherent.
Thefactthattheessayswereoriginallywrittenondifferentoccasionsfor
differentaudiencesexplainsthedifferenceinstyleamongthem,the
occasionaloverlapincontent,aswellastheinconsistentuseofSanskritand
Pāliterms:karma/kamma,dharma/dhamma,andnirvāṇa/nibbāna.Ihopethat
thisisnotaproblem.
Theseandotheressaysonbuddhistpracticeareavailableontheinternet
atwww.dhammatalks.org.
ṬhānissaroBhikkhu(GeoffreyDeGraff)
METTA FOREST MONASTERY
VALLEY CENTER, CA 92082-1409
DECEMBER, 2018
4
HonesttoGoodness
“Letanobservantpersoncome—onewhoisnotfraudulent,notdeceitful,
oneofanhonestnature.Iinstructhim.IteachhimtheDhamma.Practicing
asinstructed,heinnolongtimeknowsforhimself,seesforhimself:‘Sothisis
howthereistherightliberationfrombondage,i.e.,thebondageof
ignorance.’”—MN80
WhenIwasayoungmonkinThailand,Iknewawomanwhosefather
hadbeenthechiefmusicianfortheroyalThaicourtintheearlyyearsofthe
20thcentury.Thefamilywasneverwealthy,buttheylivedinthepalace
compound,andthatwaswhereshewasborn.Thatwasalsowhere,asa
child,shelearnedhowtocook.BythetimeIknewher,herpalaceyears
wereover,butshestillhadareputationasanexcellentcook.Manywomen
askedtostudycookingwithher,butasfarasIknew,shetaughtonlythree
orfour.Timeandagain,shetoldme,shehadtorejectpotentialstudentson
groundsofcharacter.Onewas“tooflighty.”Another,“tooproud.”
Partofherattitudereflectedthefactthatsherefusedtoacceptmoneyto
teach,soshewasfreetotakeononlythestudentsshefeltliketeaching.But
amoreimportantpartofherattitude,assheexplainedittome,wasrespect
fortheskillsshehadbeentaught:Theydeservedtobepassedononlyto
thosewhowerereliableenoughtomaintainthem,andobservantenoughto
pickuptheirsubtletiesandtoapplythemtothevagariesoftimeandplace
—whatkindoffoodwasavailable,whatkindofpeoplewouldbeeatingthe
food.
AsIbecamemorefamiliarwithtraditionalThaiculture,Ifoundthather
attitudesweresharedbymanypeoplewhohadmasteredtheoldskills.
Insteadofteachingstudentsatlarge,theywouldtakeonapprentices,
acceptingonlytheapprenticestheyfeltwereworthyoftheirskills.This
attitudeappliednotonlytotheskillsoflaylife,butalso—asIfoundinmy
relationshipwithmyteacher,AjaanFuang—tothoseofmonasticlife.Ajaan
Fuangwaspassingontheskillshehadlearnedfromhisteacher,AjaanLee,
andmypositionwasthatofanapprenticewhohadtomakehimselfworthy
ofthoseskills.Lookingintothetexts,Ifoundthatthisattitudestretchedall
thewaybacktothetimeoftheBuddha.TheDhammahetaughtwasaskill
5
(vijjā):theskillforendingsuffering.Anystudentwhowantedtolearn
neededclearly-definedcharactertraitstoqualifyasanapprenticeinthat
skill.
ThisperspectiveisrarelyappreciatedinWesternBuddhistcircles.That’s
becausemostofusintheWestgainourfirstexposuretoBuddhismina
denaturedsetting:inaclassroom,on-line,orinameditationretreat.We
learntheteachingsasabodyofconcepts,andmeditationasaseriesof
techniquesforseeingthetruthofthoseconcepts.Rarely,though,arewe
taughtthateithertheteachingsorthemeditationinvolvequalitiesofthe
character.Evenwhenwe’retaughtthesocialemotionsofgoodwillor
compassiononaretreat,they’reusuallypresentedasanexpressionofour
innategoodnature,withverylittlenotionthatstrengthsofcharacter—such
asself-honestyorrestraint—mightbeneededtoembodythem.
ThisisinsharpcontrasttothewaytheBuddhahimselfrecommended
thatpeopleencountertheteachings:inthecontextofarelationshipwitha
personwhoembodiedadmirablecharactertraits,andwhowantedyouto
developthosetraitsaswell.ThefactthattheBuddhadescribedthis
relationshipasanapprenticeshipmeantthattheteacherhadtolookfor
admirablepotentialsinaprospectivestudent,andthestudenthadtolook
forsimilartraitsinaprospectiveteacher,beforeeachsideagreedtotakethe
otheron.
Whilethissortofrelationshipwasmodeledontheapprenticeshipsof
otherskills—suchascarpentryorgoldsmithing—itwasn’tsimplyarelicof
ancientIndiantraditions.Instead,itgrewoutofthenatureoftheskillthat
theBuddhataughtandtrainedhisstudentstoteach.Traininginthisskill
requiredmorethanjustmemorizingabodyofconceptsormastering
meditationtechniques.Italsorequiredsuchqualitiesashonesty,
harmlessness,andrestraint—qualitiesthatwerebesttransmittedthrough
closepersonalcontact,fromonerealpersontoanother.
WecanseethisintheBuddha’sdescriptionsofhowapersonmightget
startedonthepathtomasteringtheskilltoendsuffering.Ashesaid,
everyone’sfirstreactiontosufferingistwofold:bewildermentastowhyit’s
happening,andasearchforsomeonewhomightknowhowtoendit.
Becauseofourbewilderment,oursearchforsomeonetoendthissuffering
canoftenleadusastray,aswelookforhelpfromallthewrongpeople.
That’sthenegativesideofthesearch.Butitspositivesideisthatitopens
6
ourmindtooutsidehelp.Thisway,whenwefindtherightpersonwho
reallyknowshowtoputanendtosuffering,wecanberesponsivetothat
person’spositiveinfluence.
OneofthemostdistinctivefeaturesoftheDhammaisthatitpointsto
thesourceofsufferinginside.Inotherwords,wesufferbecauseofourown
actions,andwe’llbeabletoendsufferingonlywhenwecanchangetheway
weact.Tobewillingtotakeonsuchateaching—ratherthanonethat
blamesoursufferingonthingsorpeopleoutside,orthatpromisesthat
someoneoutsidecanendoursufferingforus—weneedatleastaglimmer
oftwoqualitiesofthecharacter.Wehavetobe(1)observantenoughand(2)
honestenoughtoadmitthat,yes,wedosufferfromourownactions,and
thatwe’llhavetocleanupourownactifwewantthesufferingtostop.
Thesetwoqualities—beingobservantandhonest(or“nodeceiver,”inthe
Buddha’swords)—werepreciselythequalitiestheBuddhalookedforina
student.Buttheyweren’tmerelysignsthatthestudentwasreadyforthe
training.Theyalsoservedasthequalitiesthatthestudenthadtouse
reciprocally,inordertojudgewhetheraparticularpersonwasreliable
enoughtotakeonasateacher.Afterall,astheBuddhaalsosaid,youdon’t
wanttoassociatewithpeoplelackinginintegrity,andyoucan’tknow
whetheranotherpersonhasintegrityunlessyouhavesomeintegrity
yourself.
TheCanoncontainsmanylistsofqualitiesthatateachershouldembody,
buttwostandout.Inthefirstlist(MN95),youlookforhonestyand
harmlessness.Tocheckforhonesty,theBuddhahasyouobservewhether
theteachershowsanysignsofthegreed,aversion,ordelusionthatwould
causehimtoclaimknowledgeofthingshedidn’treallyknow.Tocheckfor
harmlessness,youobservewhethertheteacherevertriestogetotherpeople
todothingsthatwouldleadtotheirlong-termharmorsuffering.Only
whenateacherpassesbothtestsshouldyouplaceyourconfidenceinhim.
ThesecondlistcomesintheBuddha’sdescriptionofhowtodevelop
admirablefriendship—which,hesays,isthemostimportantexternalfactor
conducivetoawakening(AN8:54).Admirablefriendshipmeansboth
havinganadmirablefriend—areallywise,goodperson—andtryingto
emulatethatfriend’sgoodqualities.AndthequalitiestheBuddha
recommendslookingforarefour.
ThefirstgoodqualityisconvictionintheBuddha’sawakening—
7
believingthattheBuddhareallydidputanendtosuffering,thathedidit
throughhisownefforts,andthathediditthroughqualitiesthatwerenot
peculiartohim.They’requalitiesthatweallhave,atleastinpotentialform,
simplythathedevelopedthemtoaveryheighteneddegree.Butwecando
that,too.Whatthatmeansisthatanadmirablefriendisonewho’s
convincedinthepowerofhisorheractions,inthepowerofthemindto
changeitselfinawaythatcanleadtoareliablehappiness,justlikethe
happinesstheBuddhafoundinhisawakening.
Thesecondqualityisvirtue.Youwanttolookforsomeonewhosticksto
thepreceptsandencouragesotherpeopletosticktothem,too.Thissecond
qualityfollowsnaturallyonthefirst,becauseanyonewhoreallybelievesin
thepowerofactionwouldn’twanttoharmanybeingatall.Thismeansno
killing,stealing,illicitsex,lying,ortakingintoxicants.Inanysituations.At
all.AstheBuddhasays,ifyoucanholdtothesepreceptswithoutexception,
you’regivinguniversalprotectiontoallbeings.Ifyoumakeexceptions,that
protectionisonlypartial—andyou’reonlypartiallyprotectedaswell.
Thethirdgoodqualityisgenerosity.Admirablefriendsgivefreelynot
onlyoftheirmaterialbelongings,butalsooftheirtime,knowledge,energy,
andforgiveness.
Thefourthgoodqualityisdiscernment:insightintohowsufferingarises
andpassesaway,withtheprimaryfocusonhowsufferingiscausedby
mentalactionsthatcanbeabandonedbytrainingthemind.
Sowhenyou’relookingforateacher,youhavetoberesponsibletofind
someonewhoembodiesthesequalities.Thiswilltaketime,alongwithall
yourpowersofobservation.Andyouhavetobehonestinyourjudgment.
Youcan’tturnablindeyetoapotentialteacher’sbreachesofvirtue,
pretendingthattheydon’tmatter.Otherwise,you’lldeveloptheattitude
thatyourbreacheswon’tmatter,either.
Onceyou’reconvincedthatyou’vefoundtherightperson,youhaveto
beobservanttopickuphisorhergoodqualities.NoteveryDhammalesson
isinwords.AsAjaanFuangoncesaid,agoodstudenthastolearntothink
likeathief.Youcan’twaittobetoldwherethevaluablesare.Youhaveto
figureouthowtofindthemyourself.
Youalsohavetobringhonestytotherelationship,payingcareful
attentiontotheteachingsandthenweighingthemagainstyourownactions
toseewhereyouractionsdoanddon’tmeasureup.
8
Inthisway,yourhonestyandyourpowersofobservationgetturnedin
bothdirections—towardyourteacher’sactionstopickupgoodexamplesto
emulate,andtowardyourownactionsasyoutrytoimprovetheminline
withtheteacher’sexample.Asthesetwoqualitiesgetdevelopedinthisway,
theyturnintoaqualitythattheBuddhacalled“appropriateattention.”
Justasadmirablefriendshipisthemostimportantexternalfactorinthe
practice,appropriateattentionisthemostimportantinternalone.
“Attention,”intheBuddha’svocabulary,isamatterofwhichquestionsyou
taketoheart—theonesyoupayattentiontoandfocusontryingtoanswer.
Henevertaught“bare”attention,astherearenobarequestions.However,
thereareappropriatequestions—appropriateforhelpingtobringsuffering
toanend—andinappropriatequestions,whichfocusonissuesthatpullyou
offthepath.
Inappropriateattentionfocusesonquestionssuchas“Istheworld
eternal?Isitnot?WhoamI?WhatamI?DoIexist?DoInotexist?”These
questionsgetyoutiedupinwhattheBuddhacallsa“thicketofviews,”from
whichit’shardtodisentangleyourself.Toinsistonansweringthemislike
beingshotwithanarrowandrefusingtogetitremoveduntilyou’vefound
outwhoshotthearroworhowthearrowwasmade.You’ddie.
Withappropriateattention,though,thequestionscomedownto:“What
isskillfulandwhat’snotskillful?What,whenIdoit,willleadtolong-term
welfareandhappiness?What,whenIdoit,willleadtolong-termharmand
suffering?”Asyoupursuethesequestions,yourealizethattheanswersdon’t
stopwithwords.Theyleadtoactions.Andtheyforceyoutodevelopyour
powersofobservationandhonestyevenfurther.
TheBuddha’sinstructionstohisson,Rāhula,showhowtodothisinthe
contextofanadmirablefriendship.
AstheBuddhatoldRāhula,beforeyouact,askyourself,“Whatdoyou
expecttobetheresultsofyouractions?”Ifyouforeseethatanactionis
goingtocausesufferingorharm,don’tdoit.Ifyoudon’tforeseeanyharm,
youcangoaheadanddoit.Butlookatitalsowhileyou’redoingittoseeif
anyharmfulresultsarecomingupinspiteofyouroriginalintention.Ifyou
seeanyharmarising,juststop.Ifyoudon’tseeanyharm,youcancontinue.
Whenyou’redone,though,you’renotreallydone.Youhavetolookat
theaction’slong-termresults.Ifyourealizethatyoudidharmeventhough
youdidn’texpectto,yougooverandtalkwithyouradmirablefriend,both
9
todevelopyourhonestyinbeingwillingtoadmitmistakes,andtogain
advicefromyourfriendonhowtoapplyyourpowersofobservationtobe
moreharmlessthenexttimearound.
Hereiswhereallthesebasicqualitiesofcharactercometogether.You’re
payingappropriateattentiontoyouractions,tryingtobehonestand
observanttomakesurethatyou’renotcausinganyunnecessaryharm.And
you’redependingonthehelpofareliablepersontoforceyoutobeeven
morehonestandobservant—tothepointwhere,whenyoulookatyour
actionsanddon’tseeanyharmatall,youcantrustwhatyousee,because
you’vebeentrainedtobereliable.Youcantakejoyinthefactthatyou’re
makingprogress,andthatjoygivesyoutheenergytokeeppursuingthe
trainingtohigherandhigherlevels,ferretingoutmoreandmoresubtle
waysinwhichyouractionsneedtobefine-tuned.
Becausethisframeworkofappropriateattentionstartswithquestions
aboutintentions,itgraduallymovesitsfocusfromactionsingeneralto
somethingmorespecific:Whichintentionsleadtosuffering,andwhichto
theendofsuffering?Thesearethequestionsthatunderliethefournoble
truths:suffering,itscause,itscessation,andthepathtoitscessation.And
hereagain,thefocusofyourattentionisonwhatyou’redoing—andwhat
youneedtodobetter.Sufferingisn’tsimplysomethingyoupassively
endure.It’sanactivity,theactivityofclinging,inwhichthemindfeedsoff
thethingstowhichitclings.Itscauseisalsosomethingyou’redoing:You
craveeithertofantasizeaboutsensualpleasures,totakeonanidentityina
particularworldofexperience,ortoseeyouridentityinaworldof
experiencedestroyed.Thecessationofsufferingrequiresthatyoudevelop
dispassionbothforclingingandtheseformsofcraving.Thepathrequires
thatyoudevelopthequalitiesofmindthatleadtowardthatdispassion.
Thisisatallorder,becauseyou’llhavetoabandonmanyoftheactivities
you’vetakenasfoodforthemind,thinkingthatthepleasurestheygave
wereworthwhateverpaintheyinvolved.Now,however,honestyrequires
youtoadmitthatthey’renot,andsoyouhavetogivethemup.Andthisis
whereyourealizethattheprincipleofharmlessnessisnotjustinoffensive
meekness.Itrequiresstrength:thestrengthofrestraint,thestrengthof
consistency,thestrengthofdetermination,thestrengthofreallybeingtrue
toyourself,theabilitytosacrificeimmediatepleasureforlong-termgood.
Thisiswhythisskillcanbetaughtonlybypeopleofstrongcharacter,
10
andcanbemasteredonlybypeoplewhohavetheintegritytorealizethat
characterisaqualitytheyneedtodevelop.AndthisiswhytheBuddha
recommendedthattheDhammabetaughtinthecontextofan
apprenticeship,wherequalitiesofcharacterareemphasizedsothattheycan
prosperandgrowintosomethingsolidandtrue.Butthat’soneofthesigns
oftheDhamma’struegoodness.Itcanbemasteredonlybypeoplewhoare
trulygood.
Butwhatcanyoudoifyoucan’tfindanadmirablefriendtogainthis
sortoftraining?There’sonepassageintheCanonthat,atfirstglance,
soundsdiscouraging:theonewheretheBuddhasaysthatadmirable
friendshipisthewholeofthepractice,orthewholeofwhathecallstheholy
life(SN45:8).Bythathemeansthatwithouthimasouradmirablefriend,
we’dbenowhere.We’dhavenoideaofhowtoputoursufferingstoanend.
Butthere’sanotherpassage(Sn1:3)wherehesaysthatifyoucan’tfind
anadmirablefriend,it’sbettertogoalone.Ofcourse,atpresentwedon’t
totallylackanadmirablefriend.WehavetheexampleoftheBuddhaas
portrayedinthetexts,asasketchofwhatanadmirablefriendwouldsay
anddo.It’snotquitethesameashavingarealperson,becauseyoucan’t
confessyourmistakestoatext,andit’salltooeasytoreadyourown
standardsastowhatcountsascharacterintoatext.Butifallyoucanfind
aroundyouarepeoplewhoarelackinginconviction,lackinginvirtue,
lackingingenerosity,andlackingindiscernment,it’sbestnottoassociate
withthem.Youcertainlycan’ttakethemasaguideinthepath.
Whichmeansthatifthat’syouronlyoption,youhavetobeyourown
admirablefriend,especiallystringentwithyourselfindeveloping
conviction,virtue,generosity,anddiscernment,alongwithalltheother
qualitiesofcharacterneededforthepractice:honesty,harmlessness,and
powersofobservation.Thelackofanadmirablefriendislikeadeepholein
yourpaththat,witheffort,youmighteventuallygetacross.Butanylackin
characterisabottomlesspit.
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IntheEyesoftheWiseThe Buddha’s Teachings on Honor & Shame
Severalyearsback,IledaretreatinSantaFeonthetopicofkarma.One
ofthereadingswasapassageinwhichtheBuddhateacheshisseven-year-
oldson,Rāhula,howtoexaminehisactions,ashewouldhisfaceina
mirror,tomakesurethatheharmsnoone—neitherhimselfnoranyone
else.Oneoftheretreatantswasatherapistwho,thedayaftertheretreat,
wasscheduledtoholdthefinalmeetingofatherapygroupshehad
organizedforsomeofherclients.ShedecidedtoXeroxtheBuddha’s
teachingstoRāhulaandsharethemwiththegroup,togettheiropinionon
theBuddha’sparentingskills.Theirunanimousverdict:“Ifourparentshad
taughtuslikethat,wewouldn’tbeneedingtherapygroupslikethis.”
Whatwasstrikingabouttheirverdictwasthattheyarrivedatiteven
thoughtheBuddha’steachingemphasizedtheneedforRāhulatodevelopa
senseofshamearoundhisactions:Ifhedidn’tfeelshameattellinga
deliberatelie,hewasasemptyofgoodnessasanoverturneddipperwas
emptyofwater.Ifherealizedthathehadengagedinthinkingthathad
harmedhimself—orcouldleadtoharmtoothers—hewastofeelashamed
ofthosethoughtsandtoresolvenottorepeatthem.
AndtheBuddhadidn’tteachshameonlytoRāhula.Inhismoregeneral
teachingstothepublic,hecalledshameabrightguardianoftheworld,in
thatitkeptpeoplefrombetrayingthetrustofothers.Healsocalledshamea
nobletreasure,somethingmorevaluablethangoldorsilverinthatitwould
protectyoufromdoingthingsyou’dlaterregret.
ThehighvaluethattheBuddhaplacedonshamecontrastssharplywith
thewayit’sregardedinmanysegmentsofourculturetoday.Inbusiness
andinpolitics,shameisalltoooftenviewedasweakness.Amongtherapists,
it’scommonlyseenaspathological—anunhealthylowopinionofyourself
thatpreventsyoufrombeingallthatyoucan.Bookafterbookgivescounsel
onhowtoovercomefeelingsofshameandtoaffirmfeelingsofself-worth
intheirplace.
It’seasytounderstandthisgeneralreactionagainstshame.Theemotion
ofshame—thesensethatyoudon’tlookgoodintheeyesofothers—isa
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powerfulone.It’swhereweallowtheopinionofotherpeopleintoour
psyches,andalltoooftenunscrupulouspeopletakeadvantageofthat
openingtotrampleourhearts:tobullyusandforceonusstandardsof
judgmentthatarenotinourgenuinebestinterests.It’sbadenoughwhen
theytrytomakeusashamedofthingsoverwhichwehavelittleorno
control:race,appearance,age,gender,sexualorientation,levelof
intelligence,orfinancialstatus.It’sevenworsewhentheytrytoshameus
intodoingharm,likeavengingoldwrongs.
Buteffortstoavoidtheseproblemsbytotallyabolishingshamemissan
importantpoint:Therearetwokindsofshame—theunhealthyshamethat’s
theoppositeofself-esteem,andthehealthyshamethat’stheoppositeof
shamelessness.ThissecondkindofshameistheshamethattheBuddha
callsabrightguardianandatreasure.If,inourzealtogetridofthefirst
kindofshame,wealsogetridofthesecond,we’llcreateasocietyof
sociopathswhocarenothingforotherpeople’sopinionsofrightorwrong
—orwhofeelshameaboutallthewrongthings.Businessmenand
politicianswhoseenoshameinlying,forinstance,feelshameifthey’renot
atleastasruthlessastheirpeers.Andforallthegeneraldismissalofshame,
advertisersstillfindthatshameoveryourbodyorostensiblewealthisa
powerfultoolforsellingproducts.Whenallshamegetspathologized,it
goesundergroundinthemind,wherepeoplecan’tthinkclearlyaboutit,
andthensendsouttentaclesthatspreadharmallaroundus.
ThisiswheretheBuddha’steachingsonhealthyshamecanbeauseful
antidote,helpingtobringthetopicintotheopenandtoshowthat,with
propertraining,shamecanbeagreatforceforgood.
Tobeginwith,theBuddhacoupleshealthyshamewithahealthysenseof
honor:asensethatyoudeserverespectforholdingtoahighstandardof
conduct.Inthissense,shameisasignofhigh,ratherthanlow,selfesteem.
Honor,likeshame,beginswiththedesirenotonlytobegood,butalsoto
lookgoodintheeyesofothers,whichiswhyit,too,comesinbothhealthy
andunhealthyvarieties.Duels,feuds,gangwars,andhonorkillings—based
onthebeliefthatrespectisearnedbyyourabilitytodoviolence—have
givenhonorabadname.Buthonorcanberedefinedandmadehealthyso
thatit’searnedthroughintegrity.Asocietywithoutthissenseofhonor
wouldbeasbadasasocietywithouthealthyshame.
TheBuddha’sinsightsintohealthyhonorandshamecamefromhisown
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experienceinsearchingfor,andfinallyfinding,awakening.Hisinitial
searchfortherightpathhadtaughthimthathonorandshamehadtobe
treatedwithdiscernment,inthathecouldn’talwaystrusttheopinionof
others.Ifhehadbeenswayedbythehonorshownhimbyhisearlyteachers,
hewouldhavestayedstuckinthepracticeofconcentrationwithout
developingdiscernment.Ifhehadbeenswayedbythedisdainshownbythe
fivebrethrenwhenheabandonedhisausterities,hewouldhavedied
withouteverfindingthegoal.
Butasherealizedafterhisawakening,theproblemwithshameand
honorisnotthatyouwanttolookgoodintheeyesofothers.It’sjustthat
youwanttolookgoodinthewrongpeople’seyes.Ifyoucanfocusonthe
rightpeople,shameandhonorcanbeanenormoushelpindevelopingwhat
theBuddhaidentifiedasthemostimportantexternalfactoringaining
awakening:admirablefriendship.Hewasnowinapositiontogiveothers
theguidancehehadlackedinhisownquest,andtoteachhisdisciplestobe
admirablefriendstoothers.ThisiswhytheBuddhasetupthemonastic
Saṅgha:tokeepthelineageofadmirablefriendsalive.
Butadmirablefriendshipinvolvesmorethanjustmakingfriendswith
admirablepeople.Youalsoneedtoemulatetheirgoodqualities.Thisis
whereasenseofshameandhonorcomeintotheequation.Yourdesirefor
youradmirablefriendstothinkwellofyouisacrucialincentivetofollow
theirgoodexample.
Thegoodqualitiesofadmirablefriendsarefour:
•convictionintheBuddha’sawakeningandintheprincipleof
karma;
•virtue,inthesenseofnotbreakingthepreceptsorencouraging
otherstobreakthem;
•generosity,and
•discernment.
Thediscernmentofadmirablefriendscanbeseenintwothings:the
standardsbywhichtheyjudgeyou,andtheirpurposeinjudgingyou.If
they’rereallydiscerning,they’lljudgeyoubyyouractions—notbyyour
appearance,wealth,oranythingelseoverwhichyouhavenocontrol.
They’lljudgeyouractionsbothbytheintentionsonwhichyouactandon
theresultsofyouractions.Inbothcases—andhere’swheretheBuddha’s
senseofhonorinvertsthemilitarysenseofhonorinwhichhewastrained
14
asayoungprince—thestandardofjudgmentisthatyoucanfindhappiness
insuchawaythatyourintentionsandactionsharmnoone:notyouor
anyoneelse.
Thepurposeforwhichadmirablefriendsjudgeyouisnotsimplyto
arriveatthejudgment.Theywanttohelpyourecognizewhyyourmistakes
aremistakes,sothatyoucanlearnnottorepeatthem.Inthisway,they’re
encouragingyoutodevelopthetruesourceforyourhappiness:yourability
toactwithmoreandmoreskill.
Iftheyjudgeyouintheseways,yourfriendsshowthatthey’vedeveloped
bothofthediscernmentfactorsofthepath:rightview—inseeingthe
importanceofaction—andrightresolve,inextendinggoodwilltoyou.If
youinternalizetheirstandards,you’reinternalizingthepathaswell.
ThisiswhytheBuddhataughtRāhulahowtointernalizethosestandards
byexamininghisownactions.Thatway,evenifthesocietyaroundhimwas
fallingapartandhewasseparatedfromhisadmirablefriends,hecouldstill
livebytheirvalues.Thatwouldbeforhislong-termwelfareandhappiness.
TheBuddhaprefacedhisinstructionswiththeimageofamirror:Justas
youuseamirrortoseehowyoulooktootherpeople,Rāhulawastolookat
hisactionstoseehowheappearedintheeyesofthewise.Andthewise
wouldhavehimjudgehisactionslikethis:
Whateverhedidinthought,word,anddeed,hewasfirsttoexaminehis
intentions:Ifheanticipatedthattheactheplannedwouldcauseanyharm
insideorout,hewasnottoactonthatintention.Ifhedidn’tanticipate
harm,hecouldgoaheadandact.Whileacting,hewastochecktheresultsof
hisaction.Ifhewascausingunanticipatedharm,heshouldstop.Ifnot,he
couldcontinuewiththeaction.Aftertheactionwasdone,heshouldlookat
thelong-termresultsoftheaction.Ifitturnedoutthathehadcausedharm
inwordordeed,heshouldtalkitoverwithatrustedfriendonthepathwho
wouldadvisehimonhowtoavoidcausingthatharmagain.Thenheshould
resolvenottorepeatthataction.Ifhisthoughtshadcausedharm,heshould
feelshamearoundthattypeofthinkingandresolvenottorepeatit.Ifhe
hadcausednoharm,though,heshouldtakejoyinhisprogressonthepath,
andkeepontraining.
Inthisway,theBuddhadidn’tsimplytellRāhulatocausenoharm.
Instead,hetoldhim,ineffect,“Trynottocauseharm,butifyoudocause
harm,thisishowyougoaboutlearningfromyourmistakes.”Thisshows
15
theelementofpracticalgoodwillthatpervadestheseteachings.
AsdoestheBuddha’srecommendationforjoy.Afterall,joyiswhat
healthyshameandhonorarefor:tohelpyouseeforyourselfthewell-being
thatcomesfrommasteringhigherlevelsofskillandharmlessnessinyour
actions.Whenthisbecomesyoursourceofhappiness,yougrowup,with
lessneedfortheapprovalandaffirmationsofothers.Inseeingthepowerof
youractionsandreallywantingtoactinharmlessways,youmakeright
viewandrightresolveyourown.
Oneofthedangersthatcancomefromshameandhonorinadmirable
friendshipisthat,outofadesiretolookgoodinyourfriends’eyes,you
mightwanttoshowoffyourgoodqualities.Tocounteractthistendency,
though,theBuddhawarnedthatifyoudo,yourgoodqualitiesimmediately
getruined.Oneofthesignsofintegrity,hesaid,ismodesty—tospeakas
littleaspossibleofyourowngoodqualities,andnevertoexaltyourselfover
otherswholackthem.
Theotherdangerofshameandhonoristhatyoumightwanttohide
yourmistakesfromyouradmirablefriends.ThisiswhytheBuddha
stressedthat,ifyou’vemademistakesinthepastbuthavenowlearnednot
torepeatthem,youbrightentheworldlikethemoonwhenreleasedfroma
cloud.Andit’salsowhytheBuddhaprefacedhisinstructionstoRāhulawith
ateachingontruthfulness,lettinghimknowthatmakingamistakeismuch
lessshamefulthanmakingamistakeandnotadmittingit.Ifyouhideyour
faults,younotonlylosethetrustofyourfriends,butyoualsoclosetheway
tomakingprogressonthepath.Orevenworse:IntheBuddha’swords,ifa
personfeelsnoshameintellingadeliberatelie,there’snoevilthatthat
personwon’tdo.
TheBuddhaillustratedthispointwiththeimageofelephantsinbattle.If
anelephantgoesintobattleanduseshisfeetandtusks,butholdsbackhis
trunk,theelephanttrainerknowsthattheelephanthasn’tgivenhislifeto
theking.Butifanelephantuseshisfeetandhistusksandhistrunk,the
elephanttrainerknowsthattheelephanthasgivenhislifetohisking.
There’snothingitwon’tdo.
ThisimageisagoodlessonintheBuddha’srevolutionarysenseof
honor.Atfirstglance,itwouldseemthattheelephantwhodoesn’thold
backwouldbetheherooftheimage—afterall,that’sthekindofelephanta
kingwouldwanttosendintobattle,anditrepresentsthekindofhonor
16
oftenextolledinwarriorcultures.ButtheBuddhaisactuallypresentingthe
imageinanegativelight:Theelephant’swillingnesstoriskitstrunkisa
signofitsservilitytotheking.Ineffect,theBuddha’stellingRāhulathatif,
liketheelephantwhoprotectshistrunk,he’sheedfultoprotecthis
truthfulness,it’sapointofgenuinehonor:asignthathe’saservanttono
one,neithertoanyoneoutsidenortohisowndefilementsinside.
Thisinversionoftheoldmilitarysenseofhonorisechoedinthe
Buddha’scommentthatbetterthanvictoryinbattleoverathousand-
thousandmenisvictoryoveroneperson:yourself.
TheBuddha’sinstructionsintrainingRāhulatodevelopahealthysense
ofhonorandshameeventuallyborefruit.Insteadoftakingprideinthefact
thathewastheBuddha’sson,Rāhulashowedawillingnesstolearnfromall
themonks.Andafterhegainedawakening,theBuddhaextolledhimfor
beingforemostamongthemonksinhisdesiretolearn.
Ofcourse,atthatpointRāhuladidn’tneedtheBuddha’spraise.Hehad
alreadyfoundadeathlesshappinessthatwasbeyondthereachofother
people’srespect.Actually,theBuddhawaspraisingRāhulaforoursake,to
letusknowthatshameandhonorcanbeusefultoolsonthepath.Ifyou’re
carefulinchoosingwhoseopinionsyouletintoyourpsyche,andinternalize
thequalitiesthatmakeshameandhonorhealthy,you’llnotonlylookgood
intheeyesofthewise.Youreyeswillbecomewiseaswell.
17
DidtheBuddhaTeachFreeWill?
Aswithsomanyotherissues,theBuddhatookamiddlepathbetween
thetwoextremesofdeterminismandtotalfreewill.Ifallyourexperience
werepredeterminedfromthepast—throughimpersonalfate,thedesignof
acreatorgod,oryourownpastactions—thewholeideaofapathofpractice
totheendofsufferingwouldbenonsense.Youwouldn’tbeabletochoose
tofollowsuchapath,andtherewouldn’tbesuchapathforyoutochoosein
thefirstplace:Everythingwouldhavealreadybeendetermined.However,if
yourchoicesinthepresentmomentweretotallyfree,withnoconstraints
fromthepast,thatwouldmeanthatyourpresentactionswould,inturn,
havenoimpactonthefuture.It’dbelikeflailingaroundinavacuum:You
couldmoveyourarmsinanywayyouwanted,butyou’dstillbeflailing.
TheBuddhatookthisissuesoseriouslythat,eventhoughherarely
soughtoutotherteacherstoarguewiththem,hewouldiftheytaught
determinismorthechaosoftotalfreedom.
Hisalternativetotheirteachingswastooutlineacausalprinciplein
whichpresentexperienceisacombinationofthreethings:theresultsof
pastintentions—youroldkarma;presentintentions;andtheresultsof
presentintentions.Yourpresentintentionsarethedeterminingfactorasto
whethertheminddoesordoesn’tsufferinanygivenmoment.They’realso
thefactorwherefreedomcancomeintothemixture.Pastkarmaisagiven,
providingtherawmaterialthatyourpresentkarmacanshapeintopresent
experience;theprincipleofcausalityisagiven,providingthegroundrules
astowhichpresentactionswillorwon’tgivegoodresults.Thesegivens
provide,sotospeak,thepointofcontactagainstwhichpresentactionscan
pushandpullandactuallypropelyouinaparticulardirection.Thewider
therangeofskillsyoubringtoyourpresentactions,themorefreedomyou
gaininknowinghowtopushandpullskillfully—andthemoreyou’llbe
ableandwillingtoactonthisknowledge.
SothewholepurposeofBuddhistpracticeistoexpandyourrangeof
skillsinthepresentmoment.Take,forinstance,thethreequalitiesthatthe
Buddharecommendedbebroughttothepracticeofmindfulnessleadingto
concentrationanddiscernment:alertness,theabilitytobeclearlyawareof
whatyou’redoingasyoudoit,alongwiththeresultsthatcomefromwhat
18
you’redoing;mindfulness,theabilitytokeepinmindlessonsyou’velearned
bothfromDhammainstructionsandfromyouownactions,astowhat’s
beneficialandwhat’sharmful;andardency,thewhole-hearteddesiretoact
asskillfullyasyoucanwitheverymoment.Asyoudeveloptheseskills,you
buildafundofknowledgeastowhatworksanddoesn’tworkinleadingto
truehappiness.Youalsobecomeamorediscerningjudgeastohowtorate
whatitmeansto“work”and“notwork.”Andasyoulearnhowtonotbe
overcomebypleasureorpain—bymaintainingyourfocusinthepracticeof
concentrationeveninthepresenceofintensepleasure,andby
comprehendingpaintothepointofnotsufferingfromit—youbecomelike
anexpertcook,abletomakegoodfoodoutofwhatever,goodorbad,isin
thekitchenpantry.
TheBuddhaneverexplainswhywehavethispotentialforfreedomof
choiceinthepresentmoment.Hejustteacheshowbesttotakeadvantageof
it.Ifyoufollowhisadviceinexploringhowfaritcango,itleadsyou
ultimatelytoafreedomofatotallydifferentsort:adimensionabsolutely
freefromconditions,thegreatestfreedomthereis.
Tofullyawakentothisdimensionreleasesyoufromalltherootsof
unskillfulbehavior:greed,aversion,anddelusion.You’vemasteredthe
skillsneedednottosufferfrompastkarmaandtonotcreateanynew
karmawithyourpresentintentions.Fromthatpointonuntildeath,you’re
freetowillonlywhatisskillful.Afterdeath,yourfreedomissototalthatit
can’tbedescribed.
It’sforthesakeofthisfreedomthat,insteadofsimplytakingaposition
onfreewill,theBuddhataughthowyoucanfreeyourwillfromthe
unskillfullimitationsthatkeepitbound.Evenifyoudon’tmakeitallthe
waytofullawakeninginthislifetime,youfindthatbydevelopingtheskills
herecommends,youbroadenthefreedomyoubringtotheculinaryartthat
isyourlife.
19
FirstThingsFirst
IfyouweretoaskpeoplefamiliarwithBuddhismtoidentifyitstwo
mostimportantwisdomteachings,they’dprobablysayemptinessandthe
fournobletruths.Ifyouweretoaskthemfurtherwhichofthetwo
teachingswasmorefundamental,theymighthesitate,butmostofthem
wouldprobablyputemptinessfirst,onthegroundsthatthefournoble
truthsdealwithamentalproblem,whileemptinessdescribesthewaythings
ingeneralare.
Itwasn’talwaysthisway.TheBuddhahimselfgavemoreimportanceto
thefournobletruths,andit’simportanttounderstandwhy.
Whenheboiledhisteachingdowntoitsshortestformulation,hesaid
thathetaughtjustdukkha—sufferingandstress—andthecessationof
dukkha(MN22;SN22:86).Thefournobletruthsexpandonthis
formulation,definingwhatsufferingis—clinging;howit’scaused—craving
andignorance;thefactthatitcanbebroughttoanendbyabandoningits
cause;andthepathofpracticethatleadstothatend.Becausepartofthe
pathofpracticecontainsdesire—thedesire,inrighteffort,toactskillfully
soastogobeyondsuffering—thefournobletruthsalsoexpandononeof
theBuddha’smainobservationsaboutthephenomenaofexperience:that
withtheexceptionofnibbāna,they’reallrootedindesire(AN10:58).
Peoplearen’tsimplypassiverecipientsoftheirexperience.Startingfrom
theirdesires,theyplayanactiveroleinshapingit.Thestrategyimpliedby
thefournobletruthsisthatdesireshouldberetrainedsothat,insteadof
causingsuffering,ithelpsacttowardsuffering’send.
Asforemptiness,theBuddhamentioneditonlyrarely,butoneofhis
definitionsforemptiness(SN35:85)closelyrelatesittoanotherteaching
thathementionedagreatdeal.That’stheteachingpopularlyknownasthe
threecharacteristics,andthattheBuddhahimselfcalled,not
“characteristics,”but“perceptions”:theperceptionofinconstancy,the
perceptionofsuffering/stress,andtheperceptionofnot-self.When
explainingtheseperceptions,hetaughtthatifyouperceivefabricatedthings
—allthingsconditionedbyactsofintention—asinconstant,you’llalsosee
thatthey’restressfulandthusnotworthyidentifyingasyouoryours.
20
Hispurposeinteachingtheseperceptionswasforthemtobeappliedto
sufferinganditscauseasawayoffosteringdispassionfortheobjectsof
clingingandcraving,andfortheactsofclingingandcravingthemselves.In
thisway,theseperceptionswereaidsincarryingoutthedutiesappropriate
tothefournobletruths:tocomprehendsuffering,toabandonitscause,to
realizeitscessationbydevelopingthepath.Inotherwords,thefournoble
truthsandtheirdutiessuppliedthecontextforthethreeperceptionsand
determinedtheirroleinthepractice.
However,overthecenturies,asthethreeperceptionswererenamedthe
threecharacteristics,theymorphedintwootherwaysaswell.First,they
turnedintoametaphysicalteaching,asthecharacteristicsofwhatthings
are:Allaredevoidofessencebecausethey’reimpermanentand,since
nothinghasanyessence,thereisnoself.Second,becausethesethree
characteristicswerenowmetaphysicaltruths,theybecamethecontext
withinwhichthefournobletruthsweretrue.
Thisswitchinrolesmeantthatthefournobletruthsmorphedaswell.
WhereastheBuddhahadidentifiedsufferingwithalltypesofclinging—
eventheactofclingingtothephenomenonofthedeathless(amata-
dhamma),theunchangingdimensiontouchedatthefirsttasteofawakening
—therelationshipbetweenclingingandsufferingwasnowexplainedbythe
metaphysicalfactthatallpossibleobjectsofclingingwereimpermanent.To
clingtothemasiftheywerepermanentwouldthusbringsorrowand
disappointment.
Asfortheignorancethatunderliescraving:WhereastheBuddhahad
defineditasignoranceofthefournobletruths,itwasnowdefinedas
ignoranceofthethreecharacteristics.Peopleclingandcravebecausethey
don’trealizethatnothinghasanyessenceandthatthereisnoself.Ifthey
weretorealizethetruthoftheseteachingsthroughdirectexperience—this
becamethepurposeofmindfulnesspractice—theywouldn’tclinganymore,
andsowouldn’tsuffer.
Thisishowthisswitchincontext,givingprioritytothethree
characteristicsoverthefournobletruths,hascometodominatemodern
Buddhism.Thecommonpatternisthatwhenmodernauthorsexplainright
view,whichtheBuddhaequatedwithseeingthingsintermsofthefour
nobletruths,thediscussionquicklyswitchesfromthefournobletruthsto
thethreecharacteristicstoexplainwhyclingingleadstosuffering.Clinging
21
isnolongerdirectlyequatedwithsuffering;instead,itcausessuffering
becauseitassumespermanenceandessenceinimpermanentthings.
Eventeacherswhodenythetruthofthefournobletruths—onthe
groundsthattheprincipleofimpermanencemeansthatnostatementcanbe
trueeverywhereforeveryone—stillaccepttheprincipleofimpermanence
asametaphysicaltruthaccuratelydescribingthewaythingseverywhere
are.
Astheseexplanationshavepercolatedthroughmodernculture,both
amongpeoplewhoidentifythemselvesasBuddhistandamongthosewho
don’t,they’vegivenrisetofourwidespreadunderstandingsoftheBuddha’s
teachingsonclingingandhowit’sbestavoidedsoastostopsuffering:
1.Becausethereisnoself,thereisnoagent.Peopleareessentiallyonthe
receivingendofexperience,andtheysufferbecausetheyclingtotheideathat
theycanresistorcontrolchange.
2.Toclingmeanstoholdontosomethingwiththemisunderstandingthat
it’spermanent.Forthisreason,aslongasyouunderstandthatthingsare
impermanent,youcanembracethembrieflyastheyariseinthepresent
momentanditdoesn’tcountasclinging.Ifyouembraceexperiencesinfull
realizationthatyou’llhavetoletthemgosoastoembracewhatevercomes
next,youwon’tsuffer.Aslongasyou’refullyinthemomentwithno
expectationsaboutthefuture,you’refine.
3.Clingingcomesfromthemistakenviewthattherecanbesuchathing
aslong-termhappiness.Butbecauseallthingsarefleeting,thereisnosuch
thing.Pleasures,likepains,simplycomeandgo.Whenyoucanresign
yourselftothisfact,youcanopentothespaciouswisdomofnon-clinging,
equanimousandaccepting,asyouplacenovainexpectationsonthefleeting
showoflife.
Thesethreeunderstandingsareoftenillustratedwiththeimageofa
perfectlyfluiddancer,happilyresponsivetochangesinthemusicdecided
bythemusicians,switchingpartnerswithease.
ArecentbestsellerthatdevotedafewpagestotheplaceofBuddhismin
worldhistoryillustratedthesethreeunderstandingsoftheBuddhist
approachtosufferingwithanotherimage:You’resittingontheoceanshore,
watchingthewavescomein.Ifyou’restupidenoughtowanttoclingto
“good”wavestomakethempermanentandtopush“bad”wavesaway,
22
you’llsuffer.Butifyouacceptthefactthatwavesarejustwaves,fleeting
andincessant,andthatthere’snowayyoucaneitherstoporkeepthem,you
canbeatpeaceasyousimplywatch,withfullacceptance,astheydotheir
thing.
ThefourthwidespreadunderstandingabouttheBuddhiststanceon
clingingiscloselyrelatedtotheotherthree:
4.Clingingmeansholdingontofixedviews.Ifyouhavesetideasabout
what’srightorwrong,orabouthowthingsshouldbe—evenabouthowthe
Buddha’steachingsshouldbeinterpreted—you’llsuffer.Butifyoucanletgo
ofyourfixedviewsandsimplyacceptthefactthatrightandwrongkeep
changingalongwitheverythingelse,you’llbefine.
IrecentlysawavideoclipofaFrenchBuddhologistexplainingthis
principle:Whenaskedbyafemaleinterviewertoillustratethepractical
applicationsoftheteachingonimpermanenceindailylife,helookedherin
theeyeandsaid,“Itmeanslovershavetoacceptthattheirlovetodaywill
havetoexpressitselfdifferentlyfromtheirloveyesterday.”
It’sbeenarguedthatthesefourunderstandingsoftheBuddha’steachings
onclingingdon’tpromoteanattitudeofunhealthypassivity,onthe
groundsthatifyou’refullyattunedtothepresentmomentwithoutclinging,
youcanbemorefreelyactiveandcreativeinhowyourespondtochange.
Butstill,there’ssomethinginherentlydefeatistinthepicturetheyofferof
lifeandofthepossibilitiesofhappinessthatweashumanbeingscanfind.
Theyallowfornolong-termhappiness,nodimensionwherewecanbefree
fromtheunpredictabilityofwavesortheself-righteousinfidelityoflovers.
It’sonlywithinthisnarrowrangeofpossibilitiesthatournon-clinging
creativitycanekeoutalittlepeace.
AndwhenwecomparetheseunderstandingswiththeBuddha’sactual
teachingsonclingingandtheendofclinging—returningthethree
characteristicstotheiroriginalroleasthreeperceptions,andputtingthe
fournobletruthsbackintheirrightfulplaceasthecontextforthethree
perceptions—we’llseenotonlyhowfarthepopularunderstandingsofhis
teachingsdeviatefromwhatheactuallytaught,butalsowhatan
impoverishedviewofthepotentialsforhappinessthosepopular
understandingsprovide.
Tobeginwith,alotcanbelearnedfromlookingatthePāliwordfor
23
clinging,upādāna.Inadditiontoclinging,italsomeanssustenanceandthe
actoftakingsustenance:inotherwords,foodandtheactoffeeding.The
connectionbetweenfeedingandsufferingwasoneoftheBuddha’smost
radicalandvaluableinsights,becauseit’ssocounter-intuitiveandatthe
sametimesouseful.Ordinarily,wefindsomuchpleasureintheactof
feeding,emotionallyaswellasphysically,thatwedefineourselvesbythe
waywefeedofftheworldandthepeoplearoundus.Ittooksomeoneofthe
Buddha’sgeniustoseethesufferinginherentinfeeding,andthatall
sufferingisatypeoffeeding.Thefactthatwefeedoffthingsthatchange
simplyaddsanextralayerofstressontopofthestressintrinsicinthefelt
needalwaystofeed.
Andjustaswefeedoffphysicalfoodwithoutassumingthatit’sgoingto
bepermanent,clingingtothingsdoesn’tnecessarilymeanthatweassume
themtobepermanent.Weclingwheneverwesensethattheeffortof
clingingisrepaidbysomesortofsatisfaction,permanentornot.Wecling
becausethere’ssomepleasureinthethingstowhichwecling(SN22:60).
Whenwecan’tfindwhatwe’dliketoclingto,ourhungerforcesustotake
whatwecanget.Forthisreason,theactofembracingthingsinthepresent
momentstillcountsasclinging.Evenifwe’readeptatmovingfromone
changingthingtoanother,itsimplymeansthatwe’reserialclingers,taking
littlebitesoutofeverypassingthing.Westillsufferintheincessantdriveto
keepfindingthenextbitetoeat.
Thisiswhybeingconstantlymindfulofthetruthofimpermanenceisn’t
enoughtosolvetheproblemofsuffering.Toreallysolveit,weneedto
changeourfeedinghabits—radically—sothatwecanstrengthenthemind
tothepointwhereitnolongerneedstofeed.Thisrequiresatwo-pronged
strategy:(a)seeingthedrawbacksofourordinarywaysoffeeding,and(b)
providingthemindwithbetterfoodinthemeantimeuntilithasoutgrown
theneedtofeedonanythingatall.
Thefirstprongofthestrategyiswherethethreeperceptionscomein.
Firstyouapplythemtothingstowhichyoumightclingorcrave,toseethat
thebenefitsofholdingontothosethingsarefaroutweighedbythe
drawbacks.Youfocusontheextenttowhichthehappinesstheyprovideis
inconstant,andthatbecauseit’sinconstant,theefforttorestinitinvolves
stress.Whenyouseethatthehappinessisn’tworththeeffortoftheclinging,
yourealizethatit’snotworthytoclaimasyouoryours.It’snot-self:in
otherwords,notworthclaimingasself.Inthisway,theperceptionofnot-
24
selfisn’tametaphysicalassertion.It’savaluejudgment,thattheeffortto
defineyourselfaroundtheactoffeedingonthosethingssimplyisn’tworth
it.
Thisanalysisworks,however,onlyifyouhavesomethingbettertofeed
onintheinterim.Otherwise,you’llsimplygobacktoyouroldfeeding
habits.Nobodyeverstoppedeatingsimplythroughtherealizationthat
foodsandstomachsareimpermanent.
ThisiswherethesecondprongoftheBuddha’sstrategycomesin.You
developthepathasyourinterimnourishment,focusinginparticularonthe
pleasureandraptureofrightconcentrationasyouralternativesourceof
food(AN7:63).Whenthepathisfullydeveloped,itopenstoanother
dimensionentirely:thedeathless,ahappinessbeyondthereachofspace,
time,andallphenomenaofthesixsenses.
Butbecausethemindissuchahabitualfeeder,onitsfirstencounterwith
thedeathlessittriestofeedonit—whichturnstheexperienceintoa
phenomenon,anobjectofthemind.Ofcourse,thatactoffeedingstandsin
thewayoffullawakening.Thisiswheretheperceptionofnot-selfgetsput
touseoncemore,tocounteractthislastformofclinging:tothedeathless.
Eventhoughthedeathlessinitselfisneitherstressfulnorinconstant,any
actofclingingtoithastoinvolvestress.Sotheperceptionofnot-selfhasto
beappliedhereaswell,topeelawaythislastobstacletofullawakening
beyondallphenomena.Whenthisperceptionhasdoneitswork,“not-self”
getsputaside—justaseverythingelseisletgo—andthemind,freefrom
hunger,gainsfullrelease.
Atraditionalimageforthisreleaseisofapersonstandingonfirm
groundaftertakingtheraftofthenobleeightfoldpathoverariverinflood.
Safefromthewavesandcurrentsoftheriver,thepersonistotallyfree—
evenfreerthantheimagecanconvey.There’snothingintrinsicallyhunger-
freeaboutstandingonariverbank—it’smoreasymbolofrelief—but
everyonewhohasexperiencedwhattheimageispointingtoguarantees
that,totheextentthatyoucancallitaplace,it’saplaceofnohungerandso
noneedfordesire.
Ifwecomparethisimagewiththatofthepersonontheshoreofthe
oceanwatchingthewaves,wecangetasenseofhowlimitedthehappiness
that’sofferedbyunderstandingthefournobletruthsinthecontextofthe
threecharacteristicsis,asopposedtothehappinessofferedby
25
understandingthethreeperceptionsinthecontextofthefournobletruths.
Tobeginwith,theBuddha’simageofcrossingtheriverdoesn’tput
quotationmarksaroundconceptsofgoodandbadwavesinthewater.The
floodisgenuinelybad,andtheultimategoodnessinlifeiswhenyoucan
trulygetbeyondit.
Second,unliketheimageofsittingontheshore,watchinganocean
beyondyourcontrol,theBuddha’simageconveysthepointthatthere’s
somethingyoucandotogettosafety:Youhavewithinyouthepowerto
followthedutiesofthefournobletruthsanddevelopthepaththatwilltake
youtotheotherside.Ashesaid,wisdombeginswiththequestion,“What
whenIdoitwillleadtolong-termwelfareandhappiness?”(MN135)The
wisdomhereliesinseeingthatthereissuchathingaslong-termhappiness,
thatit’spreferabletoshort-term,andthatitdepends,notonconditions
beyondyourcontrol,butonactionsyoucantrainyourselftodo.This
versionofwisdomisafarcryfromthe“wisdom”thatendsinresigned
equanimityandreducedexpectations.Ithonorsyourdesireforlong-term
happiness,andshowshowitcanactuallybefound.
Third,tositwatchingtheoceanwavescomeashoreispeacefuland
desirableonlyaslongasyou’rewealthyenoughtobeataresort,with
someonetobringyoufood,drink,andshelteronaregularbasis.Otherwise,
youhavetokeepsearchingforthesethingsonyourown.Andevenatthe
resort,you’renotsafefrombeingsweptawaybytsunamisandstorms.
Theimageofcrossingtherivertosafetyonthefurthershorealsooffers
anenlighteningperspectiveontheviewthatallfixedviewsshouldbe
abandoned.IntheCanon’sowninterpretationoftheimage(SN35:197),
theriverstandsforthefourfoldfloodofsensuality,becoming,views,and
ignorance,whiletheraftofthenobleeightfoldpathincludesrightview.
Althoughit’struethattheraftisabandonedonreachingthefurthershore,
youstillhavetoholdontoitwhileyou’recrossingtheriver.Otherwise,
you’llbesweptdownstream.
What’srarelynoticedistheparadoxcontainedintheimage.Rightview,
seeingthingsintermsofthefournobletruths,ispartoftheraftneededto
crossoverthefloodofviews.AstheBuddhasaw,it’stheonlyviewthatcan
performthisfunction,takingyousafelyallthewayacrosstheriverand
deliveringyoutothefurthershore.
Itcantakeyouallthewayacrossbecauseit’salwaystrueandrelevant.
26
Culturalchangesmayaffectwhatwechoosetofeedon,butthefactof
feedingisaconstant,asistheconnectionbetweensufferingandtheneedto
feed.Inthatsense,rightviewcountsasfixed.Itcanneverbereplacedbya
moreeffectiveunderstandingofsuffering.Atthesametime,it’salways
relevantinthattheframeworkofthefournobletruthscanbebroughtto
bearoneverychoiceyoumakeateverystageofthepractice.Hereitdiffers
fromthethreeperceptions,forwhiletheBuddhanotedthatthey’realways
true(AN3:137),they’renotalwaysrelevant(MN136).If,forinstance,you
perceivetheresultsofallactions,skillfulornot,asimpermanent,stressful,
andnot-self,itcandissuadeyoufrommakingtheefforttobeskillfulin
whatyoudo,say,orthink.
Inadditiontobeingalwaystrueandrelevant,rightviewisresponsible.It
givesreliableguidanceonwhatshouldandshouldn’tbetakenasfoodfor
themind.AstheBuddhasaid,anyteachingthatcan’tgivetrustworthy
guidelinesfordeterminingwhat’sskillfulandunskillfultodoabdicatesa
teacher’sprimaryresponsibilitytohisorherstudents(AN3:62).The
Buddhologist’sanswertotheinterviewerexemplifieshowirresponsiblethe
teachingtoabandonfixedviewscanbe.Andthelookshegavehimshowed
thatshewantednothingofit.
Aftertakingyouresponsiblyallthewayacrosstheriver,rightviewcan
deliveryoutothefurthershorebecauseitcontainstheseedsforitsown
transcendence,which—asyoudevelopthem—deliveryoutoatranscendent
dimension(AN10:93).Rightviewdoesthisbyfocusingontheprocessesby
whichthemindcreatesstressforitself,atthesametimeencouragingyouto
abandonthoseprocesseswhenyousensethatthey’recausingstress.Inthe
beginning,thisinvolvesclingingtorightviewasatooltoprylooseyour
attachmentstogrosscausesofstress.Overtime,asyourtasteformental
foodbecomesmorerefinedthroughitsexposuretorightconcentration,
youbecomesensitivetocausesofstressthataremoreandmoresubtle.
Theseyouabandonasyoucometodetectthem,untileventuallythere’s
nothingelsetoabandonasidefromthepath.That’swhenrightview
encouragesyoutoturntheanalysisontheactofholdingontoandfeeding
onrightviewitself.Whenyoucanabandonthat,there’snothingleftforthe
mindtoclingto,andsoit’sfreed.
Theviewthatallfixedviewsshouldbeabandoned,however,doesn’t
containthisdynamic.Itprovidesnogroundsfordecidingwhatshouldand
shouldn’tbedone.Initself,itcanactasanobjectofcravingandclinging,
27
becomingasfixedasanyotherview.Ifyoudecidetodropit,forwhatever
reason,itdeliversyounowhere.Itoffersnoguidanceonhowtochoose
anythingbetter,andasaresult,youendupclingingtowhateverpassing
viewseemsattractive.You’restillstuckintheriver,graspingatpiecesof
flotsamandjetsamasthefloodcarriesyouaway.
Thisiswhyit’salwaysimportanttorememberthat,inthepracticeto
gainfreedomfromsuffering,thefournobletruthsmustalwayscomefirst.
Theygiveguidancetotherestofthepath,determiningtheroleand
functionofalltheBuddha’sotherteachings—includingemptinessandthe
threeperceptions—sothat,insteadoflullingyouintobeingsatisfiedwithan
exposedspotonthebeach,theycantakeyouallthewaytothesafetyoffull
release,beyondthereachofanypossiblewave.
28
TheKarmaofNowWhy the Present Moment Isn’t the Goal
HaveyoueverwonderedwhyBuddhistmeditationfocusessomuch
attentiononobservingthemindinthepresentmoment?It’sbecauseofthe
waytheBuddhataughtkamma,oraction.
Histeachingsonkammaweresocentraltoallofhisteachingsthatwhen
heclassifiedhimselfasateacher,heusedthelabel,kamma-vādin:someone
whoteachesaction.Thiswastodistinguishhimselffromthemany
contemporaryteachersinIndiawhotaughtthatactionwasunrealorthatit
hadnoconsequences.
Buthealsofounditnecessarytodistinguishhimselffromotherkamma-
vādins.Incaseslikethat,hedidn’tusealabeltoexplainthedifferences,
whichweretoocomplextofitintoaneasylabel.Buthedidemphasizetwo
mainpointswherehisteachingsdepartedfromtheirs:(1)theissueofhow
kammashapedthepresentmomentand(2)theissueofwhichkindof
action,physicalormental,wasmoreimportantinshapingexperience.
Withregardtothefirstquestion,akamma-vādingroupcalledthe
Nigaṇṭhastaughtthatthepresentmomentwasshapedentirelybyyourpast
actions.Thismeantthatyourpresentactionscouldhaveaninfluenceonthe
future,butnotonwhatyou’reexperiencingrightnow.TheNigaṇṭhasalso
believedthatallkammaresultedinsuffering,whichmeantthattheonly
waytoputanendtosufferingwouldbetostopacting.Sotheirpractice
consistedofausteritiesinwhichtheyenduredsharppainsinthepresent
momentwithoutreactingtothem.Thatway,theybelieved,theywould
burnoffpastkammawhilecreatingnonewkamma.Freedomfrom
sufferingwouldcomewhenallpastkammawasburnedaway.
IfyouenvisiontheBuddhaasutteringnothingbutsweetnessandlight,it
maycomeasashocktolearnhowthoroughlyheridiculedtheNigaṇṭhas
overthisbelief.Toparaphrasesomeofhisremarks(MN101),heonce
askedthemiftheycouldpossiblymeasurehowmuchkammatheyburned
offthroughtheirpractice,orhowmuchremainedtobeburned.Asfortheir
claimsthatsufferinginthepresentcameentirelyfrompastkamma,he
askedthemiftheyhadn’tnoticedthatthepaincausedwhentheywere
29
doingtheirausteritiesstoppedwhentheystoppeddoingtheausterities.
Inotherwords,hewaspointingtothefactthatwhatyoudointhe
presentmomentcanhaveaninfluencenotonlyonthefuture,butalsoon
whatyouexperiencerightnow.Pastactionsmayhavesomeroleinshaping
yourpresentexperienceofpleasureandpain,buttheydon’ttotally
determineit.Infact,presentactionscanmakeallthedifferencebetween
whetherapastbadactionleadstoalotofsufferingrightnoworonlyalittle
(AN3:101).Thismeansthatthepresentmomentdoesn’tarriveready-built.
We’reconstantlyconstructingitasit’shappening,withgreaterorlessskill,
outoftherawmaterialsprovidedbypastkamma.
Asforthesecondquestion,theNigaṇṭhastaughtthatphysicalactionwas
moreimportantthanmentalaction.Thisiswhytheymadenoattemptto
understandthepsychologyofaction.Alltheyhadtodowithpastkamma,
theythought,wastobelievethatitexistedandtoburnitoffthrough
austerities.TheBuddha,however,taughtthatmentalactionwasmore
importantthanphysicalaction.There’sonlyoneplaceinthePāliCanon
whereheexplicitlydefinesactionasintention(AN6:63),butinmany
discourses,suchasSN12:25,hetreatsintentionassynonymouswith
kamma;inothers,suchasMN56,hegivesextendedargumentsforwhy
mentalactionismoreimportantthanphysicalaction.
ThesetwofeaturesoftheBuddhistteachingonaction—theroleof
presentactioninshapingthepresentinadditiontothefuture,andthe
centralimportanceofmentalactions—explainwhyBuddhistmeditation
focusesonobservingandunderstandingthemindinthehereandnow.But
theyalsoexplainevenmore.Theytelluswhatwecanexpecttoseethere,
whatwetrytodowithit,and—becausethepresentmoment,likethepast
andfuture,isbydefinitionanon-goingconstructionsite—whywehaveto
gobeyonditifwewanttoputanendtoallsufferingandstress.Thepresent
momentisneversimplytobeacceptedasitis.Becausepartofitis
constructedinthepresent,itcanalwaysbeimproved;itcanevenbeturned
intothepathtotheendofsuffering.But,becauseit’salwaysunder
construction,it’satbestonlythepath,neverthegoal.Toborrowanimage
fromtheCanon,thepresentislikeahousethatconstantlyneedsrepair,not
justbecauseitkeepsdisintegratingrightbeforeyoureyes,nevertoreturn,
butalsobecauseit’sonfirewiththeflamesofsuffering.Thepathofpractice
isnotmeanttokeepyouinthehouse.Itsfunctionishelpyoufindtheway
out.
30
WHENTHEBUDDHAtalksabouttheimportanceofthepresentmoment,
heoftenportraysitasaplacewhereworkhastobedone:theworkof
improvingyourskillsinhowtoconstructit.Andthemotivationfordoing
theworkisprovidedbycontemplationofdeath—themessagebeingthatif
youdon’tdotheworkneededtogetyourmindundercontrol,youhaveno
ideawhereitwilltakeyouatdeath,andtheworkwon’tgetdoneunlessyou
doitrightnow.MN131,forinstance,containsafamouspassageonthe
importanceoffocusingonthepresentmoment:
Youshouldn’tchaseafterthepast
orplaceexpectationsonthefuture.
Whatispast
isleftbehind.
Thefuture
isasyetunreached.
Whateverqualityispresent
youclearlysee
rightthere,
rightthere.
Nottakenin,
unshaken,
that’showyoudeveloptheheart.
Butthenthereasonitoffersforfocusing“rightthere”isdeath:
Ardentlydoing
yourduty
today,
for—whoknows?
—tomorrow
death.
Thereisnobargaining
withMortality&hismightyhorde.
The“duty”referredtohereisthefourfolddutypertainingtothefour
nobletruths:tocomprehendsuffering,abandonitscause,realizeits
cessation,anddevelopthepathtoitscessation.Thisworkneedstobedone
inthepresentmomentbecausesufferingisexperienced,anditscausekeeps
31
gettingcreated,righthere.
Tofocusyourefforts,theBuddhasketches,inhisteachingondependent
co-arising,anoutlineofwhatsufferingisandthestepsbywhichthemind
createsit.Theoutlineappliestomanydifferenttimeframes,fromthespan
ofamomenttomanylifetimes,buthefounditbycontemplatingthe
presentmoment,andthat’swhereit’smosteffectivelyapplied.
Wemaythinkthatthepresentmomentbeginswithcontactatthesenses,
buttheBuddha’soutlinelistsseveralstepspriortosensorycontact,steps
determiningwhetherthatcontactwillbecomeaconditionforsuffering.
Oneofthemostimportantofthesestepsis“fabrication”(saṅkhāra),the
processthatfashionsoursenseofthebodyandallotheractivitiesofthe
mind:whattheBuddhacallsthefiveaggregatesofphysicalform,feeling,
perception(mentallabeling),fabrication,andconsciousness.Becausehe
defineseachoftheseaggregateswithaverb—evenyoursenseofyour
physicalform“deforms”—theyarebestregardedasactions,ratherthan
things(SN22:79).Thisiswhythepresentmomentisalwaysunder
construction:Ifyouwantanaggregatetopersistfromonemomenttothe
next,youhavetokeepdoingit.Otherwise,it’llcease.
Thefactthatthefabricationofalltheseaggregatescomespriorto
sensorycontactmeansthatthemindisnotsimplyapassiverecipientof
contact.Instead,it’sproactive,ontheprowl,outlookingforcontacttofeed
on.Evenbeforeyouseeasightorhearasound,yourmindhasalready
fashionedactsofconsciousness,intention,attention,andperceptionthat
shapewhatthemindwillperceiveinthesensorycontact,whatitwillpay
attentionto,andwhatitwilltrytogetoutofit.AsSN22:79notes,
fabricationisalways“forthesakeof”creatingtheaggregates,whichinturn
actforthepurposeofthedesiresthatdrivethem(SN22:5).
Apeculiarfeatureofdependentco-arisingisthatthesixsensemedia—
thefivephysicalsensesplusthemindasthesixth—areclassifiedasold
kamma,whereasintention,whichcountsasnewkamma,comesbefore
theminthelist.Ofcourse,thereareintentionsthatfollowonsensory
contact,butthefactthatintentionalsooccurspriortosensorycontact
meansthatwhenyou’refullyinthepresentmoment,youcansensethenew
kammacreatedinthatmomentbeforesensingtheresultsofoldkamma
cominginthroughthesenses.Thisiswhy,whentryingtoputanendto
suffering,theBuddhadoesn’ttellyoutoblamethesufferingontheworld
32
outside:painfulsights,sounds,ortactilesensations.Instead,youhaveto
lookatwhatyou’redoingrightnowthatcancreatesufferingoutofsensory
contactregardlessofwhetherit’spainfulorpleasant.
Atthesametime,becausethepresentmomentisfabricatedinthisway,
andbecausefabricationisalways“forthesakeof”something,thepresentis,
atbest,onlyatemporaryrestingspot.Evenwhenyoumanageto“bethe
knowing”inthepresent,thatknowingistheconsciousnessaggregate—
fabricatedcognizing—andtheunderlyingfabricationhasatime-arrow
embeddedinit,pointingtoapurposebeyonditself.Usually,thatpurposeis
happiness,eitherrightnoworinthefuture.
Thisiswhy,whensteppingfullyintothepresentmoment,youdon’t
reallystepoutoftime.Infact,thepresentiswheretheconditionsforfuture
timearebeingcreated.Evenwhentheprocessoffabricationaimssolelyat
pleasureinthepresentwithnothoughtforthefuture,it’salwayscreating
kammathathasbothpresentandfutureramifications.Thewayyoubuild
yourhomeinthepresentcreatestherawmaterialfromwhichyou’llfashion
presentmomentsinthefuture.Thehedonistsandmeditatorswhopride
themselvesonnotsacrificingthepresentmomentforthesakeofafuture
happinessaresimplyturningablindeyetoanimportantaspectofwhat
they’redoing:thelong-termkarmicconsequencesofhowtheysearchfor
pleasurenow.
Andtheblindnessofthateyedoesn’tshieldthemfromthose
consequences(SN12:25).Ifitdid,theBuddhawouldhavesimplytaught
youtofollowyourbliss,withoutfeelingobligedtoteachthepreceptsorto
warnyouagainstthedangersofgettingstuckonthecalmpleasuresofastill
mind.Hewouldn’thavetaughtthatwisdombeginsbylookingbothat
presentactionsandattheirlong-termresults(MN135).Actually,ablind
eyeisasynonymforignorance,whichistheunderlyingconditionforacts
offabricationleadingtosuffering.Sothosewhofocusonbeinginthe
presentforitsownsakearesimplysettingthemselvesuptosuffermore.
Butifwebringknowledgetotheprocessoffabrication,wecanturn
fabricationfromacauseofsufferingintothepathleadingtoitsend.The
beginningpartofthatknowledgecomesintheformofrightview—what
theBuddhataughtaboutthefabricationoftheaggregates—buttheeffective
partcomesfromgettinghands-onexperienceintryingtobuildsomething
reallyskillfulandpleasantoutofaggregatesinthepresentmoment.Thisis
33
theroleofthemoreactivefactorsofthepath:rightresolve,righteffort,
rightmindfulness,andrightconcentration.Rightresolvesetstheintention
tolookforahappinessthat’sharmlessandfreefromsensuality;righteffort
actuallycarriesthroughwiththatintention;rightmindfulness—which,in
theBuddha’sanalysis,isafunctionofmemory—remembershowtodevelop
skillfulstatesandabandonunskillfulones(MN117;AN4:245);andright
concentrationturnstheaggregatesintoapleasantandbrightdwelling:“an
easefulabidinginthehere-and-now”(AN4:41).
Theimportantpointtonoticehereisthat,justasfabricationingeneralis
proactive,theBuddha’sapproachtoreallycomprehendingfabrication—
withthepurposeofgoingbeyondit—isproactiveaswell.Youdon’tlearn
aboutfabricationssimplybywatchingthemcomeandgoontheirown,
becausetheydon’tcomeandgoontheirown.They’redrivenbypurposeful
desires.Andthebestwaytolearnaboutthosedesiresistocreateskillful
desirestothwartanyunskillfulpurposesthatmightunderliethem.Justas
theArmyCorpsofEngineershaslearnedalotabouttheMississippiRiver
byproactivelytryingtokeepitinitschannel,youlearnalotabout
fabricationbyproactivelytryingtoputitandkeepitinrightconcentration.
EventheseeminglypassiveandacceptingqualitiesthattheBuddha
recommendsaspartofthepath—suchasequanimity,patience,and
contentment—aretypesofkamma,andtheyhavetoplaytheirroleina
primarilyproactivecontext.Theyfocusacceptanceonlyontheresultsof
pastkamma,butnotontheprospectofcreatingmorenewunskillful
kammainthepresent.
Equanimity,forinstance,isnevertaughtasapositivevalueonitsown.
AstheBuddhanotes,itcanbeeitherskillfulorunskillful(DN21),andif
developedexclusivelyitcanleadtostagnationinthepath(AN3:103).This
iswhyheteachesequanimityinthecontextofotherqualitiestoensurethat
itplaysapositiverole.Forinstance,inthecontextofthesublimeattitudes
(brahmavihāra),heteachestheequanimityofadoctor:Theidealdoctoris
motivatedbygoodwillforhispatients,compassionatewhenthey’re
suffering,andjoyfulwiththeirrecovery,buthealsoneedsequanimityin
thefaceofdiseasesthat—becauseofhisorthepatient’spastkamma—he
can’tcure.Thisdoesn’tmeanthatheabandonshisefforts,simplythathe
learnstobeequanimousabouttheareaswherehecan’thelpsothathecan
focushiscompassiononareaswherehecan.
34
Similarly,theBuddhadistinguishesbetweenskillfulandunskillful
patience.Headvisesbeingpatientwithpainfulfeelingsandharsh,hurtful
words,butimpatientwithunskillfulqualitiesarisinginthemind(MN2).
Hispatienceisnotthepatienceofawaterbuffalowhosimplyenduresthe
workandpunishmentsimposedonit.Instead,it’sthepatienceofawarrior
who,despitewoundsandsetbacks,neverabandonsthedesiretocomeout
victorious(AN5:139–140).
Andasforcontentment,theBuddhateachescontentmentforsome
thingsanddiscontentforothers.Whenheliststhecustomsofthenoble
ones,forinstance,hestartswithcontentmentwithfood,clothing,and
shelter,butthenconcludesthelistwithamoreproactivecustom:delighting
inabandoningunskillfulqualitiesanddelightingindevelopingskillfulones
(AN4:28).Inotherwords,youdon’tpracticecontentmentwithunskillful
qualitiesinthemind,andyoudon’trestcontentwiththelevelof
skillfulnessyou’vealreadyattained.Infact,theBuddhaoncestatedthat
discontentevenwithskillfulqualitieswasoneofthecrucialfactorsleading
tohisawakening(AN2:5).
Thiselementofdiscontentiswhatdrivesthepath.Inthebeginning,it
inspiresyoutoconstructrightconcentrationasyourdwellingplacesothat
youcanusetheaccompanyingpleasureandstabilitytoprylooseyour
attachmenttobuildingunskillfulmentaldwellingsthatleadtoblatant
sufferingandstress.Youseethatthenormalpleasuresofthesensesare
aflame—thatsomuchofsensualpleasurelies,notintheactualcontactat
thesenses,butinallthementalfabricationsthatdressituptobemorethan
itis.Inthisway,youcometoappreciateallthemorethepleasureof
concentration.It’smuchcooler,moreeaseful,andrequireslesselaboration.
Butasyougetmoreproficientinthisskill,youbecomemoresensitiveto
subtlerlevelsofstressanddisturbanceinthemind,tothepointwhereyou
sensethateventheconcentration,becauseit’sconstructedofaggregates,is
notfullyaplaceofrest.Itrequiresconstantcareandmanagement(AN
9:36;MN52).
ThisiswhereyoucometoappreciatewhytheBuddhacallsright
concentrationjhāna.Thiswordmeans“absorption,”butitscorresponding
verb—jhāyati,todojhāna—alsomeanstoburnwithasteadyflame.Because
thepleasuresofthesensesarelikefiresthatburnwithaflickeringflame,
thepleasuresofjhānaseemmuchlessdisturbing.Andthey’reeasiertoread
by—inotherwords,dwellinginjhānamakesiteasiertoreadtheprocesses
35
offabricationasthey’rehappening.Butstill,yourjhāna-dwellingisahome
subtlyonfire.Whenthisrealizationgoesdeepintotheheart,you’re
inclinedtoabandonallfabricationofeverysort.Andbecausepresent-
momentfabricationunderliesyourexperienceofthepresent,thenwhen
fabricationstops,thepresentmomentfadesaway—asdoesspaceandtime
altogether—exposingafirsttasteofunbinding(nibbāna).
Becauseunbindingisunfabricated,itdoesn’texistforthesakeof
anything.Thisiswhyit’sfullyaplaceofrefugeandrest(SN44).The
Buddhadescribesitaspleasure,butit’snotapleasantfeeling,andsoit’snot
anaggregate(SN36:19).Similarly,hedescribesitasatypeof
consciousness,butonethat’snotknowninconjunctionwiththesixsenses
(MN49).Inotherwords,ithasnoobject(SN12:64).Becauseitdoesn’tfall
undertheconsciousness-aggregate,itliesoutsideofpast,present,and
future.Outsideofspace,ithas“neithercomingnorgoingnorstayingin
place.”It’saseparatedimensionentirely(Ud8:1).
Afterthemindwithdrawsfromthisdimension,itreturnstofabricating
thepresentmoment,butwithabigdifference.Itnowknowsthatit’s
experiencedsomethingthattimeandthepresentmomentcan’ttouch,and
thisrealizationinformsyourpracticefromthatpointonward.Youhaveno
moredoubtsabouttheBuddha,becauseyou’veseenthatwhathetaughtis
true:Therereallyisadeathlesshappiness.Younolongeridentifythe
aggregatesinanywayasyouoryours,becauseyou’veseenwhatliesbeyond
them.Andyouwouldneverengageintheminawaythatwouldbreakthe
precepts,becauseyou’veseenthatyourharmfulactionsinthepastwere
whatkeptyoufromrealizingthatdimensioninthefirstplace.
TheCanonsaysthatwhenyoufinallyreachfullawakening,yougo
beyondatasteofunbindingtofullimmersion.Andwhenyouemerge,your
experienceofthepresentmomentisevenmoreradicallyaltered.Youstill
engageinintentions,buttheyleavenoseedsforfuturerebirth(AN3:34).
Youengageinfabrication,butexperienceit“disjoined”fromit—notinthe
senseofapersonsufferingfromdissociation,butinthesenseofhavingno
moreneedtocommandeerfabricationstoconstructaplaceinwhichtolive
(MN140).Youdwellinsteadinadwellingofemptiness—nottheemptiness
ofthesixsensesortheaggregates,buttheemptinessofanawarenessfree
fromthedisturbancesofdefilement(MN121;Iti44).Atdeath,liberated
entirelyfromspaceandtime,youhavenoneedforanydwellingofanysort.
Thefiresaretotallyout,andyou’retotallyfreed.
36
Thisfreedommayseemveryfaraway,butit’sgoodtolearnaboutit
fromtheverybeginningofthepath.Thatway,youcancomeintothe
presentrightnowandknowwhattodowithit.Attheveryleast,youcan
developtheskillstomakeitlivable,eveninthefaceofnegativeinfluences
fromthepast.Andyoucancreategoodconditionsforpresentmomentsin
thefuture.ButyoualsoknowthattheBuddha’sfocusingyouonthepresent
moment,notforitsownsake,butforthesakeofsomethingthatlies
beyond.Youdon’thavetoresignyourselftoacceptingthepresentasthe
onlyrealitythereis,andyou’renotbeingaskedtodenytheflamesthat
consumeit.Instead,theBuddha’sadvisingyoutodampentheflamessothat
youcanfind,rightinthemidstofthepresent,thepassageleadingfromthe
burninghousetothesafetyofthenon-flammablefreedomoutside.
37
TheStreamsofEmotion
There’sapartofthemindthatdoesn’tliketheemotionstheBuddha
labelsasunskillful—thingslikelust,anger,anxiety,andgreed—butthere’s
alsoapartthatdoes.Withangerforinstance,it’seasytolikethepowerand
exhilarationthatcomewhenyouseesomethingwrongandfeelfreetodo
andsaywhateveryouwanttocorrectit.Withlust,youfeelattractednot
onlytotheobjectofyourlust,butalsotothelustitself—ortotheideathat
thelustmakesyouattractive.There’sevenapartofthemindthatlikes
anxiety—theparttellingyouthatifyouworryenoughaboutpotential
problems,youcanmakethemgoaway.
Butthenthere’sthedownside.Aftertheseemotionshavepassed,you
oftenregretwhatyoudidundertheirpower:actionsthatharmedyouor
otherpeople.Thesearethemomentswhenyou’dliketofindawaynotto
beovercomebythesethings.
Still,thepartofthemindthatlikeslustandangerdoesn’tgoawayeasily.
WhenitreadstheBuddha’stakeonunskillfulemotions—thatweshould
restrainthem,should“abandon,destroy,dispelthem,andwipethemoutof
existence”(MN2)—itcancomeupwithreasonsforrejectingthese
instructionsasshort-sightedandunsophisticated.Afterall,simply
suppressingoravoidinganemotionwon’tmakeitgoaway.It’lljustgo
underground,likeTheThing,onlytoshootuptentaclessomewheredown
theline.Thisiswhyweoftenprefertohearteachingsthattellusthatwe
canhaveourcakeandeatit,too—thatwecanallowtheemotiontoflow
andgrow,andyetuseourdiscernmenttopickoutthepoisonouspart,
savingourselvesfromwhatwouldotherwisebeitsbadconsequences.
ButnowhereintheearlyCanondoestheBuddhasaythatrestraintis
enoughtogetridofanunskillfulemotion.Referringtotheseemotionsas
“streams,”hesaysinstead:
Whateverstreams
thereareintheworld:
Theirblockingis
mindfulness.Mindfulness
istheirrestraint,Itellyou.
38
Withdiscernment
they’refinallystopped.—Sn5:1
Inotherwords,beingmindfultosayNotoanemotionisonlyafirststep
ingettingpastit.Togettotallybeyonditrequiresdiscernment:detecting
whyyougofortheemotion,howthere’sabetteralternative,andwhatthat
alternativeis.Onlythencanyoubefreedfromthepowertheemotionhas
hadoveryou.
Butstill,toseethesethingsclearlyrequiresthatyoufirstholdthe
emotionincheck.Onlythenwillthepartofthemindthatlikestheemotion
showitsstripes.It’sliketryingtoknowthecurrentsofariver:Eventhough
itssurfacemayseemplacidandcalm,youdon’treallyknowhowstrongits
bottomcurrentsareuntilyoutrytobuildadamacrossit.Inthesameway,
youdon’treallyknowthemind’srealreasonsforclingingtoanemotion
unlessyourefusetogoalongwithit.That’swhenthey’llstartshowing
themselves.AndyouhavetosayNoagainandagain,becausealltoooften
theywon’tfullyrevealthemselvesthefirsttimeyouthwartthem.Afterall,
someofthesereasonscanbechildishandembarrassing,sothemindis
cleverinfabricatingliestohidethemfromitself.Onlywhenyou’refirm
andwisetotheirtrickscanyoucanreallyseethem.Andonlywhenyousee
themcanyouusethetoolsofdiscernmentprovidedbytheBuddhatofree
yourselffromthewaysthemindactuallyafflictsitself.
Somindfulnessisjustapreliminarystepingettingpastanunskillful
emotion.And“mindfulness,”here,carriestheBuddha’soriginalmeaningof
theterm:tokeepsomethinginmind.Itdoesn’tjustacceptthewaythings
flow.It’slikeagatekeeperwhorememberswhotoletthroughthegateand
whonot(AN7:63).Inthecaseofanunskillfulemotion,itfirsthasto
remembertonoticewhensuchanemotionarisesandtorecognizeitfor
whatitis:ahindrance,blockingthepathtoawakening(DN22).Thisright
heregoesagainsttheflow.Forinstance,whenlustarises,wedon’tusually
noticeituntilit’sfairlystrong.Andwhenwedonoticeit,ourfirstthought
isn’t,“Oh,ahindrance.”It’susually,“Great!Here’smychanceforsome
entertainment!”Sowehavetoestablishmindfulnessinawaythat’s
constantlyalerttothesethingsandtothefactthat,ifwewanttoputanend
tosufferingandstress,wehavetoseethem,notasourfriends,butas
obstacles.Whenwerecognizethemasunskillful,wealsohavetoremember
thetoolsthatcanhelpusgetpastthem.
39
TheBuddha’sinstructionsforestablishingmindfulnessareactually
instructionsforhowtogetthemindintoastateofsolidandpleasant
concentrationsothatitcanbesteadilyalertatalltimes.Whenyourmind
canstaysolidlywithsomethingcomfortableinthepresentmoment—such
asthebreath—itcanseeitselfmoreclearlyandfeellessravenousforthe
foodofferedbyangerandlust.Atthesametime,asyoumasterthe
processesofgettingthemindintoconcentration,yougethands-on
experiencewiththefirstsetoftoolstheBuddhaofferstohelpyour
discernmentunderstandhowemotionsareformedandhowcravingturns
themintostreamsthatcansweepyouaway.
THATSETOFTOOLSistheanalysisofmind-statesintothreesortsof
fabrication,orsankhāra:bodily,verbal,andmental.
•Bodilyfabricationisthein-and-outbreath.
•Verbalfabricationisthewayyoutalktoyourself.Informal
terms,it’sdividedintotwoactivities:directedthought,whichchooses
atopictofocuson;andevaluation,whichasksquestionsandmakes
commentsonthetopic.
•Mentalfabricationconsistsofperceptions—thelabelsthemind
placesonthings,eitherasphrasesorimages—andfeelingsofeither
pleasure,pain,orneitherpleasurenorpain(MN44).
Allthreeofthesetypesoffabricationplayaroleindeveloping
concentration.Whenyou’remindfulofthebreath,forinstance,thebreath
itselfisbodilyfabrication.AndintheBuddha’sinstructionsformindfulness
ofbreathing,afteryougetacquaintedwiththebreathandcanbreathe
sensitivetotheentirebody,youtryto“calmbodilyfabrication”(MN118).
Inotherwords,youbreatheinawaythathasanincreasinglysoothingeffect
inside.Todothis,youneedtoengageinverbalfabrication,totalkto
yourselfabouthowbesttobreathesoastogiverisetoasenseofease,how
tomaintainit,andhowtoletitspreadthroughoutthebody.Theease,of
course,isapleasanttypeoffeeling,amentalfabricationthatwillhavea
positiveeffectonthemind.Atthesametime,youneedtoholdinminda
perceptionofthebreathanditsrelationtothebodyinordertostaywith
thebreathandtospreadtheeasethroughoutthebody.Asyouworkatthis
process,you’llfindthatdifferentwaysofpicturingthebreathandbodyto
yourselfwillhavedifferenteffectsonbothbodyandmind.Andasthe
40
Buddharecommends,youtrytofindfeelingsandperceptionsthatwillhelp
bringthemindtoastateofcalm.
Thisishowbreathmeditation,asyoumasterit,makesyoufamiliarwith
thesethreetypesoffabrication.Andwhenyou’refamiliarwiththem,you
begintoseeindailylifehowtheyfashionallyourmind-states,andin
particularafflictiveemotions.Whenyou’reangry,forinstance,aperception
—amentalimage—iswhatusuallysetsyouoff.Thisisfollowedbyan
internalverbalcommentary,inwhichyoufocusonwhataggravatesyour
angerandgeneratereasonsforwhytheangerisjustified.Allofthiswill
haveaneffectonthebreath,whichchangesitsrhythmandflow,creatinga
feelingoftightnessorconstriction,say,inyourstomachoryourchest.And
whenthethoughtgetsintothebodylikethis,itbecomesanemotionthat
youfeelyouhavetogetoutofyoursystem.
Thesameprocessesgointocreatingemotionsofgreed,anxiety,orlust.
Thepracticeofbreathmeditationnotonlyhelpstofamiliarizeyouwith
theseprocesses,butalsoteachesyoutwoimportantpracticallessonsabout
them.Thefirstisthattheydon’talwayshappenjustinreactiontoevents
outside.Youoftenbringthemtotheevents.Inotherwords,youprime
yourselftobeangry,lustful,orgreedyevenbeforeyoumakecontactwith
anythingthataggravatestheseemotions.Alltoooften,themindisout
lookingfortrouble:Thisiswhythere’shateradio,onlineshopping,and
Internetporn.Electronicdevicesdon’tturnthemselveson.Weturnthem
ontostoketheemotionswe’realreadyfabricating.Thismaybewhythe
Buddhadescribesemotionsnotonlyasstreams,butalsoaseffluents:They
goflowingout,spreadingtheirpollutionintotheworld.
Thesecondpracticallessonisthatalthoughtheseprocessesare
influencedbyyourpasthabits,youcanconsciouslychangethem.Asthe
Buddhasaid,ifitweren’tpossibletoabandonunskillfulhabitsanddevelop
skillfulonesintheirplace,hewouldn’thavebotheredtoteach.Infact,many
ofhisteachingsdealinexamplesofhowtodismantleunskillfulhabitsof
fabricationandtoreplacethemwithmoreskillfulones.Hisbreath
meditationinstructionsareshorthandtipsforhowtoskillfullyworkwith
bodilyfabricationevenwhenyou’renotsittingonacushionorunderatree.
Hisextendedteachingsareexamplesofskillfulverbalfabrication;hismany
imagesandsimiles,examplesofskillfulmentalfabricationsthatyoucanuse
toreplacetheunskillfulonesthatruleyourmind.Ultimately,ofcourse,his
41
instructionstakeyoutoadimensionofthemindthat’sfreefrom
fabrication,buttogetthere,youfirsthavetolearnhowtocreateskillful
bodily,verbal,andmentalfabricationstofreeyourselffromyourold
unskillfulhabits.
Intermsofmentalfabrication,forinstance,theBuddharecommends
waysofperceivingthedrawbacksofangerandlustsothatyoucanuse
thoseperceptionstocounteractanyperceptionsyoumighthavethatanger
andlustareattractive,ormakeyoustrongandbrave.Hislistofperceptions
toapplytolustincludestheperceptionthatapersonengagedinlustful
thoughtsislikeadogchewingonabone:Itgetsnonourishmentortaste,
asidefromthetasteofitsownsaliva.Gettinglustfullyinvolvedwithother
peopleislikeusingborrowedgoods:Iftheownerstakethemback,you
havenogroundsforcomplaint,becausethey’resimplytakingwhat’sreally
theirs(MN54).Learningtoperceivelustinthiswaygivesyouatoeholdin
theideathatyou’dbebetterofftryingtogobeyondit.
Asforanger,theBuddhadetailswaysinwhichallthreetypesof
fabricationcanbebroughttobeartodismantleboutsofangerandreplace
themwithsomethingmorewise.Sayyou’refeelingangryaboutsomething
yourbosshasdone.TheBuddhaprovidesagoodverbalfabricationto
interrupttheinnerchatterthat’sprovokingyouranger:Ifyouactonyour
anger,you’regoingtodoorsaysomethingstupid.Doyoureallywanttodo
that?Ifyourangerisreallyinsistent,andyouseethebossasyourenemy,
theBuddharecommendssomethingstrongertocounteractit,vergingon
spite:Doyouwanttogiveyourenemythesatisfactionofseeingyouact
stupidly?(AN7:60)IftheanswerineithercaseisNo,you’vegottogeta
handleonyourangersothatyoucanthinkclearlyenoughtocomeupwith
agenuinelyusefulresponsetothesituation.
Thenyoulookatyourbodilyfabrication:Howareyoubreathing?Can
youcalmthebreathsothat,attheveryleast,you’renotdevelopingatight
knotinyourchestthatstokestheanger?Whenthebreathcalmsdown,
you’vegotbothbodilyfabricationandapartofmentalfabrication—a
feelingofinnerease—onyourside.
Thenyoulookattheotherpartofmentalfabrication:Whatimagesof
thebossandofyourselfareyouholdinginmind?Doyouperceiveyourself
asbeingvictimizedandweakinthefaceoftheboss?Ifso,theBuddha
recommendsthatyouperceiveyourgoodwillasbeingassolidandlargeas
42
theEarth.PeoplecandigintheEarthorspitonitorurinateonit,butthey
can’tmakeitbewithoutearth.Perceiveyourgoodwillaslargeandcool,like
theriverGanges.Perceiveyourmindasbeinglikespace:Justasnoonecan
leaveamarkonspace,youwanttotapintoamind-statewherenoneof
yourboss’sactionsleaveamark(MN21).
Andhowabouttheboss?Howdoyouperceivehim?Asamonster?An
idiot?Ifyou’regoingtotrytospeakskillfullywithhim,you’vegotto
developsomesympathyforhim.Otherwise,you’llbelikethetwolady
poodlesintheoldNewYorkercarton.They’resittingatabar,drinking
Martinis,lookingbitterandmean,andoneofthemsays,“They’reallsonsof
bitches”—themessagebeingthatifyouseeeveryoneasbitchesorsonsof
bitches,that’showyou’lltreatthem.Andyou’llbecomeone,too.
Soyou’vegottochangeyourperception.Perceiveyourselfasaperson
goingacrossadesert—hot,tired,tremblingwiththirst—andyoucome
acrossasmallpuddleofwaterinthehoofprintofacow.Ifyoutriedto
scoopthewaterup,you’dmakeitmuddy.Todrinkit,youhavetogetdown
onallfoursandcarefullyslurpitup.That’stheimagetheBuddhagives.It’s
notverydignified—youwouldn’twantanyonetocomealongandsnapa
pictureofyouatthatmoment—butit’swhatyou’vegottodoifyouwantto
survive.
Whatthismeansisthateventhoughyourbossmaybeextremelyfoolish,
you’vegottolookcarefullyforthewaterofhisgoodpoints,evenifthey
seemtobesurroundedbymud.Youmayfeelthatit’sbeneathyourdignity,
thathedoesn’tdeserveyourgoodwill,buttheimageremindsyouthatyou
needyourgoodwillforyourgoodnesstosurvive.You’reinnopositionto
becarelessinyourjudgmentofpeople.Otherwise,you’lldoorsay
somethingthatyoumaylaterregretforalongtime.Soyoulookforthe
wateroftheboss’sgoodqualities,eventhoughitmaynotbemuch,tohelp
wateryourowndeterminationnottogiveintoyouranger.
If,onreflection,youcan’tthinkofanythinggoodthebosshaseversaid
ordone,theBuddharecommendsanotherperception:You’recoming
acrossadesertandyoufindsomeonesicklyingonthesideoftheroad,with
noonetohelphim.Nomatterwhothatpersonis,you’dhavetofeel
compassionforhim(AN5:162).Inthesameway,ifthebossistotally
unskillful,youhavetofeelpityforthebadkarmahe’screatingforhimself.
Withthatperceptioninmind,youcanbettertrustyourselftofind
43
somethingskillfulandeffectivetodoorsay.
THESEWAYSofrefabricatingyourexperience—deconstructingunskillful
emotionsandconstructingskillfulonesintheirplace—arenottheultimate
solutiontotheproblemofafflictiveemotions.Theydon’tputastoptothe
streams.Theysimplydamthemanddiverttheminabetterdirection.But
theygiveyouahandleonthem,sothatyoudon’thavetochoosesimply
betweengivingintothemorbottlingthemup.Andmoreimportantly,as
youdevelopskillinthisdirection,yourdamsgetcloserandclosertothe
sourceofthestreams,andcloserandclosertodiscerningwhatpushesthem
outinthefirstplace.AstheBuddhasays,onlydiscernmentcanstopthem,
andyoudon’treallydiscernamind-stateuntilyouseethreethings:its
allure,itsdrawbacks,andtheescapefromit(MN14).
Thisisinlinewithhisanalysisofwhyweclingtothingsinthefirst
place,andhowwecanlearnhownottocling.Ifthingsdidn’tofferpleasure,
they’dholdnoallureandwewouldn’tclingtothem.Ifthingsweren’talso
painful,wewouldn’tbeabletoseethattheyaren’tworthclingingto(SN
22:60).Thismeansthatweclingaslongasweseethatthepleasurethey
offeriswellworththepainofholdingon.Thisistruenomatterhowmuch
wetellourselvesthattheemotionsareimpermanentoremptyofinherent
existence.Afterall,weclingtofoodandsexknowingfullwellthatthey’re
notpermanentandhavenoinherentessence—infact,knowingtheir
impermanencemakesusclingallthemore.Onlywhenweseethatthe
pleasurethesethingsofferisn’tworththeeffortthatgoesintoclingingto
themwillwebewillingtoletgo.Andbecausethatpleasureisn’tabstract,
abstractsolutions—likecallingtomindtheultimatenatureofreality—
won’treallywork.Onlywhenweseetheparticularsofwhywefindour
afflictiveemotionsalluring,andcancomparethatallurewiththeparticulars
oftheirdrawbacks,willwebewillingtoletthemgo.
So,strategically,thebestwaytoseetheallureofanunskillfulemotion—
whatyouthinkyougetoutofgoingforit—istokeepthwartingit,andthen
tolookandlistenforanyleaksinthedamofmindfulnessyou’vesetup.The
emotionwilllookformomentsofweakness,toinsinuateitselfbackinto
favor,andwillcontinuetogiveyoureasonsforwhyyoushouldwantit
back.Butasyoukeeprejectingitsreasons,strengthenedbytheskillfulways
youcanrefabricateit,it’llhavetobecomemoreandmorefrankaboutwhy
itstillwantstobefreetoflowinthemind.
44
Andhereagain,theBuddha’sanalysisofmind-statesintothethreetypes
offabricationhelpsgiveyousomecluesforwheretolookfortheleaksin
yourdam.Ashenotes,ourcravingforanobjectoractivityisn’talways
focusedontheobjectoractivityitself.It’softenfocusedonourmentalor
verbalfabricationsaroundit(DN22).Ourcravingforapersonmaybe
focused,notontheperson,butontheperceptionsandthoughtswe
embroideraroundtheperson—oraroundourperceptionofourselvesin
relationtotheperson.Thesamegoesforourgreedforthings,whichiswhy
advertisersputsomucheffortintoselling,nottheirproducts,butthe
storiesandmoodstheywantyouassociatewiththeirproducts.Asforour
cravingforanger,itmaybefocusedontheverbalfabricationsthatjustify
theanger—wethinkwe’recleverinthewaywethink,sowe’llkeepon
thinkingthatwayregardlessofhowmuchharmitbringsinitswake.And
wecanevenhavecravingforcravingitself.
Soyoulooktoseepreciselywhereyourcravingisfocused,forthat’s
wheretheallureoftheemotionwillbefound.Andasyoustaydetermined
nottofallforit,therewillcomeamomentoftruth,wherethemindtotally
opensupaboutwhyitlikesitsunskillfulemotions.Whenyouseethereal
reason,you’llalsorealizethatit’sthoroughlystupid—innowayatallworth
thedrawbacksthatthoseemotionscancause.
Thismeansthatgenuineinsightisavaluejudgment.Andtheproofthat
it’sgenuineliesinthefactthat,unlikeyourearlier,lessskillfuljudgments,it
opensthemindtothetotalescapeofall-arounddispassion.
Dispassionmaysoundlikeaversionordullness,butit’snot.It’smore
likeamaturing,asoberingup.Youroldwaysseemchildish,andnowyou’re
readytogrowup.Andbecausepassioniswhat’sbeendrivingallprocesses
offabrication,bothgoodandbad,allalong,thisdispassioniswhat
eventuallyfreesyoufromeverythingflowinginthemind.
Thisiswhereyourealizethattruefreedomlies,notinallowingthemind
tostreamwhereveritwants,butinnolongerbeingpushedaroundbythose
streams.Andoneofthesidebenefitsofthisfreedomisthatthemindno
longerhastolietoitself.Itcanbefranktoitselfaboutitsactionsandtheir
results.
It’sthefreedomofcausingnoharm,andofhavingnothingtohide
inside.
45
Worlds&TheirCessationThe Buddha’s Strategic View of the Cosmos
Recently,whileteachingaretreatsponsoredbyavipassanāgroupin
Brazil,Ihappenedtomentiondevasandrebirth.Theresponsewasswift.
Thenextmorning,asIwaslookingthroughtheslipsofpaperleftinthe
questionbox,twoquestionsstoodout.Thefirstwasacomplaint:“Whydo
wehavetolistentothissupernaturalstuff?Idon’tbelieveinanything
exceptforthenaturalworldIcanseewithmyowneyes.”Thesecondwasa
complaintofadifferentsort:“WhyareWesternBuddhistteacherssoafraid
totalkaboutthesupernaturalsideoftheBuddhisttradition?”
Toanswerthesecondquestion,allIhadtodowaspointtothefirst.“It’s
becauseofquestionslikethese.Theyscareteachersawayfromthetopic.”I
mighthaveaddedthatthere’sanironyhere.Inanefforttobetolerant,the
earlygenerationofWesternBuddhistteachersadmitteddogmatic
materialistsintotheirranks,butthesematerialistshaveprovenvery
intolerantofthesupernaturalteachingsattributedtotheBuddha.Ifhewas
reallyawakened,theysay,hewouldn’thavetaughtsuchthings.
Toanswerthefirstquestion,though,Iaskedaquestioninreturn:“How
doyouknowthatthenaturalworldisreal?Maybewhatyouseewithyour
eyesisallanillusion.Whatwedoknow,though,isthatsufferingisreal.
Somepeoplehavethekammatoexperiencesupernaturalevents;others,the
kammatoexperienceonlynaturalevents.Butwhatevertherangeofthe
worldyouexperience,youcancreaterealsufferingaroundit,sothat’swhat
theBuddha’steachingfocuseson.He’sgotacureforsufferingregardless.”
HereIcouldhaveaddedevenmore.Theawakeningthatgoesbeyond
sufferingalsogoesbeyondallworldviews,butthepathleadingtothat
awakeningrequiresthatyouadoptaprovisionalsenseoftheworldin
whichhumanactionhasthepowertobringsufferingtoanend.Thisisthe
samepatterntheBuddhaadoptswithregardtoviewsabouttheself:
Awakeningliesbeyondallviewsoftheself,butitrequiresadopting,
provisionally,asenseofyourselfasresponsibleandcompetenttofollow
thepath.
TheparallelwaytheBuddhatreatsthesetwoissuescomesfromthefact
46
that“self”and“world”gotogether.Inhisanalysis,sufferingarisesinthe
processofbecoming(bhava),whichmeanstheactoftakingonasenseofself
inaparticularworldofexperience.Thisbecomingcomesfromcraving.
Whenweclingtoacraving,wecreateasenseofself,boththeself-as-
consumerwho,wehope,willenjoytheattainmentofwhatwecrave,and
theself-as-producerwhodoesordoesn’tpossesstheskillstoattainit.At
thesametime,theselfneedsaworldinwhichtofunctiontosatisfyits
cravings.Sowefashionaviewoftheworldasit’srelevanttothatparticular
desire:whatwillhelporhinderourselfinourquestforwhatwewant.
Theseworldscanbestrictlyimaginaryscenariosinthemind—inwhich
casethereareveryfewconstraintsontheshapestheycantake—butthey
alsoincludetheworld(s)inwhichwefunctionashumanbeings.Andin
caseslikethis,thereareconstraints:Thehumanworld,whenyoupushonit,
oftenpushesback.Itdoesn’talwaysrespondeasilytowhatyouwant,andis
sometimesfirminitsresistance.Aswelookforhappiness,wehavetofigure
outhowtoreaditspushback.Whenwegainasenseofwhatcanandcan’t
rightlybeexpectedoutofhowtheworldworks,wecanadjustourcravings
togetthemostoutofwhattheworldhastooffer.Atthesametime,we
adjustoursenseofself,developingskillstofitinwiththeworldsothatwe
canproducehappinessmoreeasily,andconsumeitmorefrequently.
Thisiswhyoursenseofselfissointimatelytiedtooursenseofthe
world—andwhypeoplecangetsoincensedaboutthedifferingworldviews
ofothers.Ifwefeelthatthey’retryingtogetawaywiththingsthatourown
worldviewdoesn’tallow,we’reoffendedbecausethey’renotplayingbythe
rulestowhichwe’vesubmitted.Someofthepeoplewhoareconvincedthat
theworldhasnosupernaturaldimensionfeelthatpeoplewhoseworldview
allowsforthesupernaturalaretryingtogetawaywithmagicalthinking.
Somewhoseworldviewdoeshaveroomforthesupernatural—andwhofind
inthatdimensionthesourceoftheirvalues—areupsetbypeoplewhose
materialist/naturalistviewsallowthemtooperateinaworldunrestrained
byanyobjectivemorallaw.
Thesebattleshavebeengoingonformillennia.ThePāliCanon—the
earliestextantrecordoftheBuddha’steachings—showsthattheywere
alreadyragingathistime.Severallongdiscoursesaredevotedtothewide
varietyofworldviewstheBuddha’scontemporariesadvocated,andif
anything,peopleinIndiaatthattimehadagreatervarietyofworldviews
thanwedonow.Somemaintainedthattheworldandtheselfwerepurely
47
material;others,thattherewasasoulthatremainedthesameforever;
others,thatthesoulandtheworldwereidentical;andstillothers,thatthe
soulperishedatdeath.Somearguedthatmorallawswerejustaconvention;
others,thatamorallawwasbuiltintothecosmos.Somebelievedthatthe
worldhadacreator;othersbelievedthatitarosebychance;others,thatit
hasexistedwithoutanybeginningpointatall.Somebelievedinother
realmsofbeing—heavensandhells—whileothersdidnot.Somebelievedin
rebirth,whileothersdidnot.Somebelievedinafinitecosmos,someinan
infinitecosmos,someinacosmosthatwasbothorneither.Thelistcould
goonandon.
TheBuddha’sresponsetothesecontroversieswasinteresting.Insteadof
jumpingintothefraytodebatetheseissues,hefocusedfirstonthekamma
ofbuildingaworldview:whatkindsofactionsledtoaparticularview,and
whatkindsofactionsthatworldviewwouldinspire.Hethenjudgedthese
actionsastowhethertheyresultedinmoresufferingorless.Onlythendid
hedecidewhichfeatureswererequiredbyaprovisionalworldviewthat
wouldleadtosuffering’send.
Hisapproachwasverywise.Argumentsoverworldviewsboildownto
questionsofinference:whatkindoffactscanbejudgedtobereal,andwhat
waysofinferringaworldfromthosefactscanbejudgedtobevalid.And
wheredowegetourfacts?Welearnabouttheworldbyactinginit.We
learnaboutwallsbybumpingintothem;aboutpeople,bytryingtogetwhat
wewantfromthem.Then,fromtheresultsofouractions,weinfermore
abouttheworldthanouractionsactuallytellus.There’salotmoretothe
worldthanthepartsthatrespondtoouractions,andourinferencesfillin
theblanks.SotheBuddha,insteadofgivingrealitytotheinferences,
decidedtofocusontheirsource:ouractions.Afterall,weknowthem—or
shouldknowthem,ifwe’repayingattention—muchmoredirectlythanthe
worldswe’veinferred.
Hisconclusionwasthatallpossibleworldviewswereinstancesof
clinging,andthatclinging,inturn,wassuffering.Justaswesufferinthe
activityofwhattheBuddhacalledI-makingandmy-making,wesufferin
theprocessofworld-making.Eventhoughwefeedofftheseactivities
—“feeding”beinganothermeaningforupādāna,thePāliwordforclinging—
weenduphavingtopaydearlyforwhatweeat.Thisistruewhetherour
senseoftheworldhasasupernaturalaspectornot.
48
Now,theseworldview-clingingshavetwodimensions.Ontheonehand,
theyfocusonfivethings,calledaggregates(khandha):
thebodyasitmovesaroundintheworld;
feelingsofpleasure,pain,orneitherpleasurenorpain;
perceptions,thelabelsweapplytothings;
fabrications,thewayweputourthoughtstogether;and
consciousness,ourawarenessatthesixsenses.
Ontheotherhand,theseclingingscantakefourforms:
viewclinging,theactofholdingtoaviewoftheworld;
doctrine-of-selfclinging,thesenseof“you”thatfunctionsinthat
worldviewalongwiththesenseof“you”asthepersonwhoisproud
toespousethatview;
habit-and-practiceclinging,asenseofhowthingshavetobedone,
bothinshapinganddefendingaworldviewandthen,onceit’sshaped,
howyouhavetoactinthecontextoftherulesofthatworldview;and
sensualityclinging,fascinationwiththesensualpleasuresthata
worldviewhastooffer.
It’seasytoseehowthisanalysisofclingingappliestoworldviewsthat
havenosupernaturalaspectaswellastothosethatdo.Forexample,in
termsoftheselfholdingtheview,“naturalists”canbeveryproudthat
they’rehard-headedrealists;“supernaturalists,”veryproudthatthey’ve
beensingledoutforprivilegedinformation.Intermsofhabitsand
practices,eachsidecanbeveryinsistentthatthewaytheydrawinferences
abouttheworldis“scientific”—astheydefinetheterm—andthattheyknow
forafactwhatwaysofbehaviorareactuallyvalidinthecontextoftheir
worlds.
FromtheBuddha’spointofview,though,allthesewaysofclingingare
suffering.Andthewisetaskwithregardtosufferingistocomprehendit—
whichmeanstoseehowit’scaused,howitpassesaway,whatitsallureis,
whatitsdrawbacksare,andfinallyhowtoescapefromitthroughthe
dispassionthatcomesfromseeingthatthedrawbacksfaroutweighthe
allure.
Mundane Right View
49
Tocomprehendclingingandsufferinginthiswayisnotsimplyan
intellectualexercise.Itrequiresdevelopingalleightfactorsofthenoble
path,anall-aroundskillthatgrowsinmanystages.Thispathrequiresa
strongsensethattherearesuchthingsasskillfulandunskillfulactions.It
alsorequiresaresilientsenseofmotivationthatcancarryyouthroughthe
setbacksandobstaclesindeveloping,amongotherskills,strong
mindfulnessandconcentration.Allofthis,especiallyasyou’regetting
startedonthepath,requiresacertainsenseoftheworldtoexplainthepath
andtoaffirmwhyit’sapossibleanddesirablecourseofaction.
WhichiswhytheBuddhadoesn’tsimplyrecommenddroppingallviews
abouttheworld.AshenotesinDN1,takingastanceofagnosticism
towardallissuesdeprivesyouofanygroundsfordecidingwhat’sskillful
andnot.Whenyou’redeprivedinthatway,you’reopentodoingunskillful
thingsthatwillyieldbadlong-termconsequences.So,insteadofdropping
viewsabouttheworld,herecommends—intheformofmundanerightview
(MN117)—aprovisionalsketchoftheworldthatservesthepurposesof
thepathtotheendofsuffering,oneinwhichthatpathisbothpossibleand
desirable.Inotherwords,he’sgivingyousomethingrelativelyskillfulto
clingtountilyoureachthelevelofskillwhereyounolongerneedtocling.
Atthesametime,herecommendsovercomingI-makingandmy-makingby
startingfirstwiththestepofdeveloping,provisionally,ahealthysenseof
selfcapableoffollowingthepath(AN4:159).Onlywhenthesesensesofthe
worldandoftheselfhaveservedtheirpurposedoyouputthemaside.
Note,inbothcases,thathe’srecommendingjustasenseofselfandasense
ofworld,notafull-blownviewabouteitherselforworld.Ashesaw,the
pathrequiresjustasmallbodyofassumptions,enoughtoactasworking
hypothesesthatpointyouintherightdirection.Intermsoftheself,the
Buddhadiscouragedhismonksfromtryingtoanswersuchquestionsas
“WhatamI?”“DoIexist?”“DoInotexist?”(MN2).Instead,it’senoughto
developanduseasenseofselfthat’sresponsibleandcompetentasa
producer(Dhp160),andwhofeelsenoughself-lovetowantonlythebest
happinessfortheselfasaconsumer(AN3:40).Intermsoftheworld,the
Buddharefusedtotakeapositiononwhetherornottheworldwaseternal
orinfinite(MN63).Healsodiscouragedhisfollowersfromengagingin
speculationabouttheworld,sayingthatitwouldleadto“madnessand
vexation”(AN4:77).Infact,henevergaveacompletepictureevenofa
“Buddhistcosmology.”ThemapsdetailingthemanylevelsoftheBuddhist
50
cosmoswerelaterextrapolationsfromcommentsscatteredintheearly
texts.Whathedidofferwasjustahandfulofleaves(SN56:31).
Aprominentleafinthathandfulwasaviewoftheworldinwhichthe
mind’sactsoffabricationplayanimportantrole.Ononelevel,thisis
eminentlysensible.Giventheeffortthatgoesintoconstructingworldviews,
whybotherfabricatingaworldview,assomepeopledo,inwhichthemind’s
activitiesplaynoeffectiverole—inwhichthey’reregardedasnothingmore
thanafter-effectsofphysicalevents,forexample,ordeniedanyrealityat
all?(DN2)It’dbeasenselesswasteoftime.
ButtheBuddha’spurposesweremorespecificthanjustcommonsense.
Thepathtotheendofsufferingrequiresaviewoftheworldinwhich:
sufferingisreal,
themind’sfabrications,underthepowerofignorance,arethecauseof
suffering,and
thosesamefabrications,whentreatedwithknowledge,havethepower
tobringsufferingtoanend.
Thismeans,asapreliminaryprinciple,thattheBuddha’sprovisional
worldviewcouldnotbepurelymaterialistic.Heestablishedthispointwith
thelinethathisfollowerspostedinthefirstlineoftheDhammapada:“The
heart/mindistheforerunnerofallphenomena.”Withthisline,theBuddha
rejectedtheworldviewinwhichthemindissimplythepassiverecipientof
sensedata,orinwhichitsfunctionsarenothingmorethantheafter-effects
ofphysicalprocesses.Inamaterialistuniverse,theproblemofsuffering
wouldn’trightlyberegardedasaproblem,becauseitcan’tbedetectedby
materialmechanisms.Andevenifamaterialistwereinconsistentenoughto
wanttodoawaywithsuffering,he’dexplainitasamaterialproblem,tobe
solvedthroughmaterialmeans,suchaschemicalsorelectricshock.The
principlethatthemindcomesfirst,however,allowsforsufferingtobe
regardedasagenuineproblem,andthatitmightpotentiallybesolvedby
trainingthemind’sfabrications.
ThisiswhythemainleafintheBuddha’sworldviewisthattheprocesses
offabricationarereal.UnlikesomelaterBuddhisttheorists,suchas
Nāgārjuna,theBuddhastatedclearlythatfabrications—eventhoughthey’re
conditioned,inconstant,andsubjecttochange—reallydoexist(SN22:94).
Iftheyweren’treal,thesufferingtheycreatealsowouldn’tbereal,andthere
wouldbenopointtoteachingapathtotheendofsuffering.
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Butfabricationsarenotsimplyreal.Theyarethedominantfactorin
shapingnotonlyourviewsabouttheworld,butalsothestructureofthe
world,theeventsweexperiencewithinthatstructure,andthewaywe
experiencethoseevents.
Ingivingfabricationssuchalargeroletoplayinshapingtheworld,the
Buddhaisalsoimplyingthattheworldsharesthelimitationsof
fabrications.Likethem,it’sinconstant,stressful,andsubjecttochange.No
permanenthappinesscanbefoundwithinitsconfines.Thisisthemain
motivationforwantingtogetoutofit.
ButwhenweexaminetheBuddha’spictureofhowfabrications
constructtheworld,wefindthathealsogivesthemaprominentrolein
providingthewayout.Totakeonthatrole,though,themindhastoaccept
certainassumptionstoguideitinfabricatingthepath.TheBuddhasetout
theseassumptionsintheprovisionalsketchoftheworldthathecalled
mundanerightview.Theassumptionsarethese:
thereisgenerosity—i.e.,theactofgenerosityisachoice(this
principledeniesstrictdeterminism);
actionsarereal;
therearetheresultsofgoodandbadactions;
therearebeings;
somebeings,suchasyourparents,deservegratitude;
thereisaworldafterdeath;
thereare,insomeofthoseworlds,spontaneouslyrebornbeings—
i.e.,beingsintheheavens,hells,andrealmofthehungryghosts,who,
basedontheirkamma,arisewithoutparents;and
therearecontemplativeswho,practicingrightly,havecometo
knowthesethingsasfacts.
Theseareallprinciplestobetakenonconviction.Somepeopleaskhow
onecanbeexpectedtoknowthesethingsbeforeacceptingthem,butthat’s
missingthepoint.Theseprinciplesareexplicitlylabeledasrightviews,
ratherthanrightknowledge.You’renotexpectedtoknowthematthe
beginningofthepath.They’reworkinghypotheses,“right”becausethey’re
rightforthejob:Theyleadyoutoactinawaythatwillleadtotheendof
suffering.Onlyatthemomentoffullawakeningaretheyreplacedwith
rightknowledge.
TheBuddharealizedthathecouldn’tprovetheseprinciplestoan
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unawakenedaudience,buthedidprovideapragmatictest:Byaccepting
theseprinciples,you’remorelikelytoengageinskillfulactionsthanifyou
acceptedtheiropposites.Thatmuchiseasytosee.Ofcourse,awillingness
toaccepttheprinciplethatviewscanbetestedbyputtingthemintoaction
requiresatleastsomeconfidencethatactionscanbechosenandhavethe
powertoyielddifferingresults.ButtheBuddhawasn’tinterestedin
teachingpeoplewhosemindsweren’topenenoughtoacceptatleastthis
much.
Thediscoursesaddsomedetailstotheworldviewsketchedoutin
mundanerightview.Intermsofaction,AN3:62rejectsanyworldviewsin
whichallexperienceofpleasureandpaincanbeattributedtoprevious
actions,tothewillofacreatorgod,ortopurechance.AstheBuddhapoints
out,suchviewsdon’tprovideanygroundsforclaimingthatthere’sa
differencebetweenskillfulandunskillfulactions,orthattherecouldbe
suchathingasapathofpractice.
TheBuddha’sprovisionalworldviewalsomakesreferencetoheavens,
hells,andrebirth.Thismeansthathisconceptofnaturecontainedwhatwe
wouldcallasupernaturaldimension.Butit’sworthnoting:
•thathissketchofthecosmos,asrevealedinthediscourses,wasnot
simplypickedupfromtheworldviewsofpreviousIndianreligions;and
•thathedeprivedthesupernaturaldimensionoftheauthorityitenjoyed
inotherreligionsofthetime.
Tobeginwith,hisviewofkamma,andoftheplaceswherebeingscango
afterdeath,wasdistinctivelyhisown.Comparedtopreviousthinkers,he
gaveamuchlargerroletokammainshapingboththeprocessofrebirth
andtheworldstowhichbeingsarereborn.Thoseworlds,especiallyinhis
sketchofthehigherheavens,correspondtowhathelearnedaboutthelevels
ofthemindthatheencounteredinthecourseofbringinghismindto
awakening.Althoughheaffirmedtheexistenceofsomeofthedevastaught
intheVedas,thestructureofhiscosmosputsthemintheirplace,inboth
sensesoftheterm.Inotherwords,theyaredemotedtothelowerheavens
andsharplydownsizedinimportance.EventheGreatBrahmā,thehighest
godinthebrahmanicalpantheon,isassignedtoamiddlinglevelofheaven,
reigningthereovertheignorant,notbecauseofanyinnategreatness,but
becauseheexhaustedthemeritthatwouldhaveallowedhimtostayona
higherlevel(DN1).ThismeansthattheBuddha’saudiencewouldhave
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foundhisworldviewjustasnovelandstrangeasWesternaudiencesdo
now.
It’salsoworthnotingtheseriousconstraintsheputonthevalueof
knowingthesupernatural.Eventhough,ashestated,fullknowledgeof
devaswasanecessarypartofhisownawakening(AN8:71),itwasn’t
necessaryforeveryone.Heneededitbecause,withoutthatknowledge,he
couldn’thavetaughtpeoplewhosekammaledthemtoexperiencedevasin
theirownmeditation.Butwhathelearnedaboutthedevaswasthatthey
canbeveryunreliable.Insteadofcominginjusttwovarieties—angelsand
demons—theycomeinallgradationsofgoodnessandpotency.Andthey’re
notalwaysemissariesfromahigherpower,eitherevilorgood.Knowing
thesefactshelpstoprotectapersonwhohasvisionsofsuchbeings,orwho
encountersthemthroughmediums,frombeingoverlyfearfulofthemor
givingthemtoomuchconfidence.
SomedevashaveagoodsenseoftheDhamma(MN134;SN9:14),some
don’t(SN1:20),andeventhosewhodocanbefickleinsharingtheir
knowledge(SN9:14).Some,likeMāra,arehungryforpower.Othersare
downrightcorrupt—seetheoriginstorytoPārājika3forachillingexample
ofadevawhogiveseviladvice.Devaswhoclaimtobecreatorsofthe
universeareespeciallyhypocriticalandignorant(DN1;DN11).
Whatallthismeansisthatthesupernaturalknowledgecomingfrom
devas—whattheytellyouaboutthecosmos,forexample,abouthowtoact,
oraboutthemeaningoflife—can’talwaysbetrusted.
Similarlywithpsychicpowers:TheBuddhamasteredawiderangeof
suchpowersonthewaytohisawakening,andhecontinuedtousethemin
thecourseofhisteachingcareer(MN86).Buthewarnedanymonkswho
hadsuchpowersnottodisplaythemtothelaity(Cv.V.8).Asheexplainedin
DN11,thedisplayofpsychicpowersisalwaysopentosuspicionsof
trickery,whereasaDhammathat,whenputintopractice,showsresultsis
theonlyproofofateacher’struthfulness.Severalstoriesofpsychicpowers
intheCanonshowthattheyattractthewrongkindofattentionfromothers
(seetheoriginstorytoNP23),andthecaseofDevadattashowshowa
monkwithpsychicpowerscanactuallyusethosepowerstocauseharm.
SoeventhoughtheBuddha’sprovisionalviewoftheworldhasa
supernaturaldimension,heplacessomeverysensiblerestrictionsonhow
muchthatdimensioncanbetrusted.Thisfactisreflectedintwoimportant
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points:
•EventhoughtheBuddha’sawakeningrequiredgainingpsychicpowers
andknowledgeofdevas,thefullawakeningofhisstudentsdoesnot(SN
12:70).
•Injudgingwhetherteachersaretobetrusted,theirlackorpossession
ofsuchpowersdoesn’tenterintotheequationatall.Instead,theyshouldbe
observedtoseeiftheypossesstwoverynaturalvirtues:Theywouldn’ttella
persontodosomethingthatwouldleadtothatperson’sharm;andthey
wouldn’tclaimknowledgethattheydon’tpossess(MN95).Inotherwords,
teachersaretobejudgedbytheiractions,toseeifthey’rereliableguideson
howtoact.
Afterall,thisisthemainthrustoftheBuddha’sprovisionalworldview:
theroleofactioninshapingtheworld.Ifteachersdon’tactwith
truthfulnessandcompassion,youcan’ttrustthemtoteachyouhowtoact
wiselyandskillfullywithregardtotheworld.Andskillispreciselywhat
youneedtolearnhowtomaster.Actionshavethepowertoleadtoawide
rangeofbecomings—fromthepurelypainfulonesinhelltothepurely
blissfulonesinthehigherheavens.Thisisbecausethecravingsthatdrive
themindtoactcanalsodriveittobeingreborn(SN44:9)—aprocessthat
comesfromaninconceivablebeginning(SN15:3),andcan,potentially,
recurwithoutend.
Andtheprocessdoesn’tgoeverupward.Afterreachingthehigherlevels,
beingseasilybecomecarelessandirresponsible,clingingtotheresultsof
theirpastgoodkamma,andsofall.Andbecausethecosmosisshapedbythe
actionsofmanybeings,there’snoonebeinginchargeoftheprocess.Ithas
nopurpose,and—inthewordsofMN82—it’s“withoutshelter,without
protector.”Thismeansthatthesufferingexperiencedinalltheseupsand
downsservesnohigherpurpose,either.It’spointless.
ButtheBuddha’sprovisionalworldviewdoeshaveapoint:todevelopa
senseofdismayattheideaofcontinuingtostayinthisworldof
fabrications,alongwithasenseofconfidencethat,ifactionhascausedthis
problem,actioncanfindthewayout.Andbecausethesourceofthe
problemisinthemind,thesolutionhastoliethereaswell.AstheBuddha
saystoaformer“sky-walker”inAN4:45,there’snowaythatanendtothe
cosmos,freefromsuffering,canbereachedbytraveling,butitcanbe
reachedbylookinginward,intothebodytogetherwithitsmind.Thisis
55
wherethecosmos,theoriginationofthecosmos,thecessationofthe
cosmos,andthepathleadingtothecessationofthecosmoscanbefound.
Whenthemindshiftsitsframeofreferencetothisperspective,itmoves
itsrightviewsfromthemundaneleveltothetranscendent.
Transcendent Right View
Mundanerightviewandtranscendentrightviewbothfocusonthesame
topic—themind’sfabrications—buttheytreatthattopicfromdifferent
angles.Mundanerightviewtreatsitintermsofbeingsandworlds.
Transcendentrightviewdropsthosetermsentirelyandtreatstheprocesses
offabricationasprocesses,analyzedintermsofthefournobletruths:
suffering,itscause,itscessation,andthepathtoitscessation.Thislevelof
rightviewdoesn’tdenytheexistenceofbeingsorworlds.Instead,itsimply
changestoanotherframeofreference:fabricationswithinthemind,taken
ontheirownterms.Withregardtosuffering,thequestionisn’twhointhe
worldissuffering,whocausedthesuffering,orwho’sgoingtoputanendto
suffering.It’ssimply,whatactionsconstitutesuffering,whatactionscause
it,whatactionsbringittoanend.Fromthisperspective,adistinctiveduty
isappliedtoeventsfallingundereachtruth:sufferingistobe
comprehended,itscauseabandoned,itscessationrealized,andthepathto
itscessationdeveloped.
Byadoptingthisperspective,youcanseeevenyoursenseofselfand
yoursenseoftheworldsimplyasactions.Youthenaskwhichofthefour
categoriesofrightviewtheseactionsfallinto,andapplytheappropriate
duty.Whenyouregardsomethingas“yours”orasadutyimposedbythe
world,it’shardtoletitgo.Butwhenyouseeitsimplyasanactionunder
therubricofthefournobletruths,it’seasiertoapplytheappropriateduty.
Youseethatviewsareformsofclinging,soyoutrytocomprehendthem.
Youseethattheycomefromcraving,soyoutrytoletthatcravinggo.
Butbecausethemindissousedtothinkingintermsofbeingsand
worlds,thisnewperspectiveishardtoholdinmind.Itkeepsslippingback
toitsoldwaysofthinking.Thisiswhyrightmindfulness—theabilityto
remembertherightframeofreferenceandthedutiesimpliedbythatframe
—isanessentialpartofthepath.Thebasicformulaforrightmindfulness
startsbytellingyoutokeeptrackofthebody,feelings,mind,andmental
qualitiesinandofthemselves.Inotherwords,youviewtheserawmaterials
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forastateofbecomingontheirownterms,withoutputtingtheminthe
contextof“self”or“world”—how,forinstance,yourbodyisviewedbythe
worldorhowitfitsintoyourself-imagevis-à-vistheworld.
Theformulathennotesthatyoukeepsubduinganygreedordistress
withreferencetotheworld.Inotherwords,youdropanythoughtsthat
dealintermsof“world”thatwouldpullyououtofyourframeofreference.
Theformulaalsonotesthatyoudevelopthreequalitiestokeepwiththe
rightframeofreference:
•mindfulness,rememberingyourframeofreferencealongwith
thedutiesappropriatetothefournobletruths;
•alertness,theabilitytoseeclearlywhatyouaredoinginthe
present;and
•ardency,theefforttoapplytheappropriatedutytowhateveris
comingupinthecontextofyourframeofreference.
Maintainingthispracticeovertimewouldbecomeadry,tiringexercise
ifitweren’tforthefactthatthese“establishingsofmindfulness”
(satipaṭṭhāna)leadthemindtorightconcentration,whichissuffusedwith
pleasureandrapture.Aslongastheminddoesn’tgetdistractedbythe
worldoutside,itcanfindastrongsenseofwell-beingbydevelopingthis
newperspective.
Inthebeginningstagesofrightmindfulness,theworkofsubduinggreed
anddistresswithreferencetotheworldfocusesonthoughtsthatwouldpull
youtoengageintheworldoutside.Butwithtime,youcometoseethe
worldmoreandmoreintheBuddha’s“noble”definitionoftheterm:thesix
senses,theirobjects,consciousnessatthesenses,contactatthesenses,and
allthefeelingsthatarisebasedonthatcontact(SN35:82).Inotherwords,
yougetlessinterestedinextrapolatinganoutsideworldfromthese
processes,andmoreinterestedinsimplybringingknowledgetothese
processesinandofthemselves.Inthisway,youbringtheworldintothe
contextofthefourestablishingsofmindfulnessthemselves,andunderthe
frameworkofthefournobletruths.Themeditationisnownotsomething
thathappensinthecontextoftheworld;theworldhappensinthecontext
ofthemeditation.Thisdoesn’tmeanthattheworldoutsideisanillusion,
justthatyourealizethatit’snottheproblem.Theproblemliesinthe
processesofthemind.
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Release from Worlds
SN12:15showswherethispracticeleads:Asyouwatchtheorigination
ofthe“world”inthesenseofprocesses,youreachastateofmindinwhich
thethoughtof“existence”withregardtotheworldsimplydoesn’toccurto
you.Asyouwatchthecessationoftheworldofprocesses,thethoughtof
“non-existence”withregardtotheworlddoesn’toccurtoyou,either.You
seetheprocessesofarisingandpassingawayasmereinstancesofstress
arisingandpassingaway.Becausetheseprocesseshavenofurthervaluein
termsof“world”or“self,”“existence”ornot,youcanletthemallgo.Andin
lettingthemgo,themindletsgoofeverythingthat’sfabricatedandcaused,
thatarisesandpassesaway.That’showitgainsrelease.
MN49describesthestateofconsciousnessrevealedinthisreleaseas
“consciousnesswithoutsurface,”aconsciousnessthat—unlikethe
consciousness-aggregate—isnotexperiencedthroughthesixsensesatall.
Inotherwords,it’snotengagedinanyworldinanysenseoftheterm.DN
11addsthatit’sfreefromnameandform,whichmeansthat—unlike,say,
theinfinitudeofconsciousnessexperiencedinformlessstatesof
concentration—it’snotinvolvedinanysortoffabrication.Inbothofthese
discourses,thistypeofconsciousnessispresentedassomethingthateven
thedevasinthehighestheavenlyworldsdon’tknow.Afterall,they’restill
intheirworlds,whereas—inthewordsofDN11—thisconsciousnessis
wherenoworldfindsafooting.It’stheworld’scessation.
TheimageusedinSN12:64isofalightbeamthatdoesn’tlandonany
object.Itmaybebrightinandofitself,butbecauseitdoesn’tparticipatein
theworldinanyway,itcan’tbedetectedasexisting,notexisting,both,or
neither.Itsreleaseisthattotal.
ThisisthegoalwheretheBuddha’steachingsontheworldaim:toastate
ofmindfreedfromanyworldofanykind.Ingoingbeyondtheworld,you
findthattheBuddha’sprovisionalworldviewsweretrue,asfarasthey
went,butthattheirgenuineworthliesinthattheyallowthemindtogo
furtherthantheydo.AstheBuddha’slifestoryshows,peoplewhohave
gonebeyondworldsinthiswaycan—aslongasthebodycontinuestolive—
stillofferguidanceandhelptothosestilltrappedinworlds,whetherthose
worldsareofanaturalorsupernaturalsort.ThisiswhytheBuddhawasa
teacherofbeingsnotonlyhuman,butalsodivine.Butthere’ssomething
aboutanawakenedpersonthatnoworldorworldviewcancapture.And
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becausetheBuddha’sworldviewscanhelpthosewhoadoptthemtofind
that“something,”that’swhythey’rereallyworthtakingon.
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WisdomoverJustice
Afewyearsago,inoneofitsmoreinspiredmoments,TheOnion
reportedavideoreleasedbyaBuddhistfundamentalistsectinwhicha
spokesmanforthesectthreatenedthatheandhiscohortswouldunleash
wavesofpeaceandharmonyacrosstheworld,wavesthatnoonecouldstop
orresist.Thereportalsonotedthat,inresponsetothevideo,the
DepartmentofHomelandSecuritysworetodoeverythinginitspowerto
stopthosewavesfromreachingAmerica.
Aswithallgoodsatire,thereportmakesyoustopandthink.Whyare
peaceandharmonytheworst“threats”thatwouldcomefromthe
fundamentalsoftheBuddha’steachings?
Theanswer,Ithink,liesinthefactthattheBuddhanevertriedtoimpose
hisideasofjusticeontheworldatlarge.Andthiswasverywiseand
perceptiveonhispart.It’seasyenoughtoseehowimposedstandardsof
justicecanbeamenacetowell-beingwhenthosestandardsaresomebody
else’s.It’smuchhardertoseethemenacewhenthestandardsareyourown.
TheBuddhadidhaveclearstandardsforrightandwrong,ofskillfuland
unskillfulwaysofengagingwiththeworld,buthehardlyeverspokeof
justiceatall.Instead,hespokeofactionsthatwouldleadtoharmonyand
truehappinessintheworld.Andinsteadofexplaininghisideasfor
harmonyinthecontextofpursuingajustworld,hepresentedtheminthe
contextofmerit:actionsthatpursueahappinessblamelessbothinitselfand
inthewayit’spursued.
TheconceptofmeritiswidelymisunderstoodintheWest.It’softenseen
astheselfishquestforyourownwell-being.Actually,though,theactions
thatqualifyasmeritoriousaretheBuddha’spreliminaryanswertothesetof
questionsthathesayslieatthebasisofwisdom:“Whatisskillful?Whatis
blameless?What,whenIdoit,willleadtolong-termwelfareand
happiness?”Ifyousearchforhappinessbymeansofthethreetypesof
meritoriousaction—generosity,virtue,andthedevelopmentofuniversal
goodwill—it’shardtoseehowthathappinesscouldbebrandedasselfish.
Thesearetheactionsthat,throughtheirinherentgoodness,makehuman
societylivable.
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AndtheBuddhaneverimposedeventheseactionsonanyoneas
commandsorobligations.Whenaskedwhereagiftshouldbegiven,instead
ofsaying,“ToBuddhists,”hesaid,“Whereverthemindfeelsconfidence”
(SN3:24).Similarlywithvirtue:Dhammateachershavefrequentlynoted,
withapproval,thattheBuddha’spreceptsarenotcommandments.They’re
trainingrulesthatpeoplecanundertakevoluntarily.Asforthepracticeof
universalgoodwill,that’saprivatematterthatcan’tbeforcedonanyoneat
all.Tobegenuine,ithastocomevoluntarilyfromtheheart.Theonly
“should”lyingbehindtheBuddha’steachingsonmeritisaconditionalone:
Ifyouwanttruehappiness,thisiswhatyoushoulddo.Notbecausethe
Buddhasaidso,butsimplybecausethisishowcauseandeffectworkinthe
world.
Afterall,theBuddhadidn’tclaimtospeakforacreatorgodora
protectivedeity.Hewasn’tauniversallawgiver.Theonlylawsand
standardsforfairnessheformulatedweretherulesofconductforthose
whochosetobeordainedintheBhikkhuandBhikkhunīSaṅghas,where
thosewhocarryoutcommunaldutiesareenjoinedtoavoidanyformof
biascomingfromdesire,aversion,delusion,orfear.Apartfromthat,the
Buddhaspokesimplyasanexpertinhowtoendsuffering.Hisauthority
came,notfromaclaimtopower,butfromthehonestyandefficacyofhis
ownsearchforadeathlesshappiness.
Thismeantthathewasinnopositiontoimposehisideasonanyonewho
didn’tvoluntarilyacceptthem.Andhedidn’tseektoputhimselfinsucha
position.AsthePāliCanonnotes,therequestfortheBuddhatoassumea
positionofsovereigntysothathecouldrulejustlyoverotherscame,not
fromanyofhisfollowers,butfromMāra(SN4:20).Thereareseveral
reasonswhyherefusedMāra’srequest—andwhyheadvisedothersto
refusesuchrequestsaswell.
Tobeginwith,evenifyoutriedtorulejustly,therewouldalwaysbe
peopledissatisfiedwithyourrule.AstheBuddhacommentedtoMāra,even
twomountainsofsolidgoldbullionwouldn’tbeenoughtosatisfythewants
ofanyoneperson.Nomatterhowwellwealthandopportunitieswere
distributedunderyourrule,therewouldalwaysbethosedissatisfiedwith
theirportions.Asaresult,therewouldalwaysbethoseyou’dhavetofight
inordertomaintainyourpower.And,intryingtomaintainpower,you
inevitablydevelopanattitudewheretheendsjustifythemeans.Those
meanscaninvolveviolenceandpunishments,drivingyoufurtherand
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furtherawayfrombeingabletoadmitthetruth,orevenwantingtoknowit
(AN3:70).Eventhemerefactofbeinginapositionofpowermeansthat
you’resurroundedbysycophantsandschemers,peopledeterminedtopreventyoufromknowingthetruthaboutthem(MN90).Asfarasthe
Buddhawasconcerned,politicalpowerwassodangerousthatheadvised
hismonkstoavoid,ifpossible,associatingwitharuler—oneofthedangers
beingthatiftherulerformulatedadisastrouspolicy,thepolicymightbe
blamedonthemonk(Pc83).
AnotherreasonfortheBuddha’sreluctancetotrytoimposehisideasof
justiceonotherswashisperceptionthattheefforttoseekjusticeasan
absoluteendwouldruncountertothemaingoalofhisteachings:the
endingofsufferingandtheattainmentofatrueandblamelesshappiness.
Henevertriedtopreventrulersfromimposingjusticeintheirkingdoms,
buthealsoneverusedtheDhammatojustifyatheoryofjustice.Andhe
neverusedtheteachingonpastkammatojustifythemistreatmentofthe
weakordisadvantaged:Regardlessofwhatevertheirpastkammamayhave
been,ifyoumistreatthem,thekammaofmistreatmentbecomesyours.Just
becausepeoplearecurrentlyweakandpoordoesn’tmeanthattheirkamma
requiresthemtostayweakandpoor.There’snowayofknowing,fromthe
outside,whatotherkammicpotentialsarewaitingtosproutfromtheirpast.
Atthesametime,though,theBuddhaneverencouragedhisfollowersto
seekretribution,i.e.,punishmentforoldwrongs.Theconflictbetween
retributivejusticeandtruehappinessiswellillustratedbythefamousstory
ofAṅgulimāla(MN86).Aṅgulimālawasabanditwhohadkilledsomany
people—theCanoncountsatleast100;theCommentary,999—thathewore
agarland(māla)madeoftheirfingers(aṅguli).Yetafteranencounterwith
theBuddha,hehadsuchanextremechangeofheartthatheabandonedhis
violentways,awakenedasenseofcompassion,andeventuallybecamean
arahant.
Thestoryisapopularone,andmostofusliketoidentifywith
Aṅgulimāla:Ifapersonwithhishistorycouldgainawakening,there’shope
forusall.Butinidentifyingwithhim,weforgetthefeelingsofthosehehad
terrorizedandoftherelativesofthosehehadkilled.Afterall,hehad
literallygottenawaywithmurder.It’seasytounderstand,then,asthestory
tellsus,thatwhenAṅgulimālawasgoingforalmsafterhisawakening,
peoplewouldthrowstonesathim,andhe’dreturnfromhisalmsround,“his
headbrokenopenanddrippingwithblood,hisbowlbroken,andhisouter
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roberippedtoshreds.”AstheBuddhareassuredhim,hiswoundswere
nothingcomparedtothesufferingshewouldhaveundergoneifhehadn’t
reachedawakening.Andiftheoutragedpeoplehadfullysatisfiedtheir
thirstforjustice,metingoutthesufferingtheythoughthedeserved,he
wouldn’thavehadthechancetoreachawakeningatall.Sohiswasacasein
whichtheendofsufferingtookprecedenceoverjusticeinanycommon
senseoftheword.
Aṅgulimāla’scaseillustratesageneralprinciplestatedinAN3:101:If
theworkingsofkammarequiredstrict,tit-for-tatjustice—withyourhaving
toexperiencetheconsequencesofeachactjustasyouinflicteditonothers
—there’snowaythatanyonecouldreachtheendofsuffering.Thereason
wecanreachawakeningisbecauseeventhoughactionsofacertaintype
giveacorrespondingtypeofresult,theintensityofhowthatresultisfeltis
determined,notonlybytheoriginalaction,butalso—andmoreimportantly
—byourstateofmindwhentheresultsripen.Ifyou’vedevelopedunlimited
goodwillandequanimity,andhavetrainedwellinvirtue,discernment,and
theabilitytobeovercomeneitherbypleasurenorpain,thenwhenthe
resultsofpastbadactionsripen,you’llhardlyexperiencethematall.Ifyou
haven’ttrainedyourselfintheseways,theneventheresultsofatriflingbad
actcanconsignyoutohell.
TheBuddhaillustratesthisprinciplewiththreesimiles.Thefirstisthe
easiesttodigest:Theresultsofpastbadactionsarelikealargesaltcrystal.
Anuntrainedmindislikeasmallcupofwater;awell-trainedmind,likethe
waterinalarge,clearriver.Ifyouputthesaltintothewaterofthecup,you
can’tdrinkitbecauseit’stoosalty.Butifyouputthesaltintotheriver,you
canstilldrinkthewaterbecausethere’ssomuchmoreofitandit’ssoclean.
Allinall,anattractiveimage.
Theothertwosimiles,though,underscorethepointthattheprinciple
they’reillustratinggoesagainstsomeverybasicideasoffairness.Inone
simile,thebadactionislikethetheftofmoney;intheother,likethetheftof
agoat.Inbothsimiles,theuntrainedmindislikeapoorpersonwho,
becausehe’spoor,getsheavilypunishedforeitherofthesetwocrimes,
whereasthewell-trainedmindisliketherichpersonwho,becausehe’srich,
doesn’tgetpunishedforeithertheftatall.Inthesecases,theimagesare
muchlessattractive,buttheydrivehomethepointthat,forkammatowork
inawaythatrewardsthetrainingofthemindtoputanendtosuffering,it
can’tworkinsuchawayastoguaranteejustice.Ifweinsistedonasystem
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ofkammathatdidguaranteejustice,thepathtofreedomfromsuffering
wouldbeclosed.
Thissetofvalues,whichgivespreferencetohappinessoverjusticewhen
there’saconflictbetweenthetwo,doesn’tsitverywellwithmanyWestern
Buddhists.“Isn’tjusticealargerandnoblergoalthanhappiness?”wethink.
TheshortanswertothisquestionrelatestotheBuddha’scompassion:
Seeingthatwe’vealldonewronginthepast,hiscompassionextendedto
wrong-doersaswellastothosewho’vebeenwronged.Forthisreason,he
taughtthewaytotheendofsufferingregardlessofwhetherthatsuffering
was“deserved”ornot.
Forthelonganswer,though,wehavetoturnandlookatourselves.
ManyofusbornandeducatedintheWest,evenifwe’verejectedthe
monotheismthatshapedourculture,tendtoholdtotheideathatthereare
objectivestandardsofjusticetowhicheveryoneshouldconform.When
distressedovertheunfairstateofsociety,weoftenexpressourviewsfor
rightingwrongs,notassuggestionsofwisecoursesofaction,butas
objectivestandardsastohoweveryoneisduty-boundtoact.Wetendto
forget,though,thattheveryideathatthosestandardscouldbeobjectiveand
universallybindingmakessenseonlyinthecontextofamonotheistic
worldview:oneinwhichtheuniversewascreatedataspecificpointintime
—say,byAbraham’sGodorbyAristotle’sUnmovedMover—withaspecific
purpose.Inotherwords,wemaintaintheideaofobjectivejusticeeven
thoughwe’veabandonedtheworldviewthatunderpinstheideaandmakes
itvalid.
Forexample,retributivejustice—thejusticethatseekstorightold
wrongsbypunishingthefirstwrongdoerand/orthosewhoresponded
excessivelytothefirstwrong—demandsaspecificbeginningpointintime
sothatwecandeterminewhothrewthefirststoneandtallyupthescoreof
whodidwhatafterthatfirstprovocation.
Restorativejustice—thejusticethatseekstoreturnsituationstotheir
properstatebeforethefirststonewasthrown—requiresnotonlyaspecific
beginningpointintime,butalsothatthatbeginningpointbeagoodplace
towhichtoreturn.
Distributivejustice—thejusticethatseekstodeterminewhoshouldhave
what,andhowresourcesandopportunitiesshouldberedistributedfrom
thosewhohavethemtothosewhoshouldhavethem—requiresacommon
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source,aboveandbeyondindividuals,fromwhichallthingsflowandthat
setsthepurposesthosethingsshouldserve.
Onlywhentheirrespectiveconditionsaremetcantheseformsofjustice
beobjectiveandbindingonall.IntheBuddha’sworldview,though,noneof
theseconditionshold.PeoplehavetriedtoimportWesternideasof
objectivejusticeintotheBuddha’steachings—somehaveevensuggested
thatthiswillbeoneofthegreatWesterncontributionstoBuddhism,filling
inaseriouslack—butthereisnowaythatthoseideascanbeforcedonthe
DhammawithoutdoingseriousdamagetotheBuddhistworldview.This
fact,inandofitself,haspromptedmanypeopletoadvocatejettisoningthe
Buddhistworldviewandreplacingitwithsomethingclosertooneofour
own.Butacarefullookatthatworldview,andtheconsequencesthatthe
Buddhadrewfromit,showsthattheBuddha’steachingsonhowtofind
socialharmonywithoutrecoursetoobjectivestandardsofjusticehasmuch
torecommendit.
THEBUDDHADEVELOPEDHISWORLDVIEWfromthethreeknowledgeshe
gainedonthenightofhisawakening.
Inthefirstknowledge,hesawhisownpastlives,backforthousandsand
thousandsofeons,repeatedlyrisingandfallingthroughmanylevelsof
beingandthroughtheevolutionandcollapseofmanyuniverses.Ashelater
said,thebeginningpointoftheprocess—calledsaṁsāra,the“wandering-
on”—wasinconceivable.Notjustunknowable,inconceivable.
Inthesecondknowledge,hesawthattheprocessofdeathandrebirth
appliedtoallbeingsintheuniverse,andthat—becauseithadgoneonso
long—itwouldbehardtofindapersonwhohadneverbeenyourmother,
father,brother,sister,son,ordaughterinthecourseofthatlong,longtime.
Healsosawthattheprocesswaspoweredbyallthemanyactionsofallthe
manybeings,andthatitservesthedesignsofnoonebeinginparticular.As
oneDhammasummaryhasit,“Thereisnooneincharge”(MN82).This
meansthattheuniverseservesnoclearorsingularpurpose.What’smore,it
hasthepotentialtocontinuewithoutend.Unlikeamonotheisticuniverse,
withitscreatorpassingfinaljudgment,saṁsāraoffersnoprospectofafair
orjustclosure—oreven,apartfromnibbāna,anyclosureatall.
Inthecontextoftheseknowledges,it’shardtoregardthepursuitof
justiceasanabsolutegood,forthreemainreasons.
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•Tobeginwith,giventhelessonofthesaltcrystal—thatpeople
suffermorefromtheirmind-stateinthepresentthantheydofrom
theresultsofpastbadactionsplayingoutintheexternalworld—no
matterhowmuchjusticeyoutrytobringintotheworld,peopleare
stillgoingtosufferandbedissatisfiedaslongastheirmindsare
untrainedinthequalitiesthatmakethemimpervioustosuffering.
ThiswaswhytheBuddha,inrejectingMāra’srequest,madethe
commentaboutthetwomountainsofsolidgold.Notonlydopeople
sufferwhentheirmindsareuntrained,thequalitiesofanuntrained
mindalsoleadthemtodestroyanysystemofjusticethatmightbe
establishedintheworld.Aslongaspeople’smindsareuntrained,
justicewouldnotsolvetheproblemoftheirsuffering,norwoulditbe
abletolast.Thisfactholdsregardlessofwhetheryouadoptthe
Buddha’sviewoftheworldoramoremodernviewofacosmoswith
vastdimensionsoftimeandnoendinsight.
•Second,asnotedabove,theideaofajustresolutionofaconflict
requiresastorywithaclearbeginningpoint—andaclearendpoint.
ButinthelongtimeframeoftheBuddha’suniverse,thestorieshave
noclearbeginningand—potentially—noend.There’snowayto
determinewhodidwhatfirst,throughallourmanylifetimes,and
there’snowaythatafinaltallywouldeverstayfinal.Everythingis
sweptaway,onlytoregroup,againandagain.Thismeansthatjustice
cannotbeviewedasanend,forinthisuniversetherearenoends,
asidefromnibbāna.Youcan’tusejusticeasanendtojustifymeans,
forit—likeeverythingelseintheuniverse—isnothingbutmeans.
Harmonycanbefoundonlybymakingsurethatthemeansare
clearlygood.
•Third,forpeopletoagreeonastandardofjustice,theyhaveto
agreeonthestoriesthatjustifytheuseofforcetorightwrongs.Butin
auniversewheretheboundariesofstoriesareimpossibletoestablish,
there’snostorythateveryonewillagreeon.Thismeansthatthe
storieshavetobeimposed—afactthatholdsevenifyoudon’taccept
thepremisesofkammaandrebirth.Theresultisthatthestories,
insteadofunitingus,tendtodivideus:Thinkofallthereligiousand
politicalwars,therevolutionsandcounter-revolutions,thathave
startedoverconflictingstoriesofwhodidwhattowhomandwhy.
Theargumentsoverwhosestoriestobelievecanleadtopassions,
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conflicts,andstrifethat,fromtheperspectiveoftheBuddha’s
awakening,keepusboundtothesufferinginsaṁsāralongintothe
future.
Thesearesomeofthereasonswhy,aftergaininghisfirsttwo
knowledgesonthenightofawakening,theBuddhadecidedthatthebest
useofwhathehadlearnedwastoturninwardtofindthecausesofsaṁsāra
inhisownheartandmind,andtoescapefromkammaentirelybytraining
hismind.Thesearealsothereasonswhy,whenhetaughtothershowto
solvetheproblemofsuffering,hefocusedprimarilyontheinternalcauses
ofsuffering,andonlysecondarilyontheexternalones.
THISDOESN’TMEAN,though,thatthere’snoroomintheBuddha’s
teachingsforeffortstoaddressissuesofsocialinjustice.Afterall,the
Buddhahimselfwould,onoccasion,describetheconditionsforsocialpeace
andharmony,alongwiththerewardsthatcomefromhelpingthe
disadvantaged.However,healwayssubsumedhissocialteachingsunderthe
largerframeworkofhisteachingsonthewisepursuitofhappiness.When
notingthatawisekingshareshiswealthtoensurethathispeopleallhave
enoughtomakealiving,hepresenteditnotasanissueofjustice,butasa
wiseformofgenerositythatpromotesastablesociety.
Soifyouwanttopromoteaprogramofsocialchangethatwouldbetrue
toBuddhistprinciples,itwouldbewisetoheedtheBuddha’sframework
forunderstandingsocialwell-being,beginningwithhisteachingsonmerit.
Inotherwords,thepursuitofjustice,tobeinlinewiththeDhamma,hasto
beregardedaspartofapracticeofgenerosity,virtue,andthedevelopment
ofuniversalgoodwill.
Whatwouldthisentail?Tobeginwith,itwouldrequirefocusing
primarilyonthemeansbywhichchangewouldbepursued.Thechoiceofa
goal,aslongasyoufounditinspiring,wouldbeentirelyfree,butitwould
havetobeapproachedthroughmeritoriousmeans.
Thiswouldentailplacingthesameconditionsonthepursuitofjustice
thattheBuddhaplacedonthepracticeofmerit:
1)Peopleshouldbeencouragedtojoinintheeffortonlyoftheir
ownfreewill.Nodemands,noattemptstoimposesocialchangeasa
duty,andnoattemptstomakethemfeelguiltyfornotjoiningyour
cause.Instead,socialchangeshouldbepresentedasajoyous
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opportunityforexpressinggoodqualitiesoftheheart.Toborrowan
expressionfromtheCanon,thosequalitiesarebestpromotedby
embodyingthemyourself,andbyspeakinginpraiseofhowthose
practiceswillworkforthelong-termbenefitofanyoneelsewho
adoptsthem,too.
2)Effortsforchangeshouldnotinvolveharmingyourselfor
harmingothers.“Notharmingyourself,”inthecontextofgenerosity,
meansnotover-extendingyourself,andasimilarprinciplewould
applytonotharmingothers:Don’taskthemtomakesacrificesthat
wouldleadtotheirharm.“Notharmingyourself”inthecontextof
virtuewouldmeannotbreakingtheprecepts—e.g.,nokillingorlying
underanycircumstances—whereasnotharmingotherswouldmean
notgettingthemtobreaktheprecepts(AN4:99).Afterall,an
underlyingprincipleofkammaisthatpeopleareagentswhowill
receiveresultsinlinewiththetypeofactionstheyperform.Ifyoutry
topersuadethemtobreaktheprecepts,you’retryingtoincreasetheir
sufferingdowntheline.
3)Thegoodwillmotivatingtheseeffortswouldhavetobe
universal,withnoexceptions.IntheBuddha’sexpression,youwould
havetoprotectyourgoodwillatalltimes,willingtoriskyourlifefor
it,thesamewayamotherwouldriskherlifeforheronlychild(Sn
1:8).Thismeansmaintaininggoodwillforeveryone,regardlessof
whetherthey“deserve”it:goodwillforthosewhoyouseeasguiltyas
muchasforthoseyouseeasinnocent,andforthosewhodisapprove
ofyourprogramandstandinyourway,nomatterhowviolentor
unfairtheirresistancebecomes.Foryourprogramtoembody
universalgoodwill,youhavetomakesurethatitworksforthelong-
termbenefitevenofthosewhoinitiallyopposeit.
THEREARETWOMAINADVANTAGEStoviewingtheefforttobringabout
socialjusticeundertheframeworkofmerit.Thefirstisthat,by
encouraginggenerosity,virtue,andthedevelopmentofuniversalgoodwill,
you’readdressingtheinternalstatesofmindthatwouldleadtoinjusticeno
matterhowwellasocietymightbestructured.Generosityhelpsto
overcomethegreedthatleadspeopletotakeunfairadvantageofone
another.Virtuehelpstopreventthelies,thefts,andothercallousactions
thatdrivepeopleapart.Anduniversalgoodwillhelpstoovercomethe
variousformsoftribalismthatencouragefavoritismandotherformsof
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unfairness.
Second,generosity,virtue,anduniversalgoodwillare,inandof
themselves,goodactivities.Eventhoughyoumaybeinspiredbythestory
oftheBuddha’sawakeningtoengageinthem,they’resoclearlygoodthat
theyneednostorytojustifythem—andsotheywouldn’trequirethesortof
storiesthatwouldservesimplytodivideus.
Regardingattemptsatsocialchangeundertheprincipleofkamma
wouldalsoentailhavingtoaccepttheprinciplethatanyformsofinjustice
thatdonotrespondtotheactivitiesofmerithavetobetreatedwith
equanimity.Afterall,theresultsofsomepastbadactionsaresostrongthat
nothingcanbedonetostopthem.Andiftheycouldbealleviatednowonly
byunskillfulactions—suchaslies,killing,theft,orviolence—thetrade-off
intermsoflong-termconsequenceswouldn’tbeworthit.Anysuch
attemptswouldnot,intheBuddha’sanalysis,bewise.
Inareaslikethis,wehavetoreturntotheBuddha’smainfocus:the
causesofsufferinginside.Andthegoodnewshereisthatwedon’thaveto
waitforaperfectsocietytofindtruehappiness.It’spossibletoputanendto
ourownsufferings—tostop“saṁsāra-ing”—nomatterhowbadtheworldis
outside.Andthisshouldnotbeseenasaselfishpursuit.Itwouldactuallybe
moreselfishtomakepeopleashamedoftheirdesiretobefreesothatthey
willcomebacktohelpyouandyourfriendsestablishyourideasofjustice,
butwithnotrueendinsight.Afinal,establishedstateofjusticeisan
impossibility.Anunconditionedhappiness,availabletoallregardlessof
theirkarmicbackground,isnot.
Andtheroadtothathappinessisfarfromselfish.Itrequiresthe
activitiesofmerit—generosity,virtue,anduniversalgoodwill—which
alwaysspreadlong-termhappinessintheworld:ahappinessthathealsold
divisionsandcreatesnonewonesintheirplace.Inthisway,thosewho
attainthishappinessarelikethestarsthataresuckedoutofspaceandtime
toenterblackholesthatareactuallydensewithbrightness:Astheyleave,
theyunleashwavesofdazzlinglight.
69
AllWinners,NoLosersThe Buddha’s Teachings on Animosity & Forgiveness
Whenyouforgivesomeonewho’swrongedyou,itdoesn’terasethat
person’skarmainhavingdonewrong.Thisiswhysomepeoplethinkthat
forgivenesshasnoplaceinthekarmicuniverseoftheBuddha’steachings,
andthatit’sincompatiblewiththepracticeofwhathetaught.Butthat’snot
so.Forgivenessmaynotbeabletoundooldbadkamma,butitcanprevent
newbadkarmafrombeingdone.Thisisespeciallytruewiththebad
kammathatinPāliiscalledvera.Veraisoftentranslatedas“hostility,”
“animosity,”or“antagonism,”butit’saparticularinstanceoftheseattitudes:
thevengefulanimositythatwantstogetbackatsomeoneforperceived
wrongs.ThisattitudeiswhathasnoplaceinBuddhistpractice.Patience
canweakenit,butforgivenessiswhatclearsitoutoftheway.
TheDhammapada,apopularcollectionofearlyBuddhistpoems,speaks
ofveraintwocontexts.Thefirstiswhensomeonehasinjuredyou,and
you’dliketoinflictsomeinjuryback.Thesecondiswhenyou’velosta
contest—intheBuddha’stime,thisreferredprimarilytomilitarybattles,but
nowitcouldbeextendedtoanycompetitionwherelossentailsharm,
whetherrealoronlyperceived—andyouwanttogeteven.
Inbothcases,forgivenessiswhatputsanendtovera.Youresolvenotto
settlethescore,evenifsocietygrantsyoutherighttodoso,becauseyou
realizethat,fromthepointofviewofkarma,theonlyrealscoreincontests
likethisconsistsofmorebadkarmapointsforbothsides.So,inforgiving
theotherside,you’rebasicallypromisingyourselftoforegoany
opportunitytoaddtothescore.Youhavenoideahowmanylifetimesthis
particularkarmicmudfighthasbeengoingbackandforth,butyoudo
knowthattheonlywaytoenditistostopthevera,andiftheenddoesn’t
firststartwithyou,itmayneverarrive.
“He
insultedme,
hitme,
beatme,
robbedme”
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—forthosewhobroodonthis,
veraisn’tstilled.
“Heinsultedme,
hitme,
beatme,
robbedme”—
forthosewhodon’tbroodonthis,
veraisstilled.
Verasaren’tstilled
throughvera,
regardless.
Verasarestilled
throughnon-vera:
this,anunendingtruth.—Dhp3–5
Forgivenessisastanceyoumayhavetomakeunilaterally,within
yourself,butthereisthepossibilitythattheothersidewillbeinspiredby
yourexampletostopslingingmudaswell.Thatway,bothsideswillbenefit.
Yeteveniftheothersidedoesn’timmediatelyjoininthecease-fire,there
willcomeatimewhentheyloseinterest,andthatparticularback-and-forth
willdie.
TheBuddharecommendsthreetacticstohelpyoudealwithany
lingeringfeelingsthatthisstrategymightleaveyouonthelosingside,
victimizedwithoutrecourse.
•Thefirstistorememberthatwe’reallintheprocessofdying,and
youdon’twantthoughtsofveratogetinthewayofaskillfuldeath.
Thenarrativethat“Hewrongedme,andIwon’tfeelatpeaceuntilI
getbackathim”isnotoneyouwanttofocusonasdeathapproaches
—somethingit’sdoingallthetime.Otherwise,youmayfindyourself
rebornwithaveramission,whichisamiserablewaytolivealife.
You’vegotother,betterthingstodowithyourtime.
•Thesecondtacticistodevelopthoughtsofinfinitegoodwill,“free
fromvera,freefromillwill.”Thesethoughtsliftyourmindtothe
levelofaBrahmā,averyhighlevelofheavenlybeing,andfromthat
heightenedperspectivetheideaoftryingtofindsatisfactionin
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settlingoldscoresseems—asitactuallyis—pettyandmean.
•Thethirdtacticistotakeonthefiveprecepts:nokilling,no
stealing,noillicitsex,nolying,andnotakingintoxicants.Ever.Atall.
AstheBuddhanotes,whenyouholdtothesepreceptsinallyour
encounterswithothers,regardlessofwhotheyareorwhatthey’ve
done,yougiveuniversalsafetyfromdangerandvera—atleastfrom
yourquarter—toallbeings.Andbecausethatsafetyisuniversal,you
enjoyashareofthatsafetyyourself.
Asforthecasewhenyou’velostoutinacompetition,theBuddhasays
thatyoucanfindpeaceandendveraonlybyputtingwinningandlosing
aside.Todothis,youstartbytakingagoodlookatwhereyoutrytofind
happiness.Ifyoulookforitintermsofpowerormaterialpossessions,there
willalwaysbewinningandlosing.Ifyougainpower,forinstance,others
willhavetolose.Ifotherswin,youlose.AndastheBuddhasays,
Winninggivesbirthtovera.
Losing,oneliesdowninpain.—Dhp201
Butifyoudefinehappinessintermsofthepracticeofmerit—giving,
virtue,andmeditation—there’snoneedtocreatelosers.Everyonewins.
Whenyougive,otherpeoplenaturallygainwhatyou’vesharedwiththem;
yougainaspacioussenseofwealthwithinandtheloveandrespectof
otherswithout.Whenyou’revirtuous,abstainingfromharminganyone,
yougainfreedomfromremorseoveryouractions,whileothersgainsafety.
Whenyoumeditate,yougivelessreintoyourgreed,aversion,anddelusion,
sothatyousufferlessfromtheirdepredations,andotherpeopleareless
victimizedbytheirprowlingaroundaswell.
Thenyoufurtherreflect:
Greaterinbattle
thanthemanwhowouldconquer
athousand-thousandmen,
ishewhowouldconquer
justone—
himself.
Bettertoconqueryourself
thanothers.
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Whenyou’vetrainedyourself,
livinginconstantself-control,
neitheradevanorgandhabba,
noraMārabandedwithBrahmās,
couldturnthattriumph
backintodefeat.—Dhp103–105
Othervictoriescanbeundone—“settled”scores,inthelightofkarma
andrebirth,areneverreallysettled—butvictoryoveryourowngreed,
aversion,anddelusionissomethingthatlasts.It’stheonlyvictorythat
createsnovera,soit’stheonlyvictorythat’sreallysafeandsecure.
Butthisisn’tavictoryyoucanhopetoattainifyou’restillharboring
thoughtsofvera.Soinaworldwherewe’veallbeenharmedinonewayor
another,andwherewecouldalwaysfindoldscorestoavengeifwewanted
to,theonlywaytofindatrulysafevictoryinlifeistostartwiththoughtsof
forgiveness:thatyouwanttoposenodangertoanyoneatall,regardlessof
thewrongthey’vedone.Thisiswhyforgivenessisnotonlycompatiblewith
thepracticeoftheBuddha’steachings.It’sanecessaryfirststep.
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HowPointyisOne-pointedness?
APālisutta,MN44,definesconcentrationascittass’ek’aggatā,whichis
oftentranslatedas“one-pointednessofmind”:cittassa=“ofthemind”or“of
theheart,”eka=one,agga=point,-tā=-ness.MN117definesnobleright
concentrationasanyone-pointednessofmindsupportedbythefirstseven
factorsofthenoblepath,fromrightviewthroughrightmindfulness.MN
43statesfurtherthatone-pointednessisafactorofthefirstjhāna,the
beginninglevelofrightconcentration.
Fromthesepassages,ithasbeenarguedthatifone’sawarenessin
concentrationorjhānaistrulyone-pointed,itshouldbenolargerthana
point,whichmeansthatitwouldbeincapableofthinking,ofhearing
sounds,orevenofbeingawareofthephysicalbody.However,this
interpretationimposestoonarrowameaningonthewordek’aggatā,one
thatisforeigntothelinguisticusageofthePāliCanon.
A.Tobeginwith,aggahasmanyothermeaningsbesides“point.”Infact,
ithastwoprimaryclustersofmeanings,inneitherofwhichis“point”the
centralfocus.
Thefirstclustercentersonthefactthatasummitofamountainiscalled
itsagga.Clusteredaroundthismeaningareideasofaggaasthetopmostpart
ofsomething(suchastheridgeofaroof),thetipofsomething(suchasthe
tipofabladeofgrass),andthebestorsupremeexampleofsomething(such
astheBuddhaastheaggaofallbeings).AN5:80playswiththesemeanings
ofaggawhenitcriticizesmonksofthefuturewhowill“searchforthetiptop
flavors(ras’agga)withthetipofthetongue(jivh’agga).”
Thesecondclusterofmeaningsforaggacentersontheideaof“meeting
place.”Ahallwheremonksgatherfortheuposatha,forexample,iscalledan
uposath’agga.Thespotwheretheygatherfortheirmealsiscalledabhatt’agga.
Giventhattheobjectofconcentrationissaidtobeadwelling(vihāra),
andthatapersonentersanddwells(viharati)inthelevelsofjhāna,this
secondclusterofmeaningsmaybethemorerelevantonehere.Amindwith
asingleagga,inthiscase,wouldsimplybeamindgatheredaroundone
object,andneednotbereducedtoasinglepoint.
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B.Anevenmoretellingwaytodeterminethemeaningsofek’aggaand
ek’aggatāis,insteadofdividingthesewordsintotheirroots,tolookatthe
waysinwhichtheCanonusesthemtodescribeminds.
1.Twopassages,onefromtheVinayaandonefromasutta,showwhat
ek’aggameansintheeverydaycontextoflisteningtotheDhamma.
InMv.II.3.4,thephrase,“wepayattention,”intheinstructionsforhow
tolistentothePāṭimokkha,isdefinedas:“Welistenwithanek’aggamind,
anunscatteredmind,anundistractedmind.”Evenifek’aggaweretranslated
as“one-pointed”here,the“point”isobviouslynotsorestrictedastomake
theearsfallsilent.Otherwise,wewouldnotbeabletohearthePāṭimokkha
atall.Andthefactthatthemindisek’aggadoesn’tmeanthatwecan’talso
hearothersoundsasidefromthePāṭimokkha.It’sjustthatthosesounds
don’tmakethemindloseitsfocusonasingletheme.
InAN5:151,theBuddhalistsfivequalitiesthatenableone,when
listeningtothetrueDhamma,to“alightonassuredness,ontherightnessof
skillfulqualities.”Thefivequalitiesare:
“Onedoesn’tholdthetalkincontempt.
“Onedoesn’tholdthespeakerincontempt.
“Onedoesn’tholdoneselfincontempt.
“OnelistenstotheDhammawithanunscatteredmind,anek’agga
mind.
“Oneattendsappropriately.”
Becauseappropriateattentionmeanstocontemplateexperiencesin
termsofthefournobletruths(seeMN2),thispassageshowsthatwhenthe
mindisek’agga,it’snotonlyabletohear.Itcanalsothinkatthesametime.
Ifitcouldn’thearorthink,itcouldn’tmakesenseoftheDhammatalk.So
again,evenifwetranslateek’aggaas“one-pointed,”theone-pointedmindis
notsopointythatitcannotthinkorhearsounds.Thiswoulddefeatthe
purposeoflisteningtotheDhammaandwouldgetinthewayof“alighting
onassuredness.”
2.Asforthewayinwhichek’aggaisusedindescribingthemindin
concentration,apassageinMN43definesthefactorsofthefirstjhānaas
these:“directedthought,evaluation,rapture,pleasure,andone-pointedness
ofmind.”Ithasbeenarguedthatthisstatementcontainsacontradiction,in
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thatthecompilersofMN43didnotrealizethatone-pointednessprecludedthoughtandevaluation.Butperhapstheyknewtheirown
languagewellenoughtorealizethatek’aggatā—beinggatheredintooneness
—didnotprecludethepowersofthought.
3.Thestandardsimilesforrightconcentration(DN2;AN5:28;MN
119)allemphasizethatthemindinrightconcentrationisawareofthe
entirebody.Forexample,hereisthesimileforthehighestlevelofjhāna,the
fourth:
“Then,withtheabandoningofpleasure&pain—aswiththeearlier
disappearanceofjoys&distresses—heenters&remainsinthefourth
jhāna:purityofequanimity&mindfulness,neither-pleasure-nor-
pain.Hesits,permeatingthebodywithapure,brightawareness.Just
asifamanweresittingcoveredfromheadtofootwithawhitecloth
sothattherewouldbenopartofhisbodytowhichthewhitecloth
didnotextend;evenso,themonksits,permeatingthebodywitha
pure,brightawareness.Thereisnothingofhisentirebody
unpervadedbypure,brightawareness.”
Togetaroundthereferenceto“entirebody”inthesesimiles,thosewho
proposethataone-pointedmindcanbeawareofonlyonepointinterpret
“body”inthiscontextasmeaningapurelymentalbody,suchasthebodyof
one’sthoughts.Butthatwouldmean(a)thatthesimiles’emphasison
pervadingtheentirebodywouldbemeaninglessifthementalbodyis
reducedtoasmallpointand(b)thattheBuddhawasextremelysloppyand
misleadinginhischoiceofsimilestodescribeconcentration.Ifthepurpose
ofjhānaisblotoutawarenessofthebody,whywouldhechooseasimilefor
thefourthjhānainwhichtheentirebodyispervadedwithawareness?
4.MN52,MN111,andAN9:36showthattheabilitytouse
appropriateattentiontoanalyzeanyofthefourjhānaswhilestillinthe
stateofek’aggatāisanimportantskillinreachingawakening.Ineachcase,
thisanalysisentailsapplyingappropriateattention:seeingtheexperienceof
thejhānaintermsofthefournobletruths,andapplyingtheappropriate
dutytoeachtruth:comprehendingstress,abandoningitscause,realizingits
cessation,anddevelopingthepathtoitscessation.Forinstance,AN9:36
describeshow,aftermasteringthefirstjhāna,onemightanalyzeitinaway
thatleadstorelease:
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“Supposethatanarcherorarcher’sapprenticeweretopracticeon
astrawmanormoundofclay,sothatafterawhilehewouldbecome
abletoshootlongdistances,tofireaccurateshotsinrapidsuccession,
andtopiercegreatmasses.Inthesameway,thereisthecasewherea
monk,quitesecludedfromsensuality,secludedfromunskillful
qualities,enters&remainsinthefirstjhāna:rapture&pleasureborn
ofseclusion,accompaniedbydirectedthought&evaluation.He
regardswhateverphenomenatherethatareconnectedwithform,
feeling,perception,fabrications,&consciousness,asinconstant,
stressful,adisease,acancer,anarrow,painful,anaffliction,alien,a
disintegration,anemptiness,not-self.Heturnshismindawayfrom
thosephenomena,andhavingdoneso,inclineshismindtothe
propertyofdeathlessness:‘Thisispeace,thisisexquisite—the
resolutionofallfabrications;therelinquishmentofallacquisitions;
theendingofcraving;dispassion;cessation;unbinding.’
“Stayingrightthere,hereachestheendingoftheeffluents.Or,if
not,then—throughthisveryDhamma-passion,thisDhamma-delight,
andfromthetotalendingofthefivelowerfetters[self-identification
views,graspingathabits&practices,uncertainty,sensualpassion,and
irritation]—heisduetoarisespontaneously(inthePureAbodes),
theretobetotallyunbound,neveragaintoreturnfromthatworld.”
AsMN111makesespeciallyclear,thissortofanalysiscanbe
accomplishedwhileoneisstillinthestateofjhāna.Toviewthephenomena
experiencedinthefirstjhānaintermsofform,feeling,perception,
fabrication,andconsciousnessistoregardthemasinstancesofthefive
clinging-aggregates,whichisthedefinitionofthefirstnobletruth.To
regardthemasinconstant,etc.,istoapplythedutyappropriatetothefirst
nobletruth,whichistocomprehendthattruthtothepointofdispassion
(SN22:23).
Inthisway,theBuddha’srecommendationsforalightingonthe
DhammawhileinjhānaparallelthoseforalightingontheDhammawhile
listeningtoaDhammatalk:Don’tholdtheBuddhaincontempt,i.e.,givehis
teachingsafairhearingandafairtest.Showyourlackofcontemptforyour
meditationobjectbygivingityourfullattentionandmastering
concentration.Showyourlackofcontemptforyourselfbyconvincing
yourselfthatyoucandothis.Gatherthemindarounditsoneobject.And
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analyzethecomponentfactorsofthemind’sone-pointednesswith
appropriateattention.
Thisabilitytoanalyzeastateofconcentrationinthiswaywhilethe
mindisstillgatheredarounditssingleobjectisacrucialskillinattaining
release.Forthisreason,thetermthatdefinesconcentration—
cittass’ek’aggatā—shouldn’tbedefinedinsonarrowasensethatitwould
obstructanyeffortstomasterthatskillandgainitsbenefits.
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TheLimitsofDescriptionNot-self Revisited
TheBuddhaoncedividedhisteachingsintotwocategories:thosewhose
meaninghasbeenfullydrawnout,andthosewhosemeaningshouldbe
inferred(AN2:24).Whendealingwithateachinginthefirstcategory,he
said,tryingtodrawfurtherimplicationsfromitwouldactuallybeanactof
slanderinghim.Whendealingwithateachinginthesecondcategory,not
drawingoutitsfurtherimplicationswouldbeanactofslanderinghim.
Unfortunately,theBuddhadidn’tgiveexamplesofwhichteachings
belongedtowhichcategory.Still,thesimplefactthathedistinguished
betweenthesetwocategoriesmakesanimportantstatementabouthis
teachingsasawhole:Hewasn’ttryingtosetoutasystematicallyconsistent
descriptionofreality.Ifhehadbeen,theexistenceofthefirstcategory—
teachingsthatshouldn’thaveinferencesdrawnfromthem—wouldhave
beenanadmissionoffailure:Totrytopreventhislistenersfromexploring
theimplicationsofsomeofhisstatementswouldbeanattempttokeep
thoselistenersfromseeingthattheywereinconsistentwiththerestofthe
system.
ButastheBuddhasaidonseveraloccasions,theessenceofallhis
teachingswastoleadtorelease(MN29–30).Inotherwords,hiswords
werenevermeanttobejustdescriptive.Theywereprimarilyperformative:
meanttobeputtousetohaveaneffectonthemind.Insomecases,the
propereffectwastobeachievedbytakinghiswordsjustastheywere.In
others,itwasbestachievedbyexploringtheimplicationsofthewords.But
innocasewerethewordsendsinthemselves.
ThispointrelatestotheBuddha’sobservationsabouttheusesand
limitationsoflanguage.OneofthestandardCanonicaldescriptionsofhow
toaskaboutthemeaningofanexpressionis“towhatextentisthisso?”In
otherwords,“howfaristhismeanttobetrue?”Thiscouldbetakensimply
asanidiomaticexpressionwithnodeepermeaning,exceptthatthe
realizationsleadingtoreleaseinclude“havingdirectlyknowntheextentof
designationandtheextentoftheobjectsofdesignation,theextentof
expressionandtheextentoftheobjectsofexpression,theextentof
descriptionandtheextentoftheobjectsofdescription,theextentof
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discernmentandtheextentoftheobjectsofdiscernment”(DN15).Tosee
theextentofthesethingsmeanstoseeboththelimitationsoflanguage,
descriptions,anddefinitions,andwhatliesbeyondthem:theunfabricated
dimensionofunbinding(nibbāna).
Evenastream-enterer—onewhohashadhis/herfirsttasteofawakening
—issaidtohaveseenthedrawbacksofthefacultyofdiscernment,whichis
equivalenttorightview,andalsotheescapefromit(SN48:3).Ontheway
toawakening,apersonwhoappliesthehighestlevelofrightviewtothe
arisingandpassingawayofcontactatthesensesissaidtoenteramental
statewhereeventhoughtsof“existence”and“non-existence”withreference
totheworldofthesixsensesdon’toccurtothemind(SN12:15).Having
beenthroughsuchanexperience—andtheresultingrelease—it’shardto
imaginethatsuchapersonwouldthengivetotal,unlimitedapprovalto
statementsabouttheexistenceornon-existenceofanythingintheworld.
Truths,evenwhentrue,havetheirlimits.Thisiswhythetextssooften
speakderisivelyofsectarianswhodefendaviewsaying,“Onlythisistrue;
anythingotherwiseisworthless”(AN10:93).
Theneedultimatelytogobeyondwordsanddiscernmentcomesfrom
thefactthattheyaremadeofperceptionsandthought-fabrications,which
areaggregatescomingundertheterm“name”in“name-and-form.”Aswith
allaggregates,eventhestatementsofrightview,aftertheyhavedonetheir
work,havetobeabandonedforthemindtogainrelease.Butmorethan
that:Aperceptionmaybetrueasfarasitgoes,buttherearelimitationsto
howfaritcango,andasDN15indicates,there’saneedtoseethose
limitations.Inonepassage,theBuddhagoestotheextentofidentifying
onlyonethingasreallytrue:unbinding.
“Seetheworld,togetherwithitsdevas,
supposingnot-selftobeself.
Entrenchedinname-and-form,
theysupposethat‘Thisistrue.’
Inwhatevertermstheysupposeit,
itturnsintosomethingotherthanthat,
andthat’swhat’sfalseaboutit:
Changing,
it’sdeceptivebynature.
Undeceptivebynature
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isunbinding:
Thatthenobleonesknow
astrue.
They,throughbreakingthrough
tothetruth,
hunger-free,
aretotallyunbound.”—Sn3:12
This,however,doesn’tmeanthattheBuddhameantforhiswordsonly
tobeperformativewithouttryingtomakethemaccurateasdescriptions.
Heneverdealtin“usefulfictions.”AshesaidinMN58,hiswordswere
alwaystrue,beneficial,andtimely.Inhisanalysisofwhatthatmeant,he
gavenoroomtothepossibilitythatanystatementcouldbeeitherbeneficial
ortimelyifitwerefalse.Buthavingseenwhatliesbeyondlanguage,and
makingthedimensionbeyondlanguagethegoalofhisteaching,hemust
havebeenverysensitivetothelimitsofhowfarastatementcouldbetrue.
Thisiswhy,asateacher,hismainconcernwastousetruestatementsin
suchawaythattheywouldleadthelistenertoactinsuchawayastoleadto
release.Andthisiswhyhewouldavoidansweringquestionsontopics
wherestatementsofanykindwouldnotleadinthatdirection.It’spossible
tofindatleast60questionsinthesuttasthattheBuddhaorhisarahant
disciplesputasideonthegroundsthatanyattempttoanswerthemwould
actuallygetinthewayofawakening(seeSkillinQuestions,chaptereight).
SowheninterpretingtheBuddha’steachings,it’simportantnottofall
intothescholarlybiasthattriestocapturetheviewsofanawakenedperson
inthenetofitslanguage.Thisappliesbothtoattemptstodrawimplications
fromhiswordstoanswerquestionsthatheputaside—which,asAN2:24
notes,wouldbeakintoslanderinghim—andtoattemptstodepictthe
practiceasaprocessofleadingthemeditatorsimplytogivefullassentto
theaccuracyoftheBuddha’steachingsasadescriptionofreality.To
capturethepracticeinanetofwordsinthesewaysistomissthemeaning
andpurposeoftheBuddha’steachingsentirely.
* * *
Thesereflectionsweresparkedrecentlybyreadingacritiqueofan
articleIwrotein1993,called“TheNot-selfStrategy.”Thethesisofthat
article—whichIrevisedin2013bothtotightenandtoexpandthe
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presentation—wasthattheBuddhaintendedhisteachingonnot-self
(anattā),notasananswertothemetaphysical/ontologicalquestion,“Isthere
aself?”butasastrategyforcuttingthroughclingingtothefiveaggregates
andsotoputanendtosuffering.ThemainargumentIpresentedinsupport
ofthisthesisinbothversionsofthearticlewasthattheonetimethe
Buddhawasaskedpoint-blank,“Isthereaself?”…“Istherenoself?”he
remainedsilent(SN44:10).Similarly,inMN2,hestatedthatsuch
questionsas“DoIexist?”“DoInotexist?”and“WhatamI?”arenotworthy
ofattentionbecausetheyleadtoconclusionsthatfetterapersonina
“thicketofviews”anda“fetterofviews,”includingtheviewsthat“Ihavea
self”and“Ihavenoself.”Inotherwords,anyattempttoanswerthese
questionsconstitutedasideroadawayfromthepathofrightpractice.
Thecritique—“AnattāasStrategyandOntology,”writtenbyVen.
BhikkhuBodhi—wasbroughttomyattentionjustoveramonthago,even
thoughithasapparentlybeenaroundforsometime.Ittakesissuebothwith
thethesisandwiththeargumentofmyarticle,butindoingsoitdisplays
thescholarlybiasmentionedabove:thatthepracticeoftheBuddha’s
teachingsisprimarilyaprocessofleadingthemeditatortogivefullassent
totheaccuracyofthoseteachingsasadescriptionofreality,andthatthis
assentiswhatfreesthemindfromsuffering.Becausethisbiasisnotonly
thebiasofthecritique,butofsomuchthoughtintheBuddhistworld,I
thoughtitmightbeusefultoexplorehowboththethesisofthecritiqueand
theargumentsusedinsupportofthatthesisdisplaythisbias,sothatitcan
berecognizedforwhatitisnotonlyinthiscasebutalsoinotherBuddhist
writings.
Foreaseofreference,Iwillstatethecritique’smainpointsina
numberedformat.Intheresponsetothosepoints,Iwillavoid—except
wherenecessary—repeatingargumentsalreadymadein“TheNot-self
Strategy.”Ifyouareinterestedinthefullargumentpresentedinthatarticle,
Irecommendthatyoureadthe2013version,availableintheessay
collection,Noble&True.
Thebasicthesisofthecritiqueisactuallyanancientone,withalong
historyintheBuddhistphilosophicaltradition.Itcanbesummarizedinthe
formofasyllogism:
1.FortheBuddha,theterm“self”hastomeanasubstantial,
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permanent,unchangingessence.
2.Personalidentity—whatyoureallyare—iscomposedof
conditionedelementsthatareconstantlychanging.
Therefore:3.Thereisnoself.
ThecritiqueadmitsthattheBuddhaneverassentedtothestatement
“Thereisnoself,”butmaintainsthathehadtwopragmaticreasonsfornot
directlystatingthistruththatisimplicitinhisteachings.
4.Thefirstisthat,becausetheviewofanunderlyingsubstantial
selfissodeeplyingrainedintheunawakenedmind,thesimple,direct
statementthatthereisnoselfwouldnotuprootit.Instead,the
meditatorwouldcometothatconclusiononlythroughtheindirect
meansofexaminingeachelementofhis/herpersonalidentitytosee
thatnoneofthoseelementswerepermanentinthemselvesorhadan
essentialrelationshiptoanythingpermanent.
5.Thesecondreasonisthattheannihilationists—sectarianswho
arguedthatdeathwastheendofconsciousnessandpersonalidentity
—alsotaughtthatthereisnoself,sotosimplystatethistruthmight
misleadpeopleintothinkingthattheBuddhawassidingwiththe
annihilationists.
Despitethepotentialdrawbackcitedinpointfive,thecritiqueargues
that,withproperexplanation,itcanbeavoided,andthatthereisstill
practicalvalueinstatingtheabstractprinciplelyingimplicitlybehindthe
Buddha’sindirectapproachforthreereasons:
6.Thefactthatthereisnoselfiswhatmakestheteachingonnot-
selfworkasastrategy.
7.Theattainmentofstream-entryiswhatfreesthemeditatorfrom
themistakenbeliefthatthereisanunchangingcoretopersonal
identity.
8.Therefore,tohelpapersonaimingatstream-entry,itis
importanttostatethatthenot-selfteachingisnotonlyastrategybut
alsoastatementofanontologicaltruth:Thereisnoself.
9.Finally,theauthorassertsthatthenot-selfteachingcannotbe
saidtohaveonlyastrategicpurposebecausetherightviewthatthere
isnopermanentselfisnotjustafactorofthepathforthosein
training,butisalsoaninalienableendowmentforthearahant.
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ThecritiquecitesseveralpassagesfromthePāliCanontosupportthese
points.However,whenweexaminethesepointsbothontheirownmerits
andinrelationshiptothepassagesmeanttosupportthem,wefindthatthe
scholarlybiasbehindthemturnstheBuddha’steachingsintothethicketof
viewsthattheBuddhaexpresslywarnedagainstentering.
By Definition
1.Thefirstpointinthecritique’sthesismakesitscasethrougha
definition:One’sidentityhastobepermanenttocountasa“self.”The
Buddha,however,neverdefined“self”inthisway.Beforelookingatthe
critique’stextualargumentforinferringthisdefinitionfromapassagein
theCanon,it’sworthlookingatthehistoricalandpracticalreasonsfor
callingtheinferenceintoquestion.
a.Historical.Thereisapopularbelief,promotedbymanyscholars,that
theBuddhaformulatedhisnot-selfteachingprimarilyinresponsetothe
Upaniṣadicdoctrineofapermanent,unchangingself,identicalwiththe
groundofbeingforthecosmos.Thusitisonlynaturalthat“self,”inthe
timeoftheBuddha,meantapermanentunchangingessencelyingatthe
coreofone’sidentity.
However,thisbeliefmissestwoimportantfacts.
ThefirstisthatthePāliCanoncitesawidevarietyofbeliefsaboutthe
selfcurrentintheBuddha’stime,andmanyofthemproposedaselfthat
wasfinite—i.e.,itcomestoanend—andsubjecttochange.DN15provides
aframeworkforclassifyingthedifferentpossibleviewsaboutself,starting
withfourtypesofself:possessedofformandfinite,possessedofformand
infinite,formlessandfinite,andformlessandinfinite.Further,beliefsabout
eachofthesefourtypesstatethattheselfiseitheralreadythatway,orthat
itnaturallybecomesthatway(forinstance,atdeathorwhenfallingasleep),
orthatitcanbemadetobecomethatway(throughpracticeofonesortor
another).Combiningthesetwolistsgivesaltogether12typesofself-
doctrines,onlytwoofwhichteachanunchangingself:theselfalready
possessedofformandinfinite,andtheselfalreadyformlessandinfinite.In
addition,DN1citessevenannihilationistviewsabouttheself—three
definingtheselfaspossessedofform,fourdefiningitasformless—that
perishedatdeath.
Moreover,therearetwoinstanceswheretheBuddha,whenmentioning
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theviewofapermanent,unchangingself,identicalwiththecosmos(MN2;
SN22:81),mentionsitalongsideotherviewsoftheself,implyingthatitis
simplyaparticularinstanceofself-view,andnottheonlyoneheistryingto
refute.InMN2,hementionsitasaspecialcaseoftheview,“Ihaveaself.”
InSN22:81,hementionsitasanadditionalcaseafterdiscussingtwenty
waysinwhichaself-viewcanbeconstructedaroundthefiveaggregates.
Soit’sclearthatthepermanent,unchangingselfmentionedinsomeof
theUpaniṣads(suchasBṛhad-āraṇyakaI.4.7–10andChāndogyaIII.14.2–3)
wasnottheonlyself-viewtheBuddhawasaddressingwithhisnot-self
teaching.
Thesecondfactmissedbythepopularbeliefabouttheprimacyofthe
UpaniṣadicviewoftheselfattheBuddha’stimeisthatthemajorUpaniṣads
arenotunanimousinthewaystheydefinetheself.It’simpossibletoknow
whetheralloftheseUpaniṣadsexistedatthetimeoftheBuddha,butit’s
enlighteningtonotethatthemajoronesofferavarietyofdoctrinesofthe
selfthatfallintoatleasteight,andperhapsnine,ofthecategorieslistedin
DN15,includingdoctrinesthatdescribetheselfasalreadypossessedof
formandfinite(Bṛhad-āraṇyakaII.5.1;MaitrīVI.11)andnaturally
becomingpossessedofformandfinite(Bṛhad-āraṇyakaIV.3.19–21).In
otherwords,evensomeoftheUpaniṣadstaughttheselfwasimpermanent.
SoitmighthavebeenthecasethattheBuddhaderivedmanyofthe
categoriesofhisframeworkinDN15atleastpartlyfromthewidevariety
ofself-viewsintheUpaniṣads.
Sotheideaofapermanentselfdidnothaveamonopolyinthetimeof
theBuddha.Thismeansthatifheweregoingtoinsistarbitrarily,asa
crucialassumption,thataselfhadtobepermanenttoqualifyasaself,he
wouldhavehadtopresentacasetodefendthatdefinition.Butheneverdid.
Soit’sunlikelythatthisassumptionshouldbeinferredfromhisteachings.
b.Practical.Oneofthefettersabandonedatstream-entryisthefetterof
identityviews.TheCanonshowsthattheseviewsrelatetovariouswaysof
conceivingtheselfinrelationtothefiveaggregates.However,torestrict
thedefinitionof“self”inthiscasetoapermanent,unchangingessence
raisesmanypracticalquestions:Whywouldabeliefinapermanentselfbe
anymoreofafetterthanabeliefinanimpermanentself?Andifthe
annihilationists,asDN1shows,believeinanimpermanentself,doesthat
meanthattheyhavealreadydroppedthefetterofidentityviews?Ifso,why
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doestheBuddhasinglethemoutasholdingtoaviewthatisparticularlyevil
(pāpaka)?Practicalexperienceshowsthatpeoplewhodefinetheirbodyas
theirself,knowingthatitwillperishatdeath,areevenmoreattachedtoit,
andwilldoworsethingstoensureitssurvival,thandopeoplewhobelieve
thattheselfsurvivesdeath.Andtherecentembraceofgenderfluidityhas
shownthatpeoplewillclingjustasfirmlytothefluidityofanidentitythey
knowtobefluidastheywilltoanidentitythattheythinkispermanent.
Sotoinsistthataself-viewhastopositapermanentselfinordertobea
fettermakesnopracticalsense.
c.Textual.ThepassagethecritiqueusestoinferthattheBuddhaassumed
implicitlythattheterm“self”hadtomeanapermanent,unchangingessence
comesfromMN148.Inthispassage,theBuddhaarguesthatit’snot
tenabletoviewthesenses,theirobjects—alongwithconsciousness,contact,
feeling,andcravingbasedonthesensesandtheirobjects—asself.The
reasoningineachcasefollowsthesamepattern,andcanbeillustratedwith
theBuddha’sargumentfocusedonthefirstsense,theeye:
“Ifanyoneweretosay,‘Theeyeistheself,’thatwouldn’tbe
tenable.Thearisingandfallingawayoftheeyearediscerned.And
whenitsarisingandfallingawayarediscerned,itwouldfollowthat
‘Myselfarisesandfallsaway.’That’swhyitwouldn’tbetenableif
anyoneweretosay,‘Theeyeistheself.’Sotheeyeisnot-self.”
AlthoughitmightbepossibletoinferfromthispassagethattheBuddha
assumesthatselfmustbedefinedassomethingpermanent—notsubjectto
arisingandfallingaway—theabove-mentioneddifficultiesthatwould
followfromthisinferencesuggestthattheremustbeabetterwayto
construetheBuddha’sreasoninghere.Andthereis,oneinherentinanyidea
ofself:Theself,whetherpermanentornot,can’twatchitselfariseandpass
away.Todiscernitsarising,itwouldhavetobetherebeforeitsarising;to
discernitspassingway,itwouldhavetosurviveitspassingaway.This
meansthatwhateverit’sdiscerningasarisingandpassingawaycan’tbethe
samethingthatitis.Whichmeansthatthat“whatever”isn’titsself.
Thisinterpretationavoidstheabovedifficultiesofinsistingthat“self”
hastomeanapermanent,unchangingessencebecauseitfocusesonafact
inherentineveryideaofself,andisnotanarbitraryassumptionwithlittle
practicalvalue.Italsoallowsforthefactthatclingingtotheideaofan
impermanentselfcanbeafetter.Soit’sapreferablewayofinterpretingthis
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passage.
Atthesametime,thisinterpretationisinlinewiththemeaningofthe
term,anicca,whichtheBuddhafrequentlyusedinconnectionwiththe
teachingonnot-self,andwhichisalltoooftentranslatedas“impermanent.”
Actually,thetermisthenegativeformofnicca,or“constant.”Tosaythatthe
aggregatesareaniccaisnottosaythattheydon’tlastforever,butthat
they’reinconstant:unreliableandfluctuating.Theirarisingandpassing
awayisdiscernibleinthepresentmoment.Thisobservablefactiswhatcan
leadtothevaluejudgmentthattheyarenotworthyofregardingasself.
Sothere’snobasisintheCanonforsupportingthefirstpointofthe
critique,thattheword“self”intheBuddha’steachingshastomeana
permanentunchangingessence.
A Distinction without a Difference
2.Giventhat“self”intheBuddha’steachingsdoesn’thavetomeana
permanentessence,it’samistaketodistinguish—asthecritique’ssecond
premisedoes—between“self”and“constituentsofpersonalidentity”—i.e.,
whatyouare.“Whatyouare”isthesamethingasyourself,regardlessof
whetherthatidentityispermanentornot.
Thefactthat,fortheBuddha,thiswouldcountasadistinctionwithouta
differenceisshownbythequestionnairehefrequentlyusedtoleadhis
listenerstotheconclusionthattheaggregatesarenot-self.Witheach
aggregate,hewouldask,“Isitconstantorinconstant?”Theanswer:
“Inconstant.”Thequestionnairewouldthenproceedasfollows:
“Andisthatwhichisinconstanteasefulorstressful?”
“Stressful,lord.”
“Andisitfittingtoregardwhatisinconstant,stressful,subjectto
changeas:‘Thisismine.Thisismyself.ThisiswhatIam’?[or:‘Iam
this’?]”
“No,lord.”
Hewouldthenconclude,takingformasanexample:
“Everyformistobeseenwithrightdiscernmentasithascometo
be:‘Thisisnotmine.Thisisnotmyself.ThisisnotwhatIam.’[or:‘I
amnotthis.’]”—SN22:59
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NoticethattheBuddhaheretreatsthesetwosentences—‘Thisismyself’
and‘ThisiswhatIam’[or:‘Iamthis’]—asequivalent.Inotherwords,the
fiveaggregatesarenotyourself,noraretheywhatyouare.Thecritique,
however,wantstomakeadistinctionhere,sayingthatthefiveaggregates
arewhatyouare,eventhoughtheydon’tqualifyasaself,forcinga
distinctionwheretheBuddhadoesn’tseeone.Fromhispointofview,tosay
thatthefiveaggregatescompriseyouridentity—i.e.,what-you-are—even
thoughyourealizethattheyareimpermanent,isthesamethingassaying
thatthey’reyourself.This,ofcourse,wouldgodirectlyagainstthepointhe
istryingtomakewiththisquestionnaire,thattheaggregatesarenotworth
identifyingwithinanywayatall.
ThefactthattheCanontreats“thisismyself”asequivalentto“Iamthis”
or“Iamthat”isalsoshownbythewayitdefinesthefetterofidentityview,
oneofthethreefettersabandonedonthefirstlevelofawakening.MN44
definesidentityviewasanyoneof20waysofassumingaselfaroundthe
aggregates.SN22:89equatestheassumptionofaselfaroundanyofthe
aggregateswiththeassumptionof“Iamthis”withregardthoseaggregates.
(Thisiswhytheannihilationistswhosaythattheselfperishesatdeath(DN
1)arestillfetteredwithidentityview.)So,asfarastheCanonisconcerned,
thecritique’sdistinctionbetween“self”and“whatyouare”indicatesno
differenceatall.
Wefindthatthisfalsedistinctionrunsintoevenmoreseriousproblems
whenweconsiderwhatitwouldmeanforthepost-mortemfateofthe
arahant.Becausetheaggregatesendwiththeattainingoftotalunbindingat
thedeathofthearahant,tosaythatthechangingaggregatesthatconstitute
yourpersonalidentitythroughmanylifetimeswouldendatdeathifyou
haveattainedunbindingwouldbeaself-viewfallingunderoneofthe
twelvecategoriessetoutinDN15:theselfpossessedofformthatisnot
alreadyfinite,anddoesnotnaturallybecomethatwayonitsown,butcan
bemadetobecomethatwaythroughpractice.Althoughthisviewisnot
identicalwiththeannihilationistviewthateveryselfperishesatdeath,it
doesconstituteatypeofannihilationismwhenitcomestothedeathofan
arahant:Anarahant,whoseidentityconsistedofthefiveaggregatespriorto
death,wouldnolongerexistafterdeath.
TheBuddha,however,wasalwaysextremelycarefultoavoidthe
positionthatanarahantdoesnotexistafterdeath.Infact,SN22:85goesso
farastolabelitan“evil(pāpaka)viewpoint.”Whenpresentedwiththe
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fourfoldquestionastowhetheranawakenedone—calledaTathāgata,
meaningaBuddhaoranarahantdisciple—existed,didn’texist,bothexisted
anddidn’texist,orneitherexistednordidn’texistafterdeath—herefused
toagreetoanyofthealternatives.Ifheheldtheunspokenassumptionthat
therereallyisnoself,thenhewouldn’thavehadtotakesuchpainstoavoid
takingastandontheissue:Thearahant,beingcomposedofthefive
aggregates,simplywouldnotexistafterdeath.ButbecausetheBuddhawas
socarefulnottotakethatposition,andtoevenregarditasevil,showsthat
hedidnotviewthefiveaggregatesasconstitutingone’sidentity,anddid
notholdtotheunspokenassumptionthatthereisnoself.
Sothesearesomeofthetextualinconsistenciesthatcomefrom
identifyingtheaggregatesastheconstituentsofpersonalidentity.Theycan
allbeavoided,however,byfollowingtheBuddha’sexample:
a)byregardingtheaggregatesnotastheconstituentsofyour
personalidentity,butastherawmaterialfromwhich,throughthe
activitiesofahaṅkāraandmamaṅkāra,“I-making”and“my-making,”
youconstructyouridentity;and
b)byatthesametimepayingnoattentiontothequestionof
whetherornotthereisaselflyingbehindthatactivity.
InfollowingtheBuddha’sstrategyhere,weavoidnotonlythetextual
inconsistenciescitedabove,butalsosomeverypracticalproblemsthat
wouldcomefromassumingeithertheexistenceorthenon-existenceofa
selflyingbehindtheactivityofI-makingandmy-making.AstheBuddha
notesinSN44:10,toassumethatthereisaselflyingbehindthatactivity
wouldgetinthewayofapplyingtheperceptionofnot-selftoall
phenomena.You’dbecontinuallylookingforthatself,andwouldprotectit
whenyouthoughtyouhadfoundit.Thatway,therewouldstillbeanarea
ofexperiencesubjecttoclinging—andsubtlesuffering—thatwouldnever
getabandoned.
Ontheotherhand,ifyouassumedthattherewasnoselflyingbehind
yourI-makingandmy-making,you’dfallintoeitherofthetwoextremes
listedinIti49:Eitheryouwouldfearthat,withtheendingofI-makingand
my-making,therewouldnolongerbeanyyou,andsoyou’dbeafraidtoput
anendtoyourcreationofasenseofself;orelse,eagerforthedestructionof
yourI-madeself,you’dfallintotheextremeofcravingfornon-becoming.
AstheBuddhanotedinMN49andSN56:11,cravingfornon-becoming
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paradoxicallyleadstomorebecominganditsattendantsuffering.Soin
eithercase,yourassumptionsabouttheexistenceornon-existenceofaself
wouldgetinthewayofrelease.
Iti49describesbrieflythewayoutofthisdilemma:seeingwhathas
cometobeascometobe—inotherwords,seeingwhatisactuallyoccurring
simplyasactuallyoccurring—anddevelopingdispassionforit.SN12:15,
notedabove,helpstoexplainhowthisworks:Byfocusingonthe
originationandpassingawayofeventsatthesixsenses,themindentersa
statewherethoughtsof“existence”and“non-existence”don’toccurtoit.In
thatstate,questionsoftheexistenceornon-existenceoftheselfalsodon’t
arise,asyou’refocusedpurelyonthesufferinginherentinwhatever
phenomenaareoriginatedandpassaway.Thismakesiteasiertoletgoof
thedesirefuelingthosephenomenawithnoconcernforwhatthis
contemplationwoulddototheexistenceofa“self,”andinthatwaythe
mindcangainrelease.
Asforthequestionofthestatusofthearahantafterdeath,theBuddha
notesinSN23:2thata“being”isdefinedbyattachmenttotheaggregates.
Wherethereisnoattachment,nobeingcanbelocated.Andwhennobeing
canbelocatedtodefinewhatitis,nothingcanproperlybesaidaboutit.
ThisiswhySN22:85–86makethepointthat,whenyoucan’tevendefinea
fullyawakenedpersoninthepresentlife,howcanyoupredicateanything
aboutawakenedpeopleaftertheydie?
Further Implications
3.Becausethetwopremisesofthesyllogismlyingattheheartofthe
criticismof“TheNot-selfStrategy”arefalse,theconclusionbasedonthem
isunfounded.Inotherwords,it’samistaketoattributetotheBuddhaan
unspokenassumptionthatthereisnoself.Thismeansthattheremaining
pointsdependentonthesyllogismalsodon’tfollow.However,some
importantpracticalandinterpretivelessonscanbedrawnfromconsidering
exactlywheresomeofthosepointsgoastray.HereIwillfocusonlyonthe
pointsthatareusefultoconsiderinthisway:5,6,and9.
5.PointfiveclaimsthattheBuddhaavoidedsayingthatthereisnoself
becauseitwouldhaveconfusedsomeofhislistenersintothinkingthathe
wassidingwiththeannihilationistviewthatdeathisautomatically
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annihilation.
Onanimmediatelevel,it’shardnottobeamazedatmoderninterpreters
whothinkthat,althoughtheBuddharefusedtostatethatthereisnoselffor
fearthatthisstatementwouldcauseconfusionamonghislisteners,theycan
makethisstatementatpresentonhisbehalfwithoutcausingconfusion
amongtheirs.
However,thatpointaside,thecritiquebolstersitsclaimherewithan
assertionthathastobeaddressed.Theassertionisthis:When,inSN44:10
andMN2,theBuddharefusestoacceptthestatementthatthereisnoself,
hisrefusalcanbeexplainedbecause“thereisnoself”isanannihilationist
thesisandhecan’tconsenttotheconsequencesthattheannihilationists
drawfromthatthesis,thatthereisnoconscioussurvivalbeyondthe
presentlife.
Thisinterpretationismistakenontwopoints.
•AlthoughSN44:10doesstatethattosaythereisnoselfwouldbeto
conformwiththeannihilationists,MN2makesnomentionof
annihilationistsorannihilationismatall.Sothereisnoreasontoassertthat
inthatsuttaheisrejectingthestatement“Ihavenoself”onlybecausehe
wantedtoavoidsoundinglikeanannihilationist.Ashesaysthere,simply
theview,“Ihavenoself”getsoneinvolvedinathicketofviews.Andthe
tangledhistoryofBuddhistphilosophy—eversinceinterpretersofthe
Dhammabeganinterpretingthenot-selfteachingasbasedonthe
assumptionthatthereisnoself—hasbornethisstatementout.
•TheBuddhahadasystematicstrategyforclassifyingquestionsinto
fourtypes,astowhethertheydeservedacategoricalanswer,ananalytical
answer,whethertheymightfirstrequirecross-questioningthelistener
beforeanswering,orwhethertheyshouldbeputasideandleftunanswered.
InbothSN44:10andMN2,heleavesthequestionoftheexistenceofaself
unanswered.Ifhehadananalyticalviewofthenon-existenceoftheself—
that,forexample,thereisnopermanentself,butthatthereisacontinuum
ofpersonalidentitythatdoesnotautomaticallyendwithdeath—hecould
haveeasilystatedit.Buthedidn’t.Hehadittotallywithinhispowertohave
said,“Thereisnocategoricalanswertothatquestion,”histypicalwayof
beginningaresponsetoaquestiondeservingananalyticalanswer.Buthe
didn’t.If,inSN44:10hehadwantedtostatesuchananalyticalpositionto
Ven.Ānanda,whowaspresentattheconversationandwhosurelywould
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haveunderstoodhim,hewouldhave.Buthedidn’t.And,asnotedabove,in
MN2hestatesinnouncertaintermsthatquestionsrelatedtotheexistence
ornon-existenceoftheselfaren’tworthpayingattentiontoatall.
Asnotedintheintroductiontothisessay,todrawinferencesfromthe
Buddha’steachingsthatwouldprovideanswerstoquestionshedeliberately
putaside—eveniftheyareanalyticalanswers—hastocountasaformof
slanderasmentionedinAN2:24.
Why Does the Not-self Strategy Work?
6.Pointsixraisesavaluablequestion:Whydoesthenot-selfstrategy
workinliberatingthemindfromclinging?Ratherthanfollowingthe
critique’sstrategyoftryingtofindtheanswertothisquestionbyinferring
fromthesuttasapositionthattheBuddharefusedtoendorse—thatthereis
noself—it’smorefruitfultolookfortheanswerintheBuddha’sexpress
statementsabouthowandwhyclingingtoaself-viewhappensinthefirst
place.Whenweunderstandhowself-viewisfabricated,howclingingis
fabricatedaroundthat,andwhythatclingingconstitutessuffering,wecan
understandtheBuddha’sstrategyforbringingthesefabricationstoanend.
MN44notesthatallself-identityviewsrevolvearoundoneormoreof
thefiveaggregates:form,feeling,perception,fabrication,and
consciousness.Ineachcase,theselfcanbedefinedasbeingidenticalwith
theaggregate,aspossessingtheaggregate,asbeinginsidetheaggregate,or
ascontainingtheaggregatewithinit.Thisgivestwentytypesofidentity-
viewinall.
Actsoffabrication,i.e.,intentionalchoices,playamany-layeredrolein
shapingtheaggregatesandanyoftheidentityviewsthatclusteraround
them.AsSN22:79notes,fabricationplaysaroleinfabricatingeach
aggregateforapurpose.AndasSN22:81furthernotes,theactofassuming
aselfaroundanyoftheaggregatesisalsoafabrication,basedoncraving,
whichinturnisbasedonignorance.SN22:60identifiesthepurpose
underlyingbothlayersoffabrication:It’sbecauseofthepleasuretobe
obtainedfromtheaggregatesthatbeingsareinfatuatedwiththem.We
fabricateboththeaggregatesandthesenseofselfaroundtheminorderto
obtainthatpleasure.Inotherwords,thepleasuretobefoundinthe
aggregatesistherootcauseofwhywedesirethemandclingtothem,
buildingasenseofselfaroundthem.Evenwithouthavingtothinkthatthe
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aggregatesarepermanent,ifwethinkthatthepleasuresthatcanbederived
fromthemareworththeeffortthatgoesintoclingingtothem,we’llchoose
tocling.
AllofthisisinlinewithtwoobservationsfromAN10:58:Thatall
phenomenaarerootedindesire,andarebroughtintobeingthrough
attention.Inthiscase,thedesireisforpleasure,andtheactofattentionis
thatofattendinginappropriatelytoquestionsaboutthepast,present,and
futureexistenceoftheself(MN2)inhopesthattheanswerwillhelprealize
ourdesireandmaximizethepleasure.
Theproblemisthatclingingtoaself-viewcountsasaformofsuffering
asdefinedinthefirstnobletruth(SN56:11).Soinourignorantpursuitof
pleasure,weendupconstructingsufferinginstead.Inmostcases,this
clingingentailssufferingbecauseittriestolatchontothingsthatwill
change(SN22:1).Butit’salsopossibleforthemind,onitsfirstencounters
withthedeathless,toclingtothatexperience(MN52;AN9:36).Even
thoughthedeathlessisnotfabricated,andsoisnotsubjecttochange,the
actofclingingtoitisfabricated,andsoentailssufferingnevertheless.
Becauseallofthisclingingandfabricationisdrivenbydesire,sparkedby
anignorantvaluejudgment—seeingthatit’sworththeefforttofabricate
aggregatesandself-viewsforthesakeofthepleasure—thestrategyto
undercutithastoreplaceitwithamoreaccuratevaluejudgment:Thatthe
pleasureisnotreallyworththeeffortatall.
Thisiswherethenot-selfstrategycomesin:tofocusattentiononhow
mucheffortactuallygoesintofabricatingtheaggregatesandtheself-views
basedaroundthem,andonhowtheresultsdon’treallyrepaytheeffortthat
goesintothem.Inotherwords,itspurposeistoaccentuatethefactofthe
effortrequiredbyfabricationandtoraisethequestionofitsvalue:whether
it’sworththeefforttokeepfabricating.
SN22:57outlinesthegeneralapproachofthisstrategyinseveninter-
relatedsteps.Thefirstfourstepsfollowthepatternofthefournobletruths:
directlyknowingeachaggregate,directlyknowingtheoriginationofthe
aggregate,i.e.,whatgivesrisetoit;directlyknowingthecessationofthat
aggregate;anddirectlyknowingthepathofpracticeleadingtothecessation
ofthataggregate,i.e.,thenobleeightfoldpath.
Thefirsttwoofthesesteps—inwhichtheaggregatesareobservedas
theyactuallyoccur(yathābhūtaṁ)—ismeanttodrawattentiontohowthe
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aggregatesdonotsimplyhappenandmaintainthemselvesontheirown.A
lotofdesireandeffortgointoshapingthemandtryingtokeepthemgoing.
Thisiswhy,inthefirststep,theterm“origination”(samudaya)isimportant.
Itdoesn’tdenotejusttheactofarising;itdenotestheprocessofcausation:
whatmakestheaggregatearise.Toseethisrequiresmorethanbare
awarenessofevents.Youlearnaboutcausationnotbysimplywatching
thingscomeandgo,butbytryingtomakethemcomeandmakethemgo.
That’swhenyoulearnwhat’sacausalfactorandwhat’snot.SN22:5,taken
togetherwithAN9:36,statesthattheidealwaytolearnaboutthe
originationoftheaggregatesistoturnthemintoastateofconcentration.
AndSN45:8notesthatdesireisanessentialpartoftherighteffortleading
torightconcentration.Thus,theactoffocusingyourdesireongivingrise
torightconcentration—whichispartofthenobleeightfoldpath,thefourth
step—isthetestcaseinwhichtheaggregatesarefabricatedinawaythat
allowsyoutoseeclearlyhowtheyoriginateinstepone.
Thefifthandsixthstepsexpandontheroleofrightviewand
appropriateattentioninthefourthstep:directlyknowingtheallureofthe
aggregate,i.e.,thepleasurethatcanbefoundintheaggregate;anddirectly
knowingthedrawbacksoftheaggregate,i.e.,thepainandsuffering
involvedinclingingtotheaggregate.
ThissixthstepiswheretheBuddha’snot-selfstrategyisapplied.The
perceptionofnot-selfisactuallyoneofseveralperceptionsthathesayscan
beappliedtotheaggregatestodrivehomethepointthatthedrawbacksof
fabricatingtheaggregatesfaroutweightheallureofcontinuingtofabricate
them.AN9:36listselevenperceptionsthatcanperformthisfunction:
perceivingtheaggregatesasinconstant,stressful,adisease,acancer,an
arrow,painful,anaffliction,alien,adisintegration,anemptiness,not-self.
Thesefallunderthreemainperceptions:inconstancy,stress/suffering,and
not-self.AndaswehaveseenfromtheBuddha’snot-selfquestionnaire,
thesethreeareintimatelyrelated.Ifsomethingisinconstant,it’sstressful.If
it’sstressful,it’snotworthidentifyingas“mine,”“myself,”or“whatIam.”
Asnotedabove,SN12:15saysthatthiscontemplation,whenappliedto
eventsatthesensesastheyarehappening,leadstoastatewherethereare
nothoughtsof“existence”or“non-existence,”sothere’snoconcernfor
whatthiscontemplationwilldototheexistenceornon-existenceofthe
self.Inthisway,theBuddha’squestionnaire,andtheresultingvalue
judgment,canbeappliedwithoutfeartoeveryaggregateasit’sexperienced.
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Whenthisvaluejudgmenthitshomeasitcatchesthemindintheactof
fabricatingeventhemostdesirablefabricationpossible—right
concentration—itleadstotheseventhstep,theescapefromtheaggregates,
whichisdispassion.Thisseventhstepisactuallyidenticalwiththethird:the
cessationoftheaggregates.Becausefabricationisdrivenbypassionand
desire,dispassionputsanendtothedrive,andfabricationceases.When
fabricationceases,theaggregatesandeverythingconstructedaroundthem
ceaseaswell,andthemind,relinquishingeverything,attainsthe
unfabricated:release.
Thenatureofthevaluejudgmentleadingtothisreleaseisreflectedin
thewordstheBuddhausestodescribeclingingontheonehand,and
disenchantment—thestepjustpriortodispassion(SN56:11)—ontheother.
Upādāna,thewordforclinging,alsodenotessustenanceandtheactof
takingsustenance.Inotherwords,tofeedistoclingistosuffer:Thisisthe
importoftheBuddha’sfirstnobletruth.Nibbidā,disenchantment,isaword
usedtodescribethesenseofhavinghadenoughofaparticularfood,and
notwantingtoeatitanymore.So:Toclingtosomethingasselfisawayof
feedingonit;perceptionsofnot-self—alongwiththeotherperceptions
focusingonthedrawbacksofthemind’ssustenanceandtakingsustenance
—aremeanttoturnanavideaterintoonewithnomoreappetite.Thegood
newsoftheBuddha’steachingsisthatinlosingyourdesiretofeedinthis
way,youdon’tstarve.Instead,you’rebroughttoadimensionwherethere’s
noneedtofeed.AsSn3:12andmanyothertextsaffirm,thefreedomof
unbindingishunger-free.
Thedynamicunderlyingthischangeofheartdependsonmorethan
simplyagreeingtoarbitrarydefinitionsofterms.Ithastocomefroma
valuejudgment,asyoucatchthemindintheprocessofshapingthefoodon
whichitwantstofeed,andseethattheanticipatedrewardsaresimplynot
worthit.Onlyajudgmentofthissort,focusedonthemind’sactivitiesas
theyareinthecourseofactuallyhappening(yathābhūtaṁ)canbreakthe
mindofitsignorant,unskillfulhabits.
Becausethemind’shabitsarethemainfactorshapingitsexperience—
thisisthepointofthefamousfirstlineoftheDhammapada,thatthemind
precedesallphenomena—gettingittochangeitshabitswillchangeits
experience.Togetittostopfabricatingentirelywillallowittoexperience
theunfabricated.Andit’spreciselyinthepoweroftheBuddha’steachings
tosteerthemind,thechiefinstigator,inthisdirectionthattheir
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performativefunctionlies.
Theexactnatureofthedifferencebetweentheapproachoutlinedhere
andtheoneofferedinthecritiquecanbehighlightedbyexploringa
seeminglysmallissueoftranslation.Aspartofhiscritique,Ven.Bodhicites
apassagefromSN22:126totheeffectthatignorancecanbeendedby
observingthattheaggregatesaresubjecttoarisingandceasing.However,
thetermhetranslatesas“arising”isthesametermusedaboveinSN22:57:
samudaya,ororigination.Totranslateitas“arising”givestheimpression
thatignorancecanbeendedbywitnessing,throughbareawareness,the
arisingandceasingoftheaggregatesandconcurringwiththegeneral
principlethat,yes,theydoariseandcease.
Butthismissesanimportantdynamicinthepractice,whichliesin
seeingtheextenttowhichyourowndesiresandeffortsplayacomplicit
causalroleinthatarisingandthat,infosteringapassionforfabricating,
you’vebeenfoolingyourselfallalong.It’sonlywhenyoustopfabricating—
onrealizingthattheallureoftheaggregatesisnotworththeeffortof
fabricating—thattheunfabricatedcanappear.Theperceptionofnot-selfis
oneoftheBuddha’sstrategic,performativeteachingsforinducingthevalue
judgmentthatcanbringthisnecessarychangeofheartabout.
It’susefultonoteherethatbecausetheperceptionofnot-selfisavalue
judgment,itallowsfordifferentjudgmentsatdifferentstagesofthepath.
Thisisimportant,foronthebeginningstagesofthepath,askillful
perceptionofselfisactuallyworthcultivating.Ifusedappropriately,itcan
getyoutostartonthepathandtostickwithit(AN4:159;AN3:40).You
startonthepathbecauseyouseethatyou’llbenefitfromitandthatyou
havewithinyoutheabilitytofollowit;youstickwithitoutofacontinuing
concernforyourownwell-being.Onthesestages,theperceptionof“not-
self”isappliedtothingsthatwouldpullyouawayfromthepracticeof
virtue,concentration,ordiscernment.Onlywhenthesepracticeshavebeen
mastered(AN9:36)cantheperceptionofnot-selfbeappliedtoall
phenomena,foratthatpointthestrategyofthinkingintermsofaselfisno
longerneeded.Theultimatehappiness(MN13)hasbeenattained.
That’swhatwecangatherfromtheCanon’sexpressstatementsasto
howandwhythenot-selfstrategyworks.
The Right View of One Beyond Training
96
9.Inadditiontotheargumentsbasedonthesyllogismgiveninpoints1–
3,thecritiqueof“TheNot-selfStrategy”bolstersitspositionbymaking
threeobservationstotheeffectthatarahantsareendowedwithrightview.
This,theargumentgoes,meansthatrightviewdoesnotmerelyservea
strategicfunctiononthepath.Itstatesatruthaboutthenon-existenceof
theselfthatarahantscontinuetoseeastrue.
•ThefirstpointisthatMN65andMN78statethatanarahantis
endowedwiththe“rightviewofonebeyondtraining.”Thecritiqueclaims
thatbecausethistermisnowheredefined,itsmeaningmustbeidentical
withtherightviewofoneonthepath:thatallphenomenaarenot-self.
•ThesecondpointisthatinSN22:122Ven.Sāriputtastatesthat
arahantsshouldattendtothefiveaggregatesasnot-self:
“Anarahantshouldattendinanappropriatewaytothesefive
clinging-aggregatesasinconstant,stressful,adisease,acancer,an
arrow,painful,anaffliction,alien,adissolution,anemptiness,not-
self.Although,foranarahant,thereisnothingfurthertodo,and
nothingtoaddtowhathasbeendone,stillthesethings—when
developedandpursued—leadbothtoapleasantabidinginthehere
andnow,andtomindfulnessandalertness.”
This,thecritiqueconcludes,meansthattheperceptionofnot-selfserves
purposesbeyondthepath,andthateventhoughanarahantnolongerhasto
developrightview,therightviewwithwhichhe/sheisinalienablyendowed
isthatallphenomenaarenot-self.
•Thethirdpointisinresponsetothefactthat“TheNot-selfStrategy”
quotedpassagesfromtheCanonstatingthatarahantsarebeyondviews,
andarenotattachedtoideasof“true”and“false.”Inresponse,thecritique
notesthatthosepassagescomefrompoemsintheCanon:passagesfromthe
SuttaNipātaandtheconcludingpoemofAN4:24.Beingpoems,itsays,
thesepassagesareonlysuggestiveratherthanlucid,andsoarenotas
reliableaguidetotheDhammaastheprosepassages.Becausetheabove
prosepassagesshowthatarahantsinnowaydiscardrightvieweventhough
theydon’tclingtoit,thosepassagesshouldbetakenasmoreauthoritative.
Torespondtothesethreeobservations:
•First,therearemanystagesofrightviewevenpriortoawakening.As
notedthreetimesabove,everyarahanthasgonethroughanadvancedstage
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ofrightviewwherenotionsof“existence”and“non-existence”don’toccur
tothemind:
“Byandlarge,Kaccāna,thisworldissupportedby[takesasits
object]apolarity,thatofexistenceandnon-existence.Butwhenone
seestheoriginationoftheworld[i.e.,thesixsensemedia]asithas
cometobewithrightdiscernment,‘non-existence’withreferenceto
theworlddoesnotoccurtoone.Whenoneseesthecessationofthe
worldasithascometobewithrightdiscernment,‘existence’with
referencetotheworlddoesnotoccurtoone.
“Byandlarge,Kaccāna,thisworldisinbondagetoattachments,
clingings[sustenances],andbiases.Butonesuchasthisdoesnotget
involvedwithorclingtotheseattachments,clingings,fixationsof
awareness,biases,orobsessions;norisheresolvedon‘myself.’He
hasnouncertaintyordoubtthatmerestress,whenarising,isarising;
stress,whenpassingaway,ispassingaway.Inthis,hisknowledgeis
independentofothers.It’stothisextent,Kaccāna,thatthereisright
view.”—SN12:15
SN22:94showsthattheBuddha,afterawakening,woulduseconcepts
ofexistenceandnon-existencetotalkabouttheworld.Butyouhaveto
wonder:Afterhavingdevelopedtherightviewdescribedabove,andseen
thereleasethatcomesfromit,towhatextentwouldheholdtoconceptsof
“existence”and“non-existence”withinhisownmind?There’snowayof
knowingapartfromattainingfullawakeningyourself.EvenAnāthapiṇḍika,
astream-enterer,whenaskedabouttheBuddha’sviews,replied,“Idon’t
knowalloftheBlessedOne’sview”(AN10:93).Andalthough,foran
awakenedone,statementsofrightviewmaybetrueasfarastheygo,only
onewho,likeanarahant,hasknownthelimitsofdescriptionandwhatlies
beyondthoselimitsofdescription(DN15)wouldbeinapositiontoknow
howfarthat“true”actuallygoes.
AsSN47:4states,arahantsstilldeveloptheestablishingsofmindfulness
aftertheirawakening,buttheydoitinawaythattheyaredisjoinedfrom
theframesofreferenceonwhichthoseestablishingsarebased.This
includestheframeworkofdhammas:
“Monks,eventhosewhoarearahants—whoseeffluentsareended,
whohavereachedfulfillment,donethetask,laiddowntheburden,
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attainedthetruegoal,totallydestroyedthefetterofbecoming,and
whoarereleasedthroughrightgnosis—eventheyremainfocusedon
dhammasinandofthemselves—beingardent,alert,unified,clear-
minded,concentrated,andsingle-minded,disjoinedfromdhammas.”
Because“dhammas”hereincludesnotonlythefiveclinging-aggregates,
butalsothefournobletruths—andthusthefourthtruth,thepath,andthe
factorofrightviewwithinthepath—arahantsexperiencerightview
disjoinedfromit,justastheyaredisjoinedfromallofthesixsensemedia
andtheirobjects(MN140).
TheprosesectionofAN4:24containsthisinterestingpassage:
“Whateverinthisworld—withitsdevas,MārasandBrahmās,its
generationswiththeircontemplativesandbrahmans,rulersand
commonpeople—isseen,heard,sensed,cognized,attained,sought
after,ponderedbytheintellect:ThatIdirectlyknow.Thathasbeen
realizedbytheTathāgata,butintheTathāgataithasnotbeen
established.”
So,apartfromanactualexperienceoffullawakening,it’shardtoknow
whattheexperienceofbeingdisjoined—orofatruth’snotbeingestablished
inone’smind—isactuallylike.Butit’scertainlynotidenticaltothewaya
persononthepathrelatestorightview,asAN4:24makesclear:
“Whateverisseenorheardorsensed
andfastenedontoastruebyothers,
OnewhoisSuch—amongtheself-fettered—
wouldnotfurtherclaimtobetrueorevenfalse.”
Evenifweweretoregardthispassageasonlybeasuggestion,itstill
suggestssomeimportantthings.Oneofthemisthatitwouldbefoolhardy
tosaythat,fromtheCanon,wecanconfidentlyinferthenatureofan
arahant’srelationshiptoarightviewaboutthingstrueandfalse.
•Inresponsetothesecondobservation:AlthoughitistruethatSN
22:122describesastrategicusefortheperceptionofnot-selfbeyondthe
path,it’sstilljustastrategicuse:forthepurposeofapleasantabidinginthe
here-and-nowandformindfulnessandalertness.Andasthepassageclearly
states,thearahanthasnoneedforthiscontemplation.It’ssimplyapleasant
wayforanawakenedpersontospendthetime,mindfulandalert.Thereis
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nothinginSN22:122toindicatethatthiscontemplationperformsany
functionforanarahantbeyondservingthatstrategicpurpose.Andgiven
whatwehavenotedunderthefirstpoint,itwouldbehardtosayhowfar
thetruthofthatperceptiongoesintheeyesofsomeonewhohasseenthe
limitationsofperceptionandwhatliesbeyondperception.
•Asforthethirdobservation:NotalltheCanon’sstatementsaboutthe
limitationsoflanguageindescribingthearahant’srelationshiptowardright
viewarecontainedinthepoems.Someprosepassagesspeakofthese
limitationsaswell.Forinstance,aprosediscourse,SN48:4,clearlystates
thatthearahanthasrealizedtheescapefromdiscernment,whichis
equivalenttorightview.ThepassagesinSN12:15,DN15,andAN10:93,
citedabovetosupportthispoint,areinprose,asisthefirsthalfofAN4:24,
citedintheoriginalarticle.
Secondly,theprosepassagesoftheCanonneversuggestthatthepoems
recordedintheCanonaretobedismissedas“onlysuggestive.”Onthe
contrary,severalprosepassagesaredevotedtoferretingoutthemeaningof
versesthattheytreatasparticularlyprofound.(See,forexample,SN22:3,
AN3:32,AN3:33,AN4:41,andAN6:61.)InAN4:231,theBuddha
distinguishesamongfourkindsofpoets,oneofthembeingthemeaning-
poet.Althoughhedoesn’tdefineanyofthefour,theimplicationisthathe
himselfwasameaning-poet,onewhoseverseshadmeaningandwerenot
tobedismissed,inthewordsofAN2:46,asbeingmerely“elegantinsound
andelegantinrhetoric.”GiventhattheBuddhaandthecompilersofthe
Canontooktheirpoetryseriously,it’sanactofscholarlyarrogancefor
moderninterpreterstodismissthatpoetrysimplybecauseitsmessagelies
outsidethecategoriesofourownthoughtandlanguage.Thisisespecially
trueinthecaseofateaching,liketheBuddha’s,whosewholepointlies
beyondtheboundariesofdescription.
OneoftheimportantlessonsoftheAṭṭhakaVagga,achapterintheSutta
Nipātadevotedtothethemeofnot-clinging,isthatlanguageisslippery.
Eventhoughithasastrategicpurpose—intheBuddha’scase,toconvey
lessonsoftheDhamma—itfallsshortofthehighestdhammas,andeven
furthershortoftheendingofdhammas,unbinding(AN10:58).
Thisiswhy—whendealingwithalllessonsoftheDhamma,includingthe
lessonsofnot-self—it’simportanttoviewthelanguageofperceptionsand
thought-fabricationsasperformativeandtouseitstrategically:togetthe
100
mindtowhatliesbeyondperceptionsandthought-fabrications,andnotto
developascholarlyfixationonperceptionsandthought-fabricationsas
expressionsoftruthinandofthemselves.Otherwise,weriskwastingour
timetryingtocatchinthenetoflanguagesomethingthatnowordscan
catch.
Effluentsended,
independentofnutriment,
theirpasture—emptiness
&freedomwithoutsign:
theirtrail,
likethatofbirdsthroughspace,
can’tbetraced.—Dhp93
101
TheNamesforNibbāna
Asayoungman,theBuddhahadavisionoftheworld:Allbeingswere
likefishinadwindlingstream,fightingoneanotherforalastgulpofwater
beforetheyalldied.Everywherehelookedforhappiness,hefoundnothing
towhichsomeoneelsehadn’talreadylaidclaim.Theimplicationsofthis
visionstruckterrorinhisheart:Lifesurvivedbyfeedingonotherlife,
physicallyandmentally;tobeinterdependentisto“inter-eat”;thesuffering
thatresultsservesnolargerpurpose,andsoistotallypointless.Thiswasthe
realizationthatdrovehimfromhomeintothewilderness,toseeifthere
mightbeahappinessthatwasn’tdependentonconditions,thatdidn’tdie,
didn’tneedtofeed.
Hisawakeningwasthediscoverythatsuchahappinessdidexist:a
dimension,touchedbytheheartandmind,thatwastotallyfreefrom
conditions.Itwasn’ttheresultofanything,anddidn’tcauseanythingelse.
Thepathleadingtothatdiscoverywaswhathetaughtfortherestofhislife.
Nosinglenamedidfulljusticetothatdimension,sohenameditlargely
withsimilesandanalogies.Theprimarynamewasnibbāna,unbinding.This
wasananalogybasedonthewayfirewasviewedatthetime:Fireburns,
agitated,trapped,andhot,becausethefireelementclingstoitsfuel.Whenit
letsgoofthefuel,itgoesout,coolandunbound.
ButtheBuddhagavehisdiscoverymorethan30othernamesaswell,to
indicatewaysinwhichit’sreallyworthdesiring,reallyworthalltheeffort
thatgoesintoattainingit.Thenamesfallintofivemaingroups,conveying
fivedifferentfacetsofthatdimension:
Thefirstisthatit’snotablank-out.Instead,it’satypeofconsciousness.
Butunlikeordinaryconsciousness,it’snotknownthroughthesixsenses,
anditdoesn’tengageinfabricatinganyexperienceatall—unlike,for
example,thenon-dualconsciousnessfoundinformlesslevelsof
concentration.TheBuddhadescribedthisconsciousnessas“without
surface”and“unestablished.”Hisimageforitisabeamoflightthatlands
nowhere.Althoughbrightinandofitself,itdoesn’tengageinanything,and
socan’tbedetectedbyanyoneelse.
Thesecondfacetofthisdimensionistruth:Becauseit’soutsideoftime,
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itdoesn’tchange,doesn’tdeceiveyou,doesn’tturnintoanythingelse.This
iswhytheBuddhacalleditundeceptive,unwavering,permanence,ageless,
undecaying,anddeathless.
Thethirdisfreedom:freefromhunger,freefromsufferingandthe
causesofsuffering,freefromlocation,freefromrestrictionsofanykind.In
additionto“unbinding,”thenamesindicatingthisfreedominclude:release,
theeffluent-free,attachment-free,freefromlonging,non-objectification,
theendingofcraving,dispassion,purity
Thefourthisbliss:ahappinessunadulteratedandharmless.Thenames
followingfromthisfacetare:peace,rest,thesecure,security,island,shelter,
harbor,refuge.
Thefifthfacetisexcellence,higherthananythingknownineventhe
highestheavens.IntheBuddha’swords,it’samazing,astounding,ultimate,
beyond.
Eventhoughthisdimensionisuncaused,apathofpracticeleadstoit—in
thesamewaythataroadtoamountaindoesn’tcausethemountain,but
followingtheroadcangetyouthere.Theroadisonething;themountain,
somethingelse.Followingtheroadinvolvesfostering,amongotherthings,
generosity,virtue,mindfulness,concentration,anddiscernment.Through
thesequalities,wedevelopthewisdomandcompassiontoseethatnirvana
reallyisthewisestandmostcompassionategoalwecansetforourselves:
wiseinthat,unlikeothergoals,it’smorethanworththeeffortrequired,and
willneverdisappoint;compassionateinthatwenotonlyremoveourmouth
fromthefeedingfrenzyofinterdependence,butwealsoshowotherswho
aredisheartenedbythepointlessnessofsufferingthatthereisawayout.
It’sforthesakeofthisgoalthatwemeditate.
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Glossary
Ajaan(Thai):Teacher;mentor.Pāliform:Ācariya.
Arahant:A“worthyone”or“pureone;”apersonwhosemindisfreeof
defilementandthusisnotdestinedforfurtherrebirth.Atitleforthe
Buddhaandthehighestlevelofhisnobledisciples.Sanskritform:Arhat.
Bhikkhu:Monk.
Bhikkhunī:Nun.
Brahmā:Adevainhabitingtherealmsofformorformlessness.
Brahman:Amemberofthepriestlycaste,whichclaimedtobethehighest
casteinIndia,basedonbirth.InaspecificallyBuddhistusage,“brahman”
canalsomeananarahant,conveyingthepointthatexcellenceisbasednot
onbirthorrace,butonthequalitiesattainedinthemind.
Deva:Literally,“shiningone.”Aninhabitantoftheterrestrialand
celestialrealmshigherthanthehuman.
Dhamma:(1)Event;action;(2)aphenomenoninandofitself;(3)mental
quality;(4)doctrine,teaching;(5)nibbāna(althoughtherearepassages
describingnibbānaastheabandoningofalldhammas).Whencapitalizedin
thisbook,Dhammameansteaching.Sanskritform:Dharma.
Gandhabba:Adevaononeofthelowercelestiallevels,oftenportrayedas
atrickster.
Jhāna:Mentalabsorption.Astateofstrongconcentration,devoidof
sensualityorunskillfulthoughts,focusedonasinglephysicalsensationor
mentalnotionwhichisthenexpandedtofillthewholerangeofone’s
awareness.Jhānaissynonymouswithrightconcentration,theeighthfactor
inthenobleeightfoldpath.Sanskritform:Dhyāna.
Kamma:Intentionalact.Sanskritform:Karma.
Māra:Thepersonificationoftemptationandallforces,withinand
without,thatcreateobstaclestoreleasefromsaṁsāra.
Nibbāna:Literally,the“unbinding”ofthemindfrompassion,aversion,
anddelusion,andfromtheentireroundofdeathandrebirth.Asthisterm
alsodenotestheextinguishingofafire,itcarriesconnotationsofstilling,
cooling,andpeace.“Totalnibbāna”insomecontextsdenotestheexperience
104
ofAwakening;inothers,thefinalpassingawayofanarahant.Sanskrit
form:Nirvāṇa.
Pāli:ThelanguageoftheoldestextantcompleteCanonoftheBuddha’s
teachings.
Pāṭimokkha:Thebasiccodeofrulesformonksandnuns.Themonks’
codecontains227rules;thenuns’,311.
Saṁsāra:Transmigration;theprocessofwanderingthroughrepeated
statesofbecoming,entailingrepeatedbirthanddeath.
Saṁvega:Asenseofoverwhelmingterrorordismayoverthe
pointlessnessoflifeasitisnormallylived.
Saṅgha:Ontheconventional(sammati)level,thistermdenotesthe
communitiesofBuddhistmonksandnuns.Onthenobleorideal(ariya)
level,itdenotesthosefollowersoftheBuddha,layorordained,whohave
attainedatleaststream-entry.
Satipaṭṭhāna:Establishingofmindfulness;foundationofmindfulness.
Themeditativepracticeoffocusingonaparticularframeofreference—the
bodyinandofitself,feelingsinandofthemselves,mindstatesinanof
themselves,ormentalqualitiesinanofthemselves—ardent,alert,and
mindfulness,puttingasidegreedanddistressinreferencetotheworld.This
practicethenformsthebasisforjhāna.
Sutta:Discourse.Sanskritform:Sūtra.
Tathāgata:Literally,“onewhohasbecomeauthentic(tatha-āgata),”or
“onewhoisreallygone(tatha-gata),”anepithetusedinancientIndiafora
personwhohasattainedthehighestreligiousgoal.InthePaliCanon,this
usuallydenotestheBuddha,althoughoccasionallyitalsodenotesanyofhis
arahantdisciples.
Uposatha:Observanceday,coincidingwiththefullmoon,newmoon,and
halfmoons.LayBuddhistsoftenobservetheeightpreceptsonthisday.
“Uposatha”alsoreferstotheceremonyinwhichmonksmeettolistentothe
recitationofthePāṭimokkhaonthefullmoonandnewmoonuposathas.
Vinaya:Themonasticdiscipline,whoserulesandtraditionscomprisesix
volumesinprintedtext.
Vipassanā:Insight.InthePāliCanon,thisdenotesaqualityofthemind.
InmodernBuddhism,italsodenotesatypeofmeditationpractice
specificallyaimedatdevelopinginsight.
105
Abbreviations
AN AṅguttaraNikāya
Cv Cullavagga
Dhp Dhammapada
DN DīghaNikāya
Iti Itivuttaka
MN MajjhimaNikāya
Mv Mahāvagga
SN SaṁyuttaNikāya
Sn SuttaNipāta
Ud Udāna
ReferencestoDN,Iti,andMNaretodiscourse(sutta);
referencestoDhp,toverse.ReferencestoMvandCvareto
chapter,section,andsub-section.Referencestoothertextsareto
section(nipāta,saṁyutta,orvagga)anddiscourse.
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TableofContents
Titlepage 2Copyright 3Acknowledgements 4HonesttoGoodness 5IntheEyesoftheWise 12DidtheBuddhaTeachFreeWill? 18FirstThingsFirst 20TheKarmaofNow 29TheStreamsofEmotion 38Worlds&TheirCessation 46MundaneRightView 49TranscendentRightView 56ReleasefromWorlds 58
WisdomoverJustice 60AllWinners,NoLosers 70HowPointyisOne-pointedness? 74TheLimitsofDescription 79ByDefinition 84ADistinctionwithoutaDifference 87FurtherImplications 90WhyDoestheNot-selfStrategyWork? 92TheRightViewofOneBeyondTraining 96
TheNamesforNibbāna 102Glossary 104Abbreviations 106
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