FastFood,StreetFood:WesternFastFood’sInfluenceonFast

ServiceFoodinChina

QuinnA.Steven

AnhonorsthesisinthedepartmentofAsianandMiddleEasternStudies

DukeUniversity

Durham,NorthCarolina

2018

Guo-JuinHongDepartmentofAsianandMiddleEasternStudies

SupervisingProfessor

LeoChingDepartmentofAsianandMiddleEasternStudies

CommitteeMember

ChantalReidDepartmentofEnvironmentalSciences

CommitteeMember

i

ABSTRACT

ThephenomenalsuccessofWesternfastfoodbrandsinChinahasfascinated

researchersandbusinesspeoplealikesinceitsdawninthelate1980’s.Thetwolargest

WesternfastfoodbrandsinChina,McDonald’sandKentuckyFriedChicken(KFC),havebeen

heavilyresearchedtounderstandoriginsoftheirsuccess.However,acurrentgapinthe

researchistheimpactoftheseWesternbrand’sinfluencesonChinesequickservicefood

culture.Inthisthesis,Iwillexploretheconditionsthatallowedthebrandstobesosuccessfulin

China,thebrandsthemselvesandtheperceptionthattheirChineseclientelehaveofthese

brands,butthengoontousethatinformation,inconjunctionwithexistingresearchabout

nativeChinesequickservicediningvenues,toproposehowthesebrandsmayhaveinfluenced

Chinesequickservicediningculture.

BeforeIcanevenbegintoexplorethesebrands’presenceinChina,Imustfirstestablish

theiroriginsandbrandidentityintheUnitedStates.Intheintroductionofmythesis,Ifirst

contrastthedevelopmentsofMcDonald’sandKFC.McDonald’swasthefirstAmericanfast-

servicerestaurantandtheirmenucenteredonthehamburger,adishthatfirstgainednational

fameattheSt.LouisWorld’sFairin1904.1McDonald’spioneeredtheAmericanmodelof

quick-servicebyplacinggreateremphasisontake-awayfood,besteatenquickly,andreadyto

beeatenonthego,ratherthanfittingtheexistingdiningmodelofasit-downrestaurant.While

McDonald’swasmoremodern,KFCbuiltitsbrandonhome-style,Southerncooking,made

1Ryan,NancyRoss.“GreatAmericanFoodChronicles:thehamburger.”RestaurantsandInstitutions,ReedBusinessInformationInc.,February6,1989.Web.

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availabletowearydriversasaquickrest-stopmeal.FriedchickenoriginatedinSouthern

kitchensasaresultoftheWesternAfricancookingtraditionsbroughtbyAfricanslavesinthe

antebellumperiodbeforetheCivilWar.2WhileMcDonald’ssoldprimarilythehamburgerand

KFCsoldprimarilyfriedchicken,bothrestaurants’businessmodelsreliedonquick,standard,

reliable,andconvenientserviceforsuccess,andmaintainingthosestandardsconsistently

acrossalltheirrestaurantbranches.ThisstandsinstarkcontrasttofastservicedininginChina.

AlthoughChinahasalonghistoryoffastservicefood,thefirststreetfoodmarketisestimated

tohaveoperatedduringtheSongDynastyintheearly13thcentury,thesestreetfood

operationslackedthestandardizationandcommercializationofWesternfastfoodchains.

However,whilethedefinitionoffastservicethatChinaassociatedwithstreetfooddidnot

directlyalignwiththeWesternfastfoodmodel,itmayhaveprimedaChinesemarkettoreadily

acceptanewtypeoffastservicecuisine.

Inadditiontoitsexistingfast-servicefoodculture,aconfluenceofothermajorchanges

inChinacreatedtheidealmilieuforthesefastfoodcompaniestoflourish.First,shortly

followingMao’sdeath,hisvicepremier,DengXiaopingrosetopowerandenactedmajor

economicreformsincludingopeningChinaeconomicallytotheWest.ThismeantthatWestern

businesseswerefinallyabletooperateinChinabeginningin1978,andby1987those

businessesincludedKFC,whichopeneditsfirststoreinTiananmenSquarethatyear.The

secondeffectoftheseeconomicpolicychangeswastheriseoftheChinesemiddleclass,which

stemmedfromtheabilityofyoungChinesepeopletobeentrepreneurial.Thisnewmiddleclass

2Rice,KymS.andMarthaB.Katz-Hyman.“WorldofaSlave:EncyclopediaoftheMaterialLifeofSlavesintheUnitedStates[2volumes]:EncyclopediaoftheMaterialLifeofSalvesintheUnitedStates.”ABC-CLIO,2010,p.109-110.Web.

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suddenlyhadaninfluxofmoneytospendandanuncertainplaceinsociety,andsousedtheir

newmoneytohelpestablishtheirnew,highersocialstatus.DiningatWesternfastfood

restaurantswasonewaythatthenewmiddleclasscouldbe“seen;”iftheircoworkers,friends,

orfamilymemberssawthemdiningoutatrelativelyexpensiveWesternfastfoodvenues,it

madetheirwealthapparent.TheWesternfastfoodchainsremainedauniversalstatus-symbol

inChina,howeverthatstatusasaluxurywasentirelycontingentontheirperceptionasaclean,

high-quality,andservice-orientedvenue.ChinesecustomershadinterestintheWesterngoods

KFCandMcDonald’ssold,butonlybecausetheyrepresentedWesternculture,notnecessarily

becausetheyenjoyedthetasteofthefood.Tokeepcustomerscomingback,therestaurants

adaptedinwaysreminiscentoftheirorigins:McDonald’screatednewfoodsbyhybridizing

WesternandEasternflavors,whileKFCadoptedsomeofChina’straditionalstreetfoodsassold

themintheirrestaurantsforahighercost.Therestaurantsalsoadoptedrestaurantfloorplans

thatbettersuitedtheirChinesecustomers’diningpreferencesandservicestylesthatmetnew

needssuchasocialeventsorfamily-stylemeals.Itwastherestaurants’decisionstoadaptto

theChinesepaletteanddiningneedsthatleadtotheircontinuedsuccess.

TheinfluencethatChinesediningandfoodculturehavehadontheWesternfastfood

chainsenteringChinaiswell-documented,thereislittleformalresearchonthereciprocityof

thatexchange;havetheseWesternfastfoodchainsbeenabletoinfluenceChinesefood

culture?Inthesecondchapter,Iwillbegintoexaminethisquestionbyfirsttryingto

understandwhatthewords“fast”and“service”meaninatraditionallyChinesecontext,and

howthosemeaningsmayhaveshiftedorfitaWesternfastfoodmodel.Oncethetwowords

aredefinedandtheirrelationtoWesternfastfoodareestablished,Iwilllookatonecasestudy

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ofLanzhouLamian,atraditionallyChineserestaurantfranchise.Whilethereareothernative

ChinesefastfoodcompaniesthathavebegunsincetheentranceofWesternfastfood

companies,IchosetolookatLanzhoulamianbecauseithaddifferedfromWesternfastfood’s

modelinallaspectsbutoneuntil2010.Lanzhoulamianwasadishcreatedinthe1800’sbya

HuiMuslimchefthathadbecometheidentifyingfoodofthecityofLanzhouandhighly

acclaimedacrossthecountry.In2010,thecityofLanzhoucreatedanofficialbrandfor

“LanzhouBeefLamian”andlicensedittoacompanynamedEasternPalace,whichcausedgreat

uproarfromtheHuicommunitywhocontinuedtooperatethestoresthattheirancestorsfirst

opened,buthadtheirstores’statusessuddenlydelegitimized.Whilebrandinginfoodisnota

foreignconcepttoWesternbusinesses,restaurantbrandshadnotreallyexistedbeforethe

entranceofWesternfastfoodbrands.Therehasnotbeenenoughresearchinthisareato

provethatbrandingthedishandrelatedstoreof“LanzhouLamian,”stemsfromapressureto

createanofficialbrandcausedbyanearlierintroductionoftheconceptbrandingrestaurants

thatoriginatedwiththeWesternfastfoodbrands,buttheWesternbrands’potentialtohave

thatkindofinfluencecannotbeignoredeither.

ThisparticularcasehelpscreateboundariesforhowWesternfastfoodmadehave

inserteditselfintothedefinitionofquickservicerestaurantsinChina:itcouldhavehadaslittle

influenceassimplyencouragingthecreationofabrand,orgonesofarastoreinventservice

stylesandarchitecturalideas.Itexemplifiestheimpactthatanoutsideinfluencecanhaveona

traditionthatisthousands-of-yearsold.Otherinfluencesmayhavesimilarlybeenintroduced

thenintegratedintoChinesefoodcultureandcreatedthecomplexexistingChinesefood

culture.ByrecognizingthattheintroductionoffastfoodtoChinaisanopportunitytoshow

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howadefinition,suchas“quickservice,”canexpand,itprovidesanopportunitytobetter

understandculturaldevelopmentandacceptanceofnovelintroductions.Intheconclusionof

mythesis,Iwillbelookingforwardtothenextpotentialfrontierforanexpansionofourcurrent

understandingsoffoodculturethroughtheintroductionoftechnology.InChina,becauseofthe

continuingriseofthemiddleclassandtheirincreasingabilitytospendmoneydiningout,

companiesandrestaurantsaredevelopingtechnologiestomakeiteasiertoserveanever-

growingcustomer-base.Thosetechnologiesincludephoneapplicationstoorderaseatedmeal

atarestaurantevenbeforearriving,onlinedeliveryservices,andonlinecustomerreviewsites,

allofwhichmovemostofacustomer’sinteractionwitharestaurant,besidestheactualdining,

online.

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FastFood,StreetFood:WesternFastFood’sInfluenceonFast

ServiceFoodinChina

QuinnA.Steven,B.A.DukeUniversity,2018

Supervisor:Guo-JuinHong

vii

TABLEOFCONTENTS

INTRODUCTON.........................................................................................................9

StreetFood:QuickServiceinChina..............................................................14AllAmericanBurger’s:McDonald’s..............................................................19TheCountry-StyleChicken:KFC...................................................................21GlobalExpansionintheEndofthe20thCentury..........................................23DengXiaopingandChina’sEconomicReform..............................................24AColonelandAClownArriveinChina.........................................................26

CHAPTERONE:WESTERNFASTFOODINCHINA...................................................29

TheRiseoftheChineseMiddleClass...........................................................29 EntranceofWesternFastFoodinChina......................................................36 KentuckyFriedChicken......................................................................36 McDonald’s........................................................................................39 Perception’sSignificanceinAcceptance......................................................42 FadorFixture...............................................................................................47CHAPTERTWO:EXPANDING“FASTSERVICE”......................................................53

First,Whatis“Fast?”...................................................................................55Second,WhatisGood“Service?”................................................................59FoodFight:LanzhouLamian.........................................................................63

CONCLUSION:FASTBECOMESFASTER,BUTWHEREWILLSERVICEGONEXT?...69

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INTRODUCTION

Food:itisoneofthefewuniversalneedsofallhumansthatlinksustogether.From

sittingaroundafire15,000yearsagotoaroundadiningtablein2018,theconvivialactof

groupdininghasbeenessentialtothedevelopmentofhumanculture.BeforeIexaminethe

influencescuisineshavehadononeanotherortheevolutionoffoodculture,Imustfirst

explorethedevelopmentoffoodcultureitself.Cookingfoodiswhatdifferentiatedhumans

fromtheirapeancestors.AccordingtothecollectedresearchbyNPRbloggerChristopher

Joyce,beforetheadventofthediscoveryoffire,humans’ancestors’dietsconsistedmostlyof

rawtubersandvegetablematter,occasionallyrawmeatbutthatwasmoredifficulttocomeby

giventheirlimitedhuntingfacultiesbeforetheinventionoftools,allofwhichmeantlimited

caloriesthatcouldbededicatedtosupportingahigh-functioning,largebrain.1When

approximately15,000yearsagofirewasfirstusedtocookfoods,itsparkedachangeinnot

onlyhumandietsbuttheirphysicalappearancesaswell.Firemeantthathumanscouldcook

theirfoodsbeforeconsumingthem,makingtheirdigestioneasierandlessenergyintensive,

andallowsmorecaloriestobereleasedtothebody,whichmeantlesstimeneededtobespent

grazingforfood.2

DuringtheeraofHomosapiens,groupsofhumansweresomewherebetween50and

150memberslarge,andsoinformationaboutdanger,food,water,andshelterhadtobe

1Joyce,Christopher.“WhenFireMetFood,theBrainsofEarlyHumansGrewBigger.”NPR:TheSalt,October24,2012.Web.2Ibid.

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communicatedoverlargerterritoriesandtomoreindividuals,andthus,languagewascreated.

Researchersbelievedfoodwasacontributingfactortowhylanguagewasdeveloped;groups

neededwaystocommunicatewhentheyfoundfoodsources,howmanyindividualsthose

resourcescouldfeed,andwheretheywere,butlanguagealsohelpeddiffusethetension

associatedwithsharingfood.3Oncehumansconqueredtheirnaturalprotectiveinstincts

surroundingdining,firebecameMan’sfirstdiningroomtable,thefirstplacewheretheycame

togetherandsharedstories,food,andexperiences,andallofwhicharestillsharedduring

mealsallacrosstheworld.4Alongwiththediscoveryoffirecamethediscoveryoftoolsthat

allowedhumanstobebetterhuntersandtodevelopnewmethodsforcookingfood.Roasting

wasthefirstandmostprimitivecookingmethod,andatfirstitlookedmuchmorelikeburning

foodthatachievinganicegolden-browncolor,followedsoonafterbyboilingonceMancreated

anearlyvesseltoholdwaterthatcouldsurviveafire.5

OncethefoundationalmethodsofcookingwerecreatedandHomosapiensbeganto

traversetheglobe,establishingdifferenttribesandeventuallycountries,eachgroupbeganto

establishdifferentusesandtraditionsforthesecookingstyles.Thesecuisinesdevelopedoutof

locality;thetraditionalfoodsofanyregionlargelydependedonthetypesoffoodandfood

acquisitionmethodsavailableinthatregion.6Eventhoughfoodandtheculturethatdeveloped

aroundfoodaretwoofthemostvitaltenantsofculturetohumansurvival,theyhaveboth

3BarillaCenterforFoodandNutrition.“Theculturaldimensionoffood.”TheEuropeanHouse:Ambrosetti,p.7.Web.4Ibid.5Ibid.6Whalqvist,MarkL.etal.“Regionalfoodcultureanddevelopment.”AsianPacJClinicalNutrition,2007,(Suppl1),p.5.Web.

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beenverymalleableandadaptableasconditionsandinfluenceschange.Beforethedawnof

agriculture,astribesofhumansgainedaccesstonewresources,technologies(meaningfishing,

foodstoragemethods,cookingmethods,etc.),andnewmeansofcommunicatinginformation,

theiromnivorouspalettesallowedthemtoadapttothenewfoodstuffsavailabletothem.7

Foodsalsoquicklybecameimbuedwithstatus,oftendependingontheiravailabilityor

nutritionalvalue.Statuscouldprimarilybeestablishedusingfoodthroughtwomeans:quantity

offoodorthroughthespecificfooditemsacquired.IntheMiddleAges,forexample,feasts

wereassociatedwiththearistocraticclass,whilehungerwasoftenendemicofthelower

classeswhoeitherhadtopayfealtytotheirlordsbygivingthemaportionoftheircropsor

weresimplyrelegatedtolowerqualitylandsduetotheirlowersocialstatus.8Differentcooking

stylescouldalsoserveasmarkersofsocialprestige.Boiling,forexample,couldrepresenta

moreevolvedpreparationmethodbecauseofitsuseoftools,comparedtoroastingwhich

simplyrequiresfire.However,boiledfoodsaremorefrequentlyassociatedwithintimate,home

meals,predominantlymadebywomen,whereasroastedfoodsareoftenservedduring

festivitiesandpreparedbymen,inwhichcaseroastingactuallyrepresentsthehigherstatus

preparationmethod.9Thisisduetothesubordinaterolethathome-cookingbywomen,

becauseofitsunderstandingascommonplaceratherthananeventinmostcultures,playsto

cookingdonebymen.10Asculturesdeveloped,sodidcomplexfoodtraditionsandrelationships

7Whalqvist,p.2.8Hammond,J.L.andBarbaraHammond.TheVillageLabourer1760-1832.LongmanGreen&Co.,1912,p.100.Web.9BarillaCenterforFoodandNutrition,p.8.10Fürst,ElisabethL’orange.“CookingandFeminity.”ElsevierScience,Women’sStudiesInternationalForum,Vol.2,No.3,1997,p.441.Web.

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withfood,oftenrootedintheintimate,dailyinteractionshumanshadwiththefoodtheywould

consume.

Ascountriesindustrializedanddevelopedeconomically,andasmoreindividualsmoved

tocitiesandawayfromfarms,foodbecamelesscentraltoanindividual’slife.Whileitwasstill

necessaryforsurvival,itwasnolongernecessarilyanindividual’slivelihood,nordidtheyneed

toproducefoodforsubsistenceanymore,theycouldaffordoutsourcefoodpreparationtoa

thirdparty.11Atfirst,thisoutsourcingwouldtakeplacestillwithinthehomethroughthe

employmentofdomesticservantsorslaves.Itbecamesurprisinglycommoninthe19thcentury

forhouseholds,includingmiddleincomehouseholds,tohaveadomesticservant,nota

housewife,cookingforthefamily.12Inmodernday,outsourcingmoreoftenhappenswhen

individualsdineoutatrestaurantsoronpreparedfoodsthanbyhavingtheirservantscookfor

them.13Inthemid-to-late19thcentury,inresponsetothemovementofmanymiddleclass

individualstosuburbsaroundmajorcitycenters,lunchroomsandplatehousesemergedto

providedmid-daymealsformiddleclassmenwhoworkedincities,butdidnothavethetimeto

commutehomeforlunch.14Asmorepeople,bothlowerandmiddleclass,begantocommute

fromsuburbanhomesordistanthomeswithinacity,theneedgrewfordiningspacesthat

couldcatertotheirneedsforlunch,andsoothervendorsbegantoofferquickmealsaswell.

11Kirkman,JohnM.“TheEmergenceandFunctionofFamilyRitualsintheAmericanFamily.”UtahStateUniversityPress,1999.p.1312Kwik,JessicaChristine.TraditionalFoodKnowledge:RenewingCultureandRestoringHealth,UniversityofWaterloo,p.44.13Kwik,p.45.14Aspray,William,etal.“AmericaEatsOut:AnInterdisciplinaryStudyofAmericanEatingHabitsfromColonialtoModernTimes.”AmericanaE-JournalofAmericanStudiesinHungary,Vol9,No.2,Fall2013.Web.

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Coffeeshops,luncheonettesandlunchcountersindrugstores,andcafeteriasofferedavariety

ofdiningoptionsatawiderangeofprices.15AccordingtoanarticlefromtheConsumerist,one

oftheearliestquickservicerestaurantswasWhiteCastle,whichopenedin1920.Itlooked

morelikeadinerthanatraditionalfastservicerestaurant,butWhiteCastle’sproprietorsWalt

A.AndersonandBillyIngrampioneeredthehamburgerbunandofferedadealfordinerswho

tooktheirsliderstogo,bothofwhichlaidthefoundationformodernfastfoodrestaurants.16

Diningoutforlunchbecameincreasinglypopularinthefirstthreedecadesofthe20th

century,untilin1929theDepressionhit,causingmanyofthenewlyopenedrestaurantsto

shuttertheirdoorsasAmericanstightenedtheirpursestrings.17AfterWorldWarII,duringthe

1950’s,economicgrowthpickedupandAmericansbegandiningoutwithrenewedgustoand

begantoincludediningoutfordinnerinadditiontodiningoutforlunch.18Duringthewar,

womenhadenteredtheworkforceaswell,limitingthetimetheycouldcommittopreparing

mealsathomeandcreatinganopeninginthemarketforconveniencefoods.19Surpluscanned

foodprovisionsfromWorldWarIIweresoldtosupermarketsbymanufacturerstryingnotto

wastetheirproducts,andweremarketedtomiddleclassciviliansasaconvenientfoodstuffthat

wouldsuittheirnew,busylifestyles.20In1953,Swanson&Sonsintroducedthe“TV-dinner,”a

pre-roastedturkeythatsimplyneededtobeheatedfromfrozentobeeaten,andcamein

15Ibid.16"TheWhiteCastleStory:TheBirthOfFastFood&TheBurgerRevolution–Consumerist".Consumerist.July14,2015.Web.17Aspray,William,etal.“AmericaEatsOut:AnInterdisciplinaryStudyofAmericanEatingHabitsfromColonialtoModernTimes.”18Ibid.19Ibid.20“EatingforVictory:FoodRationingandthePoliticsofDomesticity.”TheAnnalsofIowa58(1999),444-446.Web.

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packagingthatfacilitateddininginfrontofthetelevision.21WhilethestorybehindtheTV-

dinnerwasthatSwanson&Sonswantedtoincreaseturkeysalesduetoasurplusofturkey

meatintheirstock,thissecondary-levelissueleadtoanewdiningstylethatrevolutionized

Americanfamilydining.22TheintroductionoftheTV-dinnercoincidedwiththeinventionof

fastfoodrestaurantsthelikesofMcDonald’sandKFC,allofwhichcreatedgreaterdistance

betweenconsumersandtherawfoodproductsthatwentintothemealstheyconsumed.

EversinceManfirstdomesticatedfire,hehascontinuallysearchedforwaystoimprove

hisabilitytofindandpreparefood.InPaleolithicera,thatmeantinnovatingfishingorcooking

utensils,whileinmodernday,thatmeansdevelopingnewintersectionsofcuisines,complex

cookingmethods,andever-bettermethodsofstorageandservice.Humansareconstantly

innovatingandfoodcultureisconstantlyexpanding,butitisdifficulttounderstandwhycertain

traditionsarecarriedthroughthemillenniaandothersareleftinthepast.Bylooking

specificallyattheentranceoffastfoodintoChina,Ihaveauniqueopportunitytoexaminethe

entranceofarelativelynewcuisinetoanancientfoodcultureandlearnmoreaboutwhatleads

toculturalexpansionratherthanculturalrejection.

StreetFood:QuickServiceinChina

OneoftheoldestculturalhistoriesoffoodexistsinChina,whereformalizeddiningfirst

wasfirstrecordedintheZhouDynastybetweenthe1046BCand256BC.23Formalizeddining

21BarillaCenterforFoodandNutrition,p.19.22BarillaCenterforFoodandNutrition,p.19.23ChineseInternetInformationCenter.“TheHistoryofChineseImperialFood.”ChineseImperialCuisines.Web.

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wasmostlyrestrictedtoimperialbanquetswhentheEmperorwouldhostprinces,lords,and

dukes,andwasnotyetcommonamongtheChinesemasses,asacomponentofpoliticsin

China.24AtthispointinChina’shistory,casualgroupdiningwasstilluncommon;itwasnotuntil

theeconomicandagriculturalsuccessesoftheSongDynastythatcommonpeopleinChina

couldaffordtohavethreemealsaday,someofwhichwereeveneatenoutsidethehomeat

restaurants.25

ThemostfamousdiningestablishmenttocomefromtheSongDynastywasnoodlenight

markets.Peopletraditionallypreparedthethreeprinciplemealswerepreparedandeatenin

thehome,howeverlightsnacksbecameincreasinglypopularduringthisDynasty,andthese

snackswerepurchasedatshopsandmarkets.BasedonrecordsoflawsinBeijing,despitea

curfewimposedduringtheSongera,thestreetBianling,wheretheNightMarketwaslocated,

wasallowedtoremainopenfrom11PMto1AM.26Asaresult,theNightMarketbecamethe

hubofChinesenightlifeduringthisera;atanygivenNightMarketyoumightfindfortune-

tellers,streetperformers,gamesofgambling,artsandcrafts,clothing,andBuddhisticonsfor

sale,andofcourse小吃(xiaochi,meaningsnacks).27AttheirstandsintheNightMarkets,

merchantsandlocalelitescouldbemoreinnovativewiththefoodstheysoldthanimperial

chefscouldbewhencookingfortheemperor.Thenightmarket,inadditiontotrade,

24Anderson,EugeneNewton.TheFoodofChina.NewHaven(Conn.):YaleUniversityPress1988,p.29.Print.25Anderson,p.69.26Lu,Yongxiang.AHistoryofChineseScienceandTechnology,Volume3.Springer,Oct20,2014,p.64.27Ibid.

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exchanges,andinfluencesfromothercountries,contributedsignificantlytothedevelopment

ofelaborate,regionalspecialtiesinChina.28

Chinesecuisinewassubdividedinto“FourMajorCuisines,”川(chuan),鲁(lu),粤(yue),

and淮扬(huaiyang),whichrepresentWest,North,South,andEastChina.29Northerncuisine

developedfromsomeoftheleastfertilelandinChina,withlowprecipitationandashort

growingseason,conditionswhichcouldnotsupportricepatties,butcouldsupportothergrains

suchaswheat,millet,andmaize.Mongolian,Muslim,andBuddhistcuisinesallheavily

influencedNortherncuisine,somuchsothatNortherncuisineisconsiderednottobeatrue

regionalcuisine,butamoreglobalizedone.30Easterncuisineisthecuisineoffiveprovinces,

Jiangsu,Anhui,Shanxi,Zhejiang,andFujian,reliesheavilyonaquaticagricultureandfishing,

andriceisitsstaplegrain.Thecuisineisknownforitsdelicateflavors,mildsauces,andbalance

ofsugarandsalttoaccentuatethenaturalflavorsofthedish.31Westerncuisineisbestknown

forSichuancuisine,whichisnotoriouslyspicy.InWesternChina,thefoodisnottheonlything

thatishot,thetemperatureissimilarlyswelteringandhumid–Sichuancuisine’ssignature

spiceissuggestedtocoverthesmelloffoodthatspoiledintheheat,asarethepreservedfoods

thatarecentraltothecuisine.32Finally,Southerncuisineisknownforitsfreshandsaltwater

fishdishesflavoredwithfermentedblackbeans,garlic,seafoodsauces,andpastesandnotably,

fruitslikeorangesandmangoes.Themostwell-knownSoutherncuisineisCantonesecuisine,

28Anderson,p.69.29“EightCuisinesofChina–Shandong&Guangdong,”TravelChinaGuide,Web.30Simoons,p.45.31Simoons,p.48.32Simoons,p.53.

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specificallyCantonesesnackfoodsincludingtheirnoodledishes,wontonsoups,anddimsum.33

AlthoughChinabecameunifiedintoonesinglecountryduringtheQingdynasty,theregions

remainedfiercelyloyaltotheirregionaltraditionsandcuisines,whichiswhatprotectedthe

cuisines’integritythroughtheages.

China’sfoodculturecontinuedtogrowascookingmethodsbecamemorerefinedand

asforeigningredientsandculturalinfluencescametoChinaalongwithmerchantships.34The

riseofChina’sfoodculturewasnotwithoutsetbacks;asagriculturebecameincreasingly

commoninChina,itledtomassdeforestationandthereforegreaterfloodingandothernatural

disasters.35Inrecentmemory,oneofthemostdevastatingexamplesofthesenaturaldisasters

occurredinthelate1950’s,whenChinawasstruckbyseverefamineduetoflooding,insect

infestations,anddrought.Althoughfarmershadonlyalittlefoodtosubsistoffof,the

Communistgovernmentstillsetquotasforcropproductionthatignoredthesenatural

disasters.36Iffarmersfailedtomeetthesequotas,theywereaccusedofhoarding,profiteering,

andcounter-revolutionaryactivities.Socialinteractionsweretenseeverywhere,peoplewere

starving,butthecommonpeopleofChinacouldnotcriticizethegovernmentfortheirstrict

rulesonfoodproductionforfearofbeingdenouncedascounter-revolutionariesthemselves.

DespitethedifficultyChinesepeoplefacedindailylifeunderMao’sregimeandthelackof

33Simoons,p.54-57.34Anderson,p.69.35Anderson,p.78-79.36Lin,JustinYifuandDennisTaoYang.“OntheCausesofChina’sAgriculturalCrisisandtheGreatLeapFamine.”JAIPress,ChinaEconomicReview,Vol9,No.2,1998,p.125.Web.

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traditionalfoodavailable,villagesinruralChinacametogethertoinnovaterecipesoutof

whatevertheyhadavailable,someofwhichstillpersisttothisday.37

Therations,collectivizedfarms,andcollectivizeddiningenforcedbytheCommunist

PartywerecomponentsofmultipleeconomicandsocialcampaignsmeanttocatapultChina

fromitsimperialhistoryintothemodernera,buthadtheoppositeeffectandfurtherstifled

China’sdevelopment.WiththelaunchofcampaignsliketheHundredFlowersCampaign38and

theAnti-RightistCampaign39,theCommunistPartysilencedintellectualsand“rightists”who

criticizedtheparty,oftenbysendingthemtoforcedlaborcampsorkillingthem.It

simultaneouslyinstilledfearintheremainingChinesepopulation,whosimplywentalongwith

theParty’sdecreesgoingforwardinanefforttopreservethemselves,whilealsoremoving

thosewiththeexperienceandknowledgethatwouldhavehelpedmovethecountryforward.

Asaresults,theenormousinvestmentsChinamadeingrainandsteelproductionduringthe

GreatLeapForwardresultedinlittletonomeasurableeconomicorindustrialimprovements

becauserunningtheiroperationshadlittletonoexperienceoreducation.Chinadidnotleap

forward,instead,Chinabecameisolatedfromtherestoftheworld.Itslackofinnovatorsand

abilitytoadaptleftChinaanditwasalmostasifChinaweresuspendedintimeatthestartof

theGreatLeapForward,whichultimatelyleftitworseoffthanitbegan.

37Barclay,Eliza.“ChowUnderMao:SurvivingChina’sCulturalRevolutiononLocalFood.”NPR:TheSalt,Jan19,2012.Web.38Aperiodin1956duringthePeople’sRepublicofChinawhentheCommunistPartyinviteditscitizenstoopenlycriticizetheparty.39AmovementthatwascausedbytheHundredFlowersCampaignwhichresultedinthepersecutionofintellectuals,officials,students,artists,anddissidentswhowerelabeledbythePartyas“rightists,”actingagainstthebettermentofthePeople’sRepublicofChina.

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TheAll-AmericanBurger:McDonald’s

Intheearly1920’s,asChinabegantotransformpolitically,Americabegantoexperience

amajorculturalandeconomicshiftthatwouldtransformitsfoodculture.Theprocessbegan

withWhiteCastleandrestaurantsontheEastCoastofAmericawhostartedtodevelopa

curbsidefoodservicesystemtomeetthegrowingdemandforpreparedfood.Inacurbside

system,waiterswouldrunsandwichesandtheiraccompanyingdrinksouttotherestaurant’s

customers,whoparkedjustoutsidetherestaurantalongthecurbside,thendroveoffoncethey

receivedtheirmeals.40InSouthernCalifornia,entrepreneursbuiltrestaurantswithonly-

parkinglotserviceareaswherehungrycustomerscoulddriveuptobeservedbyoneofthe

carhopswithoutevenleavingtheircars;thiswascalleda“drive-in.”Therestaurantstyle

proliferatedacrossthestateandCaliforniaquicklybecamethelandofthedrive-in,the

predecessortothemodernfastfoodchain.41

Asfarasdrive-inownerswereconcerned,thenameofthegameatthewasspeedof

service.Thefastertherestaurantscouldservetheircustomers,thehighertheturnover,andthe

moreeachdrive-inwouldprofit.Thesedrive-insputtheircarhopsinrollerskates,innovated

theearlyformsofthedrivethroughorderingdevice,andbegantotailorthefoodsforon-the-

godining.OneoftheseCaliforniandrive-inswasMcDonald’s.ThisMcDonald’swasnotthe

today’smultinationalcorporationofthesamename;theMcDonaldbrothersopenedthefirst

McDonald’sjustoutsideofPasadenain1937andserveduphotdogs,notburgers,bothdrive-in

styleandtocustomersseatedintheirsmallseatingarea.In1940,theMcDonaldbrothers

40Love,JohnF.“McDonald’s:BehindtheArches.”BantamBooksInc.,November1986,p.11.41Love,p.11-12.

12

relocatedtoSanBernardinoandopenedtherestaurantthatwouldlatergarnertheattentionof

theinfamousRayKroc.42

Bythemid1940s,McDonald’ssalesweretopping$200,000annually,servedtwenty-five

menuitems,hadatleast125coverseachevening,andbecamethego-toteenhangoutspot.

Thissystemcaughttheeyeofotherpotentialrestauranteurs,whonaturallyenteredthemarket

togettheirshareoftheprofits.43By1948,drive-inswereeverywhereinCalifornia,whichput

pressureontheMcDonalds’operationbecausethisresultedinhighturnoverratesforcarhops

andstiffcompetitionforcustomers.44Timesofstressoftenleadtoinnovation,andthiswasone

ofthoseturningpoints.Inreactiontotheeconomicstresssustainingaratherlargemenu

createdfortherestaurant,theMcDonaldbrotherstrimmedtheirmenudowntoonlytheir

mostpopularproducts,burgers,softdrinks,andFrenchfries,andsoldthemforonlyadimeor

two.45Thebrothersshockedeverybodywhentheyslashedthepriceoftheirburgerfrom30

centsto15cents;tomitigatetheircustomers’worriesthatthereductioninpricewould

translatetoareductioninquality,theMcDonaldsdesignedtherestaurantsocustomerscould

easilyseethepristine,modern,stainlesssteelkitcheninside.46“TheMcDonaldbrothershad

clearlydevelopedavastlydifferentsystem,tailor-madeforapostwarAmericathatwasfaster

paced,moremobile,andmoreorientedtoconveniencesandinstantgratification,”(Love,19).

Whilemakingtheirmenumoreefficient,theMcDonaldbrothersalsostreamlinedtheirmethod

ofservicebyeliminatingcarhops,rearrangingthekitchentofacilitatespeed,andbyreplacing

42Love,p.12.43Ibid.44Love,p.13. 45Love,p.14.46Love,p.15.

13

dishwarewithdisposablepaperbags,cups,andwrappers.Thus,the“SpeedyServiceSystem”

wasborn.47

TheMcDonaldbrothersmayhavebeentheoriginalgeniusbehindthisnewrestaurant

concept,butitwasRayKrocandhisdesiretofranchisethebrandnationwide,andlater

worldwide,thatmadeMcDonald’sthemegacorporationitistoday.McDonald’swasnot

America’sfirstfranchisedbusiness,butitdifferedfromtheothersbecauseofthetypeof

franchiseeitrecruited.Krocgaveopportunitiestoonlythemostambitious,mosttenacious

prospectivefranchisees,thosewhoremindedhimofhimself,andwhohefeltcouldmaintaina

standard,highlevelofqualityandpreservetheMcDonald’sbrand.48Byempoweringambitious

entrepreneurstobuildtheirownfortunesthroughtheMcDonald’sbrand,McDonald’s

contributedtothedevelopmentofmanyyoungAmerican’s“AmericanDream.”

TheCountry-StyleChicken:KFC

WhenKentuckyFriedChickenfirststarted,itwasitselfahumbleroperation;Harland

SandersbeganKFCasroadsidecafétoaccompanySanders’ServiceStation,hisfamily’sgas

station.Ashewasoperatinghisservicestation,Sandersoftenwasaskedbydriverspassing

throughiftherewereanythingintheareatoeat,whichsparkedinhimtheideatoexpandhis

servicestationtoSanders’ServiceStationandCafé.49AttheCaféguestswerewelcomedinlike

theywerefamilytotheSanders’familymeal.At11AM,theypreparedfoodslikeham,biscuits,

47Love,p.15.48Love,p.56.49Ozersky,Josh.ColonelSandersandtheAmericanDream.UniversityofTexasPress.p.20.

14

friedchicken,andotherfamilyfavoritesforgueststoenjoyaround12PM.50TheCafébecame

theprimarysourceofincomeandcontinuedtoincreaseinpopularityonceitwasfeaturedin

DuncanHines’“AdventuresinGoodEating,”adiningguideforAmericantravelers.51By1937,

theoriginalCaféwassucharaucoussuccessitexpandedfromsixseatsto142seatsand

Sandersopenedtwomore,oneinAsheville,NC,andoneinRichmond,Kentucky.52

Beginningin1950,Sandersbegantrulydevelopinghispersonalbrandandcreatinga

characteronwhichKentuckyFriedChickenwouldlaterbaseitscompanybrand.Themodern

imageofSandersisoneofhimwearingawhitesuit,amoustacheandgoatee,andsportingthe

title“theColonel,”buthewasnotalwaysthisway.HarlandSandersbeganintroducinghimself,

jokinglyatfirst,as“ColonelHarlandSanders,”despiteneverbeingcommissioned,tohis

associatesin1950andthenamestuck.53Harlandranwithitandheevenbleachedhisbeard

becausehewasnotyetoldenoughtohaveanaturallywhitebeardalltohelpbuildhisbrandas

apaternal,Southerngentleman.54ThereweretworequirementsforKFCtobecomethefast

foodgiantitistoday,1),toconstructamethodforthemassproductionofafoodwithsucha

particularcookingmethodasfriedchicken,and2)tofranchisebylicensingtheColonel’ssecret

recipeforfriedchicken,thatway,theColonelcouldbeeverywhereatonce.Byutilizinga

pressurecookertocookchickenfasterandmorestandardlythanonecouldinacast-ironpan,

50Ozerzky,p.21.51Ozersky,p.24.52Ozersky,p.26.53Ozersky,p.32.54Ibid.

15

theColonelsuccessfullytookoneofAmerica’shomeliestdishesandcreatedafastfood

empire.55

WhileMcDonald’swasbuiltonburgers,aninnovationthoughttohavebeenintroduced

attheChicagoWorld’sFair,KFCsoldsomethingrootedinAmericanhistory–friedchicken.

WhenpeoplewerebroughtoverfromWestAfricaduringtheAmericanslavetradeandsoldas

slaves,theybroughtalongwiththemacookingtraditionofseasoningchickenwithspicesthen

fryingitinlard.56EvenwhennoteveryAmericancouldaffordtoraisehogsorcattle,eventhe

poorestpeopleinAmericacouldaffordtoraiseachickenortwo.57Friedchickenwasfirst

cookedbyhouseslaves,whoknewtherecipethemselves,butsoonbecameatraditionthat

spreadamongtheAmericanruralpoorasaheartybuthumble,andinexpensive,meal.58In

manyfamilies,friedchickenbecameatraditionalSundaymeal,somethingthatsignifieda

specialoccasionworthsacrificingayardbirdfor,notsimplythesnackfoodithassincebecome.

GlobalExpansionintheEndofthe20thCentury

Inthe20thcentury,fastfoodrestaurantssuchasMcDonald’sandKFCfirstopenedtheir

doorsandwouldgoontotransformmodernfoodculture.Thisnewstyleoffoodservice

developeditsownculturalnarrative,establishingitselfasadistinctlyAmericancuisine.Asthe

restaurantsloweredtheirpricestofitthebudgetsofallAmericancustomers,notjusttheupper

class,theyhadtofindsomewaytocutcostssofoodqualitydiminishedforthesakeof

55Ozersky,p.36.56Ozersky,p.22.57Ibid.58Ibid.

16

trimmingmarginsandcentralizingsupplychains.59Asthesebrandsgrewintomassive

economiesofscale,theywereabletogrowboththeirempiresandtheirportion-sizesuntilthey

becameunrecognizablefromtheiroriginalstate.Undertheleadershipofbusinesspeoplelike

RayKrocandHarlandSandersthesefastfoodchainsbecameubiquitousintheUnitedStates,

andsoonafterbeganlookingforwaystoexpandglobally.

DengXiaopingandChina’sEconomicReform

“Thebasicpointis:wemustacknowledgethatwearebackward,thatmanyofourways

ofdoingthingsareinappropriate,andthatweneedtochange.”60

Beforethemid1970’s,whenChairmanMaoZedongwastheleaderofthePeople’s

RepublicofChina,business,travel,andtheflowofinformationinandoutofChinawerehighly

restrictedbythegovernment,whichminimizedtheflowofinterculturalexchange.However,

afterMao’sdeathin1976,hisvicepremier,DengXiaoping,usheredinanewandconflictingera

ofeconomicandsocialdevelopmentwiththeFourModernizations.Theessentialideaofthe

FourModernizationsplanwastomodernizeChinathroughfourmajorindustries:agriculture,

businessandindustry,scienceandtechnology,andthemilitary.WhileChinahadtriedto

institutesignificanteconomicreformsduringtheMaoisterathroughprogramssuchasthe

GreatLeapForward,DengXiaopingproposedinstitutinga“socialistmarketeconomy”–a

59Love,352.60Marks, Steven. The Information Nexus: Global Capitalism from the Renaissance to the Present. Cambridge University Press, 2016, p. 220.

17

carefulbalancebetweenamarketeconomyandasocialized,plannedeconomysothatfor

China,“Socialism[did]notmeansharedpoverty.”61

DuringhistimeasleaderofChina,DengXiaopingsetthreegoalsandlivedtorealizetwo

ofthem:first,todoublethe1980grossnationalproduct(GNP),whichChinaachievedinthe

lateeighties,second,toquadruplethe1980GNPbytheendofthemillennia,whichChinadid

by1995,andfinally,toincreasethepercapitaGNPtomatchthatofmedium-developed

countriesby2050,whichhebelievedwouldmeanChinawouldhaveachievedmodernization

andrelativeprosperity.62AsMao’sruleended,Chinaonceagainopenedupdiplomatic

relationswiththeUnitedStatesaftermorethantwodecadesofbeingclosedtotheoutside

world.In1977,afterMaoZedong’sdeath,PresidentJimmyCartervisitedChinainanattempt

tobegindiscussionsofnormalizingChinese-Americanrelations.Thetwosideswereatan

impasseoveronetopicinparticular,andthatwastheUnitedStates’diplomaticrelationship

withTaiwan,acountrythatseparatedfromMainlandChinaatthebeginningoftheCommunist

Revolution.MainlandChinawantedtheUnitedStatestoceasetrade,especiallytradeof

militaryweapons,withTaiwantoincentivizeTaiwantorejoinwithMainlandChinaandform

one,single“China.”63

TheUnitedStatesdidnotdisputethattheclaimforoneChina,howevertherewas

significantpushbackfromtheAmericanpublicandtheTaiwaneselobbyinWashingtonD.C.

61Gittings, John. The Changing Face of China : From Mao to Market. New York: Oxford University Press, 2005, p. 272.62Kobayashi,Shigeo,etal.“The‘ThreeReforms’inChina:ProgressandOutlook.”JapanResearchInstitute,SakuraInstituteofResearch,Inc.No.45,Sept1999.63Vogel,EzraF.“DengXiaopingandtheTransformationofChina,”TheBelknapPressofHarvardUniversityPress,2011,p.255.

18

againstendingdiplomaticrelations.64Ultimately,theUnitedStatesagreedtoendalmostall

officialtieswithTaiwan,withtheexceptionoftheabilitytotradealimitednumberofmilitary

weapons,infavorofestablishingdiplomaticrelationswithMainlandChina.WhiletheChinese

wouldhavepreferredtohavealltiesbetweentheUnitedStatesandTaiwancutbefore

acceptingthediplomaticterms,pressurefromtheimpendingthreatofaSovietinvasionfrom

theSouthmeantthattheChinesefeltobligatedtobemoreflexible.Whenhewasquoted

saying,“ItisinbothofourgreatinterestsindealingwiththeSovietUnionifwecannormalize

relations,"DengXiaopingrecognizedtheneedforUSandChinesecooperationforprotection

againstSovietforces.OnDecember16th,1978,Chinaagreedtocommenceformaldiplomatic

relationswiththeUnitedStatesbeginningonJanuary1st,1979,andthusChinawasopenedto

Americanbusiness.65OneofDengXiaoping’smostimpactfuldecisionsfortheWesternworld

washisdecisiontoopenChina’seconomytoforeigntrade,adecisionwhichstillreverberates

throughtheWestascompaniescontinueworkingtoestablishandgrowtheirfootholdsin

China.

AColonelandAClownArriveinChina

WhenKFCandMcDonald’sfirstenteredChinainthelate1980’sandearly1990’s

respectively,theyrepresentedeverythingthatDengXiaoping’snewlypassedreformsallowed

Chinaaccessto.TheywereWestern,theyweremodern,theywerenovel,theyrepresented

capitalism,consumerism,andluxuryinawaythatChinahadnothadaccesstoforalmostthirty

64AsiaforEducators.“TaiwanandUS-ChinaRelations,”ColumbiaUniversity,2009.65Vogel,p.268-271.

19

years.Wasittheirnoveltyandlackofcompetitionthatallowedthesecompaniestoachieve

suchphenomenalsuccessinChina?DuringaconversationIhadwithamarketingteammember

oftheBurgerKingAsiaandthePacificmarketingteam,wediscussedthetopicofbrand

positioningandperception.IaskedthequestionhowismarketingBurgerKinginAsia,

specificallyChina,differentfromhowitismarketedintheWest?Hesaidtomethatitwas

importanttomaintainanairofluxuryandqualityaroundthebrandbecausetheprices,for

manypeopleintheregion,werepremiumprices.HecontinuedonthatBurgerKing’smost

significantcompetitionintheEastwasnotMcDonalds,Wendy’s,KFC,oranyoftheotherfast

foodrestaurantsconventionallyconsidereditscompetition,BurgerKing’sgreatestcompetition

inChinaisstreetfood.StreetfoodcouldsignificantlyundercutanypricethatBurgerKingcould

setduetothelackofoverheadcosts,cheap,localsourcing,limited,ifany,laborcosts,andlack

ofcorporateoversight.

Asanintern,IheardBurgerKingreferredtoasa“QuickServiceRestaurant”chain

aroundtheoffice,butitwasthisconversationthatinspiredmetobegintothinkaboutthe

definitionof“fastfood”versus“quickservice.”Irealizedthatboth“streetfood”and“fast

food”couldfitwithinthedefinitionofa“quickservicerestaurant.”Effectively,theyboth

providealimitedmenu,aremeantasquick,convenient,cheapdiningoptions,oftenforpeople

onthego,(anythingelsethatcouldbeacomparison).Thereasonstreetfoodissuchafierce

competitoragainstthemassivefastfoodcorporationsisbecauseitalreadyoccupiedthespace

Westernfastfoodonlyjustrecentlyenteredinthelate1980’s.Ichosetomorecloselyexamine

KFCandMcDonald’sinthisthesis,ratherthanBurgerKing,becauseoftheexistingdatabaseof

researchavailableonthosetwocompanies’presencesinbothAmericanandChina,andthe

20

limitedavailableinformationonBurgerKinginChina.Thisstudyaddstothecurrentliterature

basebyexaminingtheimpactonfoodculturethatanenteringculturalinfluencehasusingfast

foodasanexampletobetterunderstandhowfoodcultureevolves.OneofthequestionsIwill

beaddressinginthisthesisistheplaceWesternfastfoodhasincontextofthelargerdefinition

of“quick-service”inChina?Furthermore,howwillitcontinuetoeffectChinesefoodculture,

foodways,andfoodpreferencesintothefutureorwillrisingfoodsafetyconcernsandlossof

noveltyinanincreasinglyglobalizedworldmeanthemeteoricriseoffastfoodinChinawill

drawtoahalt?

21

CHAPTERONE

WesternFastFoodinChina

TheRiseoftheChineseMiddleClass

WiththeopeningofChinatotheWestcameamyriadofculturalexchanges.In1979the

firstChineseinternationalstudentsarrivedintheUnitedStates,policieswereputinplaceto

improvetheexchangeofscientificfindings,andDengXiaopingmadehisfirsttriptotheUnited

StatesafteragreeingtotheformaldiplomaticrelationshipbetweentheUnitedStatesand

China.Eachday,theChinesenewsgaveupdatesofDeng’svisit,andattheendofthetripthe

governmentcompliedadocumentarymovie

thatgavetheChinesepublicinsightinto

Americanlife.DengXiaopingsupportedthe

productionofthesefilmsbecausehehoped

thatitwouldshowtheChinesepeoplehow

backwardsChinahadbeenduringtheMao’s

regimeandwouldmakeChinamore

acceptingofDeng’seconomicandpoliticalreforms.1Thevideospositivelyportrayedtheimage

ofAmericanindustryandAmericancities,butitalsogavetheChinesepublicinsightinto

AmericanlifestylesandAmericanfashion.2Thereleaseofthesevideoscoincidedwiththe

1Vogel,p.275.2 Vogel, p. 272-274.

Figure1:DengXiaopingwithacowboyhatgiftedtohimduringhistriptoAmerica.Photo:ChinaDaily

22

emergenceofamiddleclass,resultingfromDengXiaoping’seconomicreforms,andAmerican

lifestylesandgoodsbecameaspirationalforthenewmiddleclass.3Oncethevideosaired,all

things“American”almostimmediatelybecamealltherage,despitethefactthatChinahadyet

toundergothepoliticaloreconomicchangesrequiredtosupportanAmericanlifestyle.4Before

ChinacouldprogressforwardandachievetheeconomicdevelopmentoftheUnitedStates,it

firsthadtoovercometheeconomicchallengescreatedduringCommunistChina.

OnOctober1st,1949,MaoZedongofficiallyestablishedthePeople’sRepublicofChina

(PRC),asa“democraticdictatorship.”TheideabehindtheestablishmentofthePCRwasto

uniteallChinesepeopleinanefforttorebuildChinaundernewCommunistleadership,byfirst

collectivizingagriculture,property,andfactoriestobenefitthestateratherthantoenrichany

singleindividual.5Before1949therewereafewgroupsofmiddleclassindividuals,namely

privateentrepreneursandintellectuals,whoownedaround4millionprivatefirmsorsmall

businesses,butafterthestartoftheCommunistrevolutiontheyquicklydisappeared.6During

theCommunistera,whenChinabecamethePeople’sRepublicofChina(PRC),“class”became

anincrediblysensitivetopicandonethatcouldmeanlifeordeath.AccordingtoMaoist

ideology,therewereonlythreesocialstratainCommunistChina:workers,peasants,and

intellectuals(intheMarxistnotionof“intermediatestratum”)thatdoesnotalignwiththe

3Wang,HelenH.“TheChineseDream:TheRiseoftheWorld’sLargestMiddleClassandWhatItMeansforYou.”BestsellerPress,2010,p.88.Web.4Vogel,p.282.5Busky, Donald F. Communism in History and Theory: Asia, Africa, and the Americas. Greenwood Publishing Group, 2002, p.11.6Li, Cheng. “Introduction: The Rise of the Middle Class in the Middle Kingdom.” China’s Emerging Middle Class: Beyond Economic Transformation. Brookings Institution Press, 2010, p.7.

23

Westernconceptof“middleclass,”whichdefinesclassbasedmostlybylevelofeconomic

security.7

InMaoistChina,thelowerclassesandpeasantswerepraisedfortheirhumblewayof

lifeandtheirtirelessworkethic,whiletheupperclasseswerepersecuted,demonized,and

evensenttoforcedlaborcamps.IntheeyesoftheCommunistParty,thesetwogroupswere

classifiedasthe“exploitingclass”(theupperclass)andthe“exploitedclass”(thelowerclass).8

Inordertotoppletheformerpowerregime,theCommunistPartyengagedin“classstruggle,”

whichmeantfirstdesignatingeachindividual’spoliticalstatusaccordingtotheirland,capital,

property,income,andotherconditions.Onceclassstatuseswereestablished,thePartybegan

exploitingtheseclassestoidentify“counter-revolutionaries,”alsoknownasthosewhowould

opposeaCommunistRevolutioninChina.9Thelandlord,richpeasant,andbourgeoisclasses

wereidentifiedandthrownintothe“BlackFile,”meaningthattheirpropertywasconfiscated

andtheywereforcedtothelowestlevelofsocietyaspunishmentfortheir“counter-

revolutionaryactions,”andsomewereevenkilledorsenttoLaogai(prisoncamps).10In1949

about10-15millionChinesecitizenswereassignedthelandlordorrichpeasantclass,andby

theendofthe1970s,only10-15%ofthoseindividualsstillsurvived.11Itwasnotuntilthe

1970s,whenDengXiaopingbecameleaderofChina,thattheMarxist-Leninistrevolutionary

7Li, Cheng, p.7. 8Wu,Harry.“Classicide-GenocideinCommunistChina,”JournalofInterdisciplinaryStudies,Vol18,Issue½,2006,p.125.9Ibid.10Ibid.11Wu,p.125-126.

24

theoriesthatinspiredclassstruggleweredisregarded,andaneweraofcapitalismand

privatizationenteredChina,andmeantthatitwasonceagainsafetobemiddleclass.12

WhenDengXiaopingopenedChinatotheWest,onlythendidtheterm“middleclass”

begintoenterChineseacademicwritings,butstillothertermssuchas“middlestratum,”

“middle-incomestratum,”and“middle-incomegroup,”werepreferredtotheterm“middle

class.”Partofthescholarlyaversiontotheterm“middleclass”wasbecauseChinesescholars

feltthatitwasinappropriatetermtodescribetheruralindustrialistsandurbanentrepreneurs

whoweretraditionallyoftheunderprivilegedoruneducatedsocialstrata.13Thislinguistic

conflictcouldinpartbeduetothevaguenatureoftheterm“middleclass,”whichhasavariety

potentialbasisfordefinition,includingabilitytopossessWestern-stylegoods,theindividual’s

self-identification,incomeclassification,andprofession.14Despitenotfittingthepreviously

understooddefinitionsofmiddleclasstheywerenotinitiallyprivilegedorhighlyeducated,

ruralindustrialistsandurbanentrepreneursdevelopedtheindustriesthatlaythegroundwork

fortheriseofthemiddleclassinChina.Theirentrepreneurialspirit,inadditiontothe

developmentofstockmarkets,housingreforms,urbanization,expansionofhighereducation,

andincreasingglobalizationleadtotherapiddevelopmentofthemiddleclass.15

Inadditiontothemultipleeconomicorsocialsituationsthatcouldbeusedto

characterizethemiddleclass,therewereaplethoraofsocialfactorsthatcouldpredisposea

Chineseindividualtoenteringthemiddleclassincludinghighereducation,privateorstate

12Wu,p.135.13Li, He. “Emergence of the Chinese Middle Class and its Implications.” Asian Affairs: An American Review, 33:2, 67-83, 2006, p. 71. 14 Li, He, p. 69. 15 Li, Cheng, p. 7.

25

employment,whethertheyworkedinamonopolyornon-monopolyindustry,age,gender,and

accesstoamoredevelopedcity.16AstudyconductedbyZhangHaidongandYaoYelinof

ShanghaiUniversitysuggestedthataccordingtotheirstatisticalanalyses,youngerpeoplewere

morelikelytoaccessthemiddleclassthanolderpeople,specificallyduetothereformsmadein

the1990sthatmadethemarketenvironmentmorefavorableforyoungpeople.Oneofthe

reasonsforthiswasthedifferenceintheireducationlevels;youngerpeopleingeneralhad

accesstogreatereducationalopportunitiesthanthoseofpreviousgenerations.17Likewise,

thosewhowereemployedafterDengXiaoping'seconomicreformsweremorelikelytohave

accesstothemiddleclassthanthosewhowereemployedbeforetheeconomicreforms.18

Peoples’educationlevels,careers,anddegreeofwealthweremoreempiricalwaystodefine

themiddleclass,buttheconsumerswhoachievetheseempiricaldegreesofstatus,thatisto

saythosewhowereeducatedandwealthy,lookedtoexternal,sociallyrelevantwaysto

reaffirmtheirclassstatus.

TomanyChineseindividuals,onewaytodemonstratetheirstatusasamemberofthe

middleclasswastopossessWestern-stylegoodssuchascars,ortodinepubliclyatWestern

fastfoodrestaurants.19ThistendencywasdescribedbyeconomistandsociologistThorstein

Veblenas“conspicuousconsumption,”definedasawayofspendingmoneyinordertodisplay

theirwealthtoothermembersofsociety,andofteninanefforttoemulatethemorerespected

16Li,He,p.71.17Haidong, Zhang and Yao Yelin. “Marketization and Market Capacity: The formation of Middle Class in China – An Empirical Study in Shanghai, Beijing, and Guangzhou.” Development and Society, Vol. 45 No. 3, 2016, p. 399.18Ibid.19Watson, p. 49.

26

membersoftheircommunity.20Thisideaofconspicuousconsumptionisparticularlyrelevant

whenconsideringthoseindividualswhowantedtodefinethemselvesasmiddleclassafter

DengXiaoping’seconomicreformation.Sinceallkindsof“upperclass”statuswereavoided

duringthetimeofthePeople’sRepublicofChina,therewaslimitedpotentialforindividualsto

inheritmiddleorupperclassstatusfromtheirparents.Asaresult,theyhadtoestablishtheir

statusforthemselvesoncetheregimechangedandonewayofdoingsowasthroughtheir

publicconsumptionofgoods,forexamplebrand-namecommodities.Middleclassconsumersin

Chinabelievedthattheirpeersjudgedthembasedontheirconsumption,andoftenthey

confusedconsumeristactivitieslikeshoppingordiningwithculturalorsocialactivities.21Rather

thantrulystudyingorunderstandingWesternculture,theyinvestedinWesterncommodities

thatgavethemtheappearanceofbeingfamiliarwithforeigncultures,andtodistinguish

themselvesfromthelowerclasses.Themiddleclassoftendefined“beingcultured”asowning

WesterngoodsbecausetheWestrepresentedhavingmodernandhigh-qualitytaste.The

Chinesemiddleclasscallthelifestyletheypursuethe“小资”(xiaozi)lifestyle,meaningthe

“chasingmoderntaste,livingstandards,andthearts,”whichisdefinedbytheconsumptionof

Westerngoods,attendingWesternclassicalmusicconcerts,Broadwayshows,watchingforeign

films,drinkingcoffee,andthelike.22

20 Veblen, Thorstein. The Theory of the Leisure Class. Project Gutenberg, p. 30. 21Xin, Wang. “Desperately Seeking Status: Political, Social and Cultural Attributes of China’s Rising Middle Class.” Baylor University, Modern China Studies, Vol. 20 No. 1, 2013, p. 36. 22Peng,Yuzhu.“Sharingfoodphotographsonsocialmedia:performativeXiaozilifestyleinYoung,middle-classChineseurbanites’WeChat‘Moments’.”JournalfortheStudyofRace,NationandCulture,12Dec2017.Web.

27

Thosewhocomprisethemiddleclassusedthesesocialsignifierstoreaffirmtheirclass

statusbecausealthoughtheymettheempiricalrequirementsformiddleclass,theterm

“middleclass”isflexible.“Middleclass”statuscouldbeestablishedthroughoccupation,

income,oravarietyofculturalidentifiers,noneofwhicharestandardized.Asaresult,

individualsfeltinsecureintheirmiddleclassstatusevenwhentheymayqualifyashaveagreat

enoughincometoqualifyasmiddleincome,butmaynotbeculturedenoughtobetruly

“middleclass.”23Inmanyways,being“middleclass”isaWesternconcepttomanyChinese

people,whobelievethatbeingmiddleclassrequirestheeconomicsignifiers,suchashavinga

nicehome,highincome,oranicecar,aswellasbeingmanneredandlivingatastefullifestyle.24

Westerngoods,becauseoftheirhighercost,perceivedhigherquality,andbecausetheywere

fromtheWest,wereuniversallyrecognizedas“bourgeoisie,”andthereforetheclass-conscious

middleclassbelievedthesegoodsaffirmedonesstatusthroughtheirconsumption.25

AlthoughChinastillneededtodevelopcertainsocialandeconomicinfrastructuresto

makelifeinChinamoresimilartothatoflifeintheWest,Americancompaniespreparedto

enterthemarketassoonasChinapoliticallyandeconomicallyopened.In1978,Boeingand

Coca-ColaweretwoofthefirstcompaniestobeginplanningtosellgoodsinChina;Coca-Cola

evenmadeplanstoestablishtheirownproductionplantwithinChinatosimplifytheirsupply

chain.26In1987,atrulyAmericaninstitutionopeneditsdoorsinChina:afast-foodrestaurant.

ThefirstWesternfastfoodrestauranttoopeninChinawasKFC,soonfollowedbyMcDonald’s,

23Wang,HelenH,p.xiv-xv.24Wang,HelenH,p.xv.25 Xin, Wang, p.37. 26Liu,Chunhang.Multinationals,Globalisation,andIndigenousFirmsinChina.Routeledge,Jul26,2012,p.6.Web.

28

thenthefloodgatesopenedwideandabevyofWesternfast-foodrestaurantsenteredthe

market.ThesestoresrepresentedeverythingthattheChinesehadseeninthevideosfrom

DengXiaoping’striptoAmerica.Therestaurantswerecleanandstylizedinawayunlike

traditionalChineserestaurants.27WhenthesefastfoodrestaurantsfirstenteredChina,they

representedtheAmericanlifestylethattheChinesehadbecomesoinfatuatedwith,andaway

fortheChinesetoaccessapieceoftheAmericanlifestylewithintheirowncountry.

EntranceofWesternFastFoodinChina

KentuckyFriedChicken

Figure2:1987GrandOpeningofKFCBeijing,Source:Thatsmag.com

27Watson,p.44.

29

In1987,KFCopenedathree-story,12,000squarefoot,500seatrestaurantandbegan

servingfriedchickentotheChinesemasses.28This,however,wasnotKFC’sfirstentranceinto

theEastAsianmarket–theyfirstbegan,andfailed,inHongKong.In1973,fourteenyears

beforefirstenteringChina,KFCopeneditsfirstelevenstoresinHongKongandtheybrought

withthemtheircomplete,traditionallyWesternmenu.However,theymisjudgedtheneedsof

themarket.Aftertwoyears,thestoresfailedtobeprofitablesoKFCclosedthelocationsand

retreatedfromHongKongtorethinktheirstrategyforEastAsia.AccordingtoKFC’sanalysisof

thefailure,theyhadnotconsideredthelocalmarketwhencreatingamenuandtherefore

failedtodevelopasuitablebusinessstrategy.29WhenKFCre-enteredAsia,openinginChina

almost15yearslater,theyfoundlocalpartnerstodirectKFCChina’sdevelopment30.Together

withtheirpartners,KFCdevelopedtwoprimarystrategiesthatrevolutionizedtheirbusinessin

China:tobuildKFCasalocalbrandinChina,andtolocalizetheirmenu.

KFCwasthefirstAmericanfastfoodchaintoenterChina,andbeingfirstgavethema

bevyofbenefitssuchasfreepublicityfromorganicmediacoverageandthefreedomtopickthe

bestlocationswithoutcompetition.Theyleveragedthatpowerandfortheirfirstlocationthey

choseTiananmenSquare,thepoliticalheartofChina’scapitalcity,Beijing,achoicewhich

broughtimmediateattentiontotheirbrand.AftertheyfirstopenedinBeijing,KFCcontinuedto

growtheirbrandandtheirmarketsharebypurchasingpropertyinsecondarycitieswithmore

inexpensivelandsotheycouldexpandquickly.AsKFCopenedmorerestaurants,theirbrand

28Drewery, Hayden. “West Meets East: KFC and Its Success in China.” Armstrong Undergraduate Journal of History 1, No. 2, 2016. 29 Liu, Warren. KFC in China: Secret Recipe for Success. John Wiley and Sons, 2008, p19. 30Liu,p.20.

30

greworganicallyandgainedpopularityacrossthenation.Soon,theyfoundthemselves

positionedtobeanidealbusinesspartnerformanymalldevelopers,furtherincreasingtheir

ubiquity.OnceKFCestablishedclusterednetworksofrestaurantsaroundChina,theywereable

tobeginbuildinganeconomyofscalefromthegroundup.31KFCchosetheirproduction

partners,suppliers,andbuilttheirownstorageandtransportationnetwork,whichthen

allowedthemtocarryoutacomplex,large,andregionallyspecificmenu.32ByseedingKFC

restaurantsacrossthesmallercities,partneringwithmallsandlocalentrepreneurs,and

developingsupplynetworkswithinChina,KFCbuiltitselflikeanew,nativeChinesecompany

ratherthananenteringAmericanmega-corporationsimplycapitalizingonanewmarket.

Theirsecondstrategy,tolocalizetheirmenu,aidedKFCindevelopingitselfasalocal

brandbecauseitmadetheirmenumorefamiliartotheirChineseclientele.KFCkeptsomeof

thetraditionalAmericandishes,liketheirsignaturefriedchicken,buttheyalsoincorporated

thelocaldishesthatwouldbemorefamiliartotheircustomerbase.Theytooktraditional,

home-styledishes,likecongee(粥,zhouinChinese),33andcommonstreetfoods,like油条

(youtiao),34andcreatedasenseofhomefortheircustomers,butinanew,modernrestaurant.

Thisstrategyoftakinghome-cookedfoodsandmakingthemfastfoodswasverysimilartohow

theColonelfirstintroducedfriedchickenasafastfooditeminAmerica.Byadaptingtoa

31Ibid.32Bell, David, and Mary L. Shelman. “KFC’s Radical Approach to China.” Harvard Business Review, November 1, 2011. Web. 33Ariceporridgedishtraditionallyeatenforbreakfast.34Afrieddoughstickeatenasabreakfastorsnackfood.

31

ChinesepalateratherthantryingtoimposeaWesternone,withinthecontextoftheirmodern,

Westernrestaurant,KFCwasabletointegratenaturallyintoChineseculture.35

McDonald’s

Figure3:1990,McDonald'sOpensinShenzhen,China.Source:http://abcnews.go.com/Business/photos/photo-photo-shows-mcdonals-opened-in-shenzhen-26889162

McDonald’ssuccessinChinawasneveraboutitsburgersorfries,orevenaboutits

mascotMr.RonaldMcDonald,rathertheirsuccesshasalwaysbeendependentonhowwell

theycouldselltheMcDonald’sbrandtothepeopleofChina.BeforeChinaevenopeneditselfto

Westernbusinessestodirectlyenter,theybeganexportagreementswithsomeWesternfirms,

McDonald’sbeingoneofthem.In1983,McDonald’sbegantocultivatetheirrelationshipwith

ChinabyusingapplesfromChinatosupplytheproductionofalltheapplepiessoldinJapan

andin1986theybeganworkingcollaborativelywithChinatocentralizepotatoprocessingto

35 Drewery, Hayden. “West Meets East: KFC and Its Success in China.”

32

supplyfryproductionthePacificregion.Inthisway,McDonald’slaythegroundworkfortrade.

McDonald’swaitedforthetwobarrierstotrade,China’sclosuretoWesternbusinessandlack

ofarobustmiddleclass,toresolvebeforetheyenteredthemarket.36McDonald’shadprevious

experiencewithinternationalmarketsandlearnedthebestwaytogrowwastoworkalongside

aninnovative,localpartner,whotheygavealmostfree-reigntorunthebusiness.This

benefittedMcDonald’sintwoways,1)thelocalbusinesspartnersbetterunderstoodthelocal

culture,socouldcraftappropriateadvertisingcampaignsandbetterunderstandlocalneeds,

and2)itpreventedMcDonald’sfromappearingasahuge,American,multinationalcorporation

attemptingtoconquertheglobalmarket.In1990,withthehelpofalocalpartner,McDonald’s

openeditsfirststoreinShenzhen,China.

McDonald’sfirstexpandedtoEuropeandJapan,andlearnedfromthoseexperiences

thatMcDonald’sstoresweremostsuccessfulwhenitwastruetoits“American-ness,”thatis

whenitretaineditsoriginalmenuandstoredesigns37.Therefore,tobecomethepowerful

culturalandeconomicforceithasbecome,McDonald’semployedadevelopmentstrategy

almostcompletelydifferentfromKFC’s.RelativetoKCF’smodelofadoptingChinesecuisines

andtheirownandtryingtobecomea“native”brand,McDonald’senteredthemarketasan

unapologeticallyAmericanrestaurant.NomatterwhereMcDonald’sopensontheglobe,they

retaintheircoreWesternmenuofburgersandfries,andtheyincludeWesternitems,

36Love,JohnF.McDonald’sBehindtheArches.BantamBooks,1986,p.449.37Love,p.437.

33

influencedbylocalcuisine,ratherthantraditionallyChinesefooditems.Themenuadaptations

rangefromratherminoradjustmentsinsauce,for

exampleinGreece,theBigMacistoppedwithTzatziki

sauceandwrappedinapita,tothecompletere-

imaginationofanitem,forexamplethe“kaofan

burger”inHongKong,whichisafriedchickenpatty

onabunmadeofrice.38However,nomatterhow

muchMcDonald’sadaptedtheirmenu,theymadesuretoretaintheiroriginalmenuitemsas

wellbecauseMcDonald’sexecutivesbelievedthatbyfillingtheirmenuwithlocalitems,

McDonald’swouldloseitsbrandidentity.39Withoutalocalappearanceormenu,McDonald’s

hadtorelyheavilyontheirlocalpartners’guidancetocreateanimageofarestaurantthat

looksAmerican,sellsAmericanfood,andhasanAmericanservicestyle,andyetisconsidereda

localbrand,notanAmericanone.40

InChina,McDonald’sisarestaurantlikeanyother,customerssitandenjoyanextended

mealwithfriendsorfamily,the“fast”aspectoffastfoodisinthemeal’sinitialserviceto

customers.41ThisdrasticdeparturefromtheWesternservicestyle,leadMcDonald’storethink

theirstaffingneedsandrestaurantdesignstobettermeettheirChinesecustomers’needs.The

diningandservicestylesmaydifferbetweenthetwonations,butMcDonald’scarriesthesame

family-orientedreputationglobally.WhenChinesepatronsdineatMcDonald’sitisoftenwith,

38Crawford, Alice, et al. “McDonald’s: A Case Study in Glocalization.” Journal of Global Business Issues, 2015, p.12.39Love,p.437.40Ibid,p.433.41Watson,p.41.

Figure4:McDonald'sKaoFanBurgeradvertisedonabillboard.Source:travelerdaily.com

34

ifnotbecauseof,theirchild.42McDonald’sworkstowelcomethesefamiliesbyhiringfemale

“receptionists”whohelptakecareofthechildrenandtalkwiththeparentstohelprelieveany

stressofcaringforchildrenwhilstdining.McDonald’seventriedtoinstitutetheirsignature

“service-with-a-smile,”whichissocentraltotheirAmericanbrand,ultimatelyfailedinChina

becauseitwassuchadeparturefromconventionalChineseservice.WhileAmericanconsumers

expectsmilingservice,consumersinHongKong,Taiwan,China,andKoreafoundsmiling

disconcertingbecausetheyexpectedanexpressionof“seriousness,”toconveydetail-oriented

workanddetermination,whilesmilinggavetheconsumerthesensetheywerebeingcheated.43

Ultimately,thecounterworkersinChineseMcDonald’sstoresdidawaywithexcessivesmiling

andinsteadfocusedonprojectingqualitiesrespectedbytheircommunities:competence,

directness,andlevel-headedness.44This,inadditiontotheiradditionalstaffingmeasuresand

servicestyles,helpedMcDonald’sbuildtheimagethattherestaurantisaplaceforfamiliesto

comeandfeelwelcome,andwhererestaurantstaffthemselvesaremeanttofeellikemembers

ofthefamily.45

Perception’sSignificanceinAcceptance

EvenbeforetheserestaurantsarrivedinChina,Chineseentrepreneurswhohad

witnessedthesuccessofWesternfastfoodrestaurantsintheWest,andtranslatedthattotheir

regionsofChinabycreatingcopy-catrestaurants,atalowerpricepoint,thatwerefoundedon

42Watson,p.65.43Watson,p.32.44Watson,p.91.45Crawford,p.15.

35

thesameidealsofintroducingtheEasttotheWest.WitheachauthenticMcDonald’sorKFC

thatopened,aclusterofsatelliterestaurantsopenedupinthesurroundingareawithnearly

thesamenamesthatadvertisedsimilarproductsbutatalowercost.McDonald’sChinesename

is麦当劳(maidanglao)whilethefraudulentMcDonald’sstorecallsitself麦当乐(maidangle).

Thesecopycatrestaurantshavebenefitsanddrawbacks.Ononehand,theprimedtheChinese

populationfortheauthenticAmericanbrandswhentheyenteredthemarketinthefollowing

yearsandhelpedtocreatebrandawareness,howeverontheotherhand,becausetheywere

notmanagedbythecompaniesorregulated,theycouldhaveanykindofserviceorproduct

thattheywanted,andcouldhavedamagethebrand’simagebeforetheyevenhadachanceto

establishthemselves.Itturnedouttobebeneficialtotheoriginalrestaurantsbecausedespite

theproliferationofcounterfeitfastfoodeateries,theywerealldiscretelyownedbyavarietyof

smallbusinessownersandlackedtheorganizationnecessarytogrowintomegacorporationlike

therestaurants,whoweresimplyexpandingtheirreachoverseasratherthanestablishinga

completelynewbusinessventure.

Figure5:AuthenticMcDonald'sinChina,Source:http://cy.001.com/jingyingguanli/37960.html

Figure6:Knock-offMcDonald'srestaurantwithwrongcharactersinsign

36

Counterfeitinggoods,knownas“Shanzhai,”(山寨),isoneofChina’smostfamous,or

ratherinfamous,marketswheregoodsareoftenthatproducedinthefactoryfacilitiesandby

thesubcontractedworkersthatproducetheauthenticproducts.46“Shanzhai”referstothe

homeofbanditsinthemountains,andthebandits,ratherthanbeingvilified,wereseenasa

RobinHoodcharacterwhostealfromtherichandpowerful.47ThenarrativesofShanzhai’s

rootsareoftensetinancientChinawherepeasantsroseupagainstdespoticrulesandbecome

theirownkingsinthemountains.48ByusingShanzhaitocharacterizecounterfeitgoods,it

suggestscounterfeitingitemsisforgivablebecausetheystealmoneyfromwealthy,

multinationalcompanies,toprovidesimilargoodstothelowincomeChinesemasses.49

Counterfeitingculturehasanunexpectedbenefitforthecompaniestheyknock-off.Despite

theirinauthenticity,Shanzhaiitemsassistinthedisseminationoftheauthenticgood’sbrand

andtheShanzhaibrandintothelocalculture.50

However,forpeopletorecognizethecounterfeitproducts,theymustalreadybeaware

oftheauthenticproducts.Tobeidentified,counterfeitsmustreflectsomesymbolsthat

potentiallyinfringeontheintellectualpropertyrights(IPR)oftheoriginalproducts,becausethe

IPRlegitimizewhatis“real”andgivesthegoodstheirvalue.51SincetheShanzhaiproductsshirk

legaldoctrines,globalizedIPRlaws,stateregulations,andtaxcodes,theycanbesoldatalower

46Yang,Fan.FakedinChina:NationBranding,CounterfeitCulture,andGlobalization.IndianaUniversityPress,2016,p.69.47Ibid.48Yang,p.70.49Phau,Ian,andMinTeah.“TheDevilwears(counterfeit)Prada:astudyofantecedentsandoutcomesofattitudestowardscounterfeitsofluxurybrands.”JournalofConsumerMarketing,Vol.26Issue1,p.19.50Yang,p.70.51Yang,p.10.

37

pricethantheoriginalgood,howeverthelowerpricetagandlessenedproductionoversight

canleadhaveconsequences.52Althoughcounterfeitshelpreinforcebrandawareness,theycan

alsodamagethebrandimageintwoways:1)iftheyareofinferiorquality,andtheyarethe

customer’sfirstintroductiontothebrand,theycanlowerthebrand’sperceivedquality,or2)if

theyareofasimilarquality,theycandevaluetheoriginalproductandstealawaypotential

profitsfromtheoriginalcompany.53,54Ifthegoodsareofaninferiorquality,theycouldcause

potentialdamagetotheconsumer.Infood,counterfeitsoforiginalproductscouldbeproduced

throughtheuseofcheaper,inferiormeats.Oneexampleofthiswasin2013,acriminalring

suppliedhot-potrestaurantsinShandongandWuxiwithrat,fox,andminkmeatwhichthey

retailedasmuttonsince2009.55Thisscandaland11othermeat-relatedscandalsinvolvingpigs

andchickenswerereportedonbyChina’sPublicSecurityMinistry.56Counterfeitfastfood

restaurants,becausetheyarenotregulatedbythemajororganization’sadministrationand

becausetheydonothaveahighlyregulatedsupplychain,areevenmorevulnerabletothese

kindsoffoodsafetyscandalsthantheirauthenticcounterpart.

OneofthemostcriticalfactorsinfastfoodretailinginChinaisthepublicperceptionof

thefoodretailer’sbrand.Muchlikeotherluxurybrands,bothMcDonald’sandKFCare

consideredluxurydiningexperiences,andareconsideredexpensivebytheaverageChinese

citizen.KFCandMcDonald’sstatusprimarilycamefromtheircleanliness,standardizationof

52Yang,p.68.53Chaudhry,A,andA.Zimmerman,ProtectingYourIntellectualPropertyRights.ManagementforProfessionals,p.11,2013.54Ibid,p.12.55Kaiman,Jonahan.“Chinafakemeatscandal:tellingyourratfromyourmutton.”TheGuardian,May3,2013.Web.56“Chinamedia:Fakefoodscandals.”BBCNewsChina,6May2013,Web.

38

quality,andservice,allofwhichwereadeparturefromthelessregulatedChinesequickservice

restaurantsandseenasvaluable.Despitethelackofgovernmentoversightonfoodservice

priorto2015,asfranchises,theserestaurantsfacedstringentregulationbytheiroverseeing

company,whichsetforthqualitystandardsthatexceededthoserequiredbythe

government.57,58ThishigherqualitystandardmadeKFCandMcDonald’sworththehigherprice

permealandgrantedthesebrandstheir“luxury”status,butwiththeserestaurantbrandscame

counterfeits,whichthreatenedtodamagetheirspotlessreputations.

WhilefastfoodrestaurantsarenotadirectsubstitutefortraditionalChinesestreet

foods,theyexpandtheunderstandingof“quickservice,”byestablishingthemselvesassimilar

butdifferentfromstreetfood.BecausefastfooddoesnotshareinChina’slongfoodhistory,it

lacksthesamefoundationincultureandtradition,andismuchmorereliantonbrand

perceptionforitssuccess.Therearefourcriticalfactorstotheperceptionoffastfood:thatfast

foodisexpensive,modern,clean,andnovel.Byworkingtodevelopthisbrand,whilestill

servingfoodquickly,fastfoodcompanieswereabletobuildanewnichewithinChina’squick

servicefoodcultureunlikeanypreexistingChinesefoodtradition.

57ApprovedbyClever,Jennifer.“China’sFoodSafetyLaw(2015).”StandingCommitteeofthe11thNationalPeople’sCongress,2009,amendedbyStandingCommitteeofthe12thNationalPeople’sCongressatthe14thsession,2015.58Zhu,Lin,etal.“Socialmediaandcultureincrisiscommunication:McDonald’sandKFCcrisesmanagementinChina.”PublicRelationsReview,2015,p.488.

39

AFadoraFixture

DiningatthesechainsisunlikediningateithertheirAmericanfastfoodcounterparts,or

anydiningscenariothatpreviouslyexistedinChina:peoplewouldcometotherestaurant,pay

amoderatelyexpensiveprice,beservedtheirmealquickly,andthen,ratherthanleavingthe

restaurantpromptlylikeanAmericanwouldatafastfoodrestaurant,Chinesepatronswillsit

andenjoytheirquickservicemeal,slowly.59Ataboutanaverageof30块(kuai,theChinese

characterformoney)permeal,1/6thofaworkingclassfamily’smonthlyincome,fastfood

mealswerealuxurythatnotallChinesepeoplecouldafford,andbecameaneventforspecial

occasions.60

Whilethecostisprohibitivetosome,someyoungpeoplechoosetodineatMcDonald’s

specificallybecauseofitspredictablecost,comparedtoluxuryChineserestaurantswherethe

pricesareunpredictableandcouldleadtoanembarrassingincidentwhenthebillarrives.61For

mostindividualsintheChinesemiddleclass,spending30块permealisexpensive,but

spending30块permealatMcDonald’sisfairlystandard;itwouldbeaboutasdifficulttoorder

somethingmoreexpensiveasitwouldbetoordersomethinglessexpensive.62Ifasomebody

wereafraidofappearingcheaptothepersontheywerediningwith,thenMcDonald’smightbe

anidealvenueatwhichtodinebecauseitplacesanupwardcaponthebillwithoutthehost

havingtorefusetopurchaseanextravagantspecialtydish.Asaresult,fastfoodrestaurants

becamepopularfordiningeventssuchasdatesorbusinessmeetingsbecauseoftheir

59Watson,p.29.60Watson,p.30.61Ibid.62Ibid.

40

standardizationincost;theyofferthesamefeelingofbeingaspecialeventbutwithanatural

limitonhowextravagantthatspecialeventcouldbe.63

BeyondjusttheirinnatenoveltythatoriginatedfromtheirbeingAmericanbrands,

thesefastfoodrestaurantsplacedenormousemphasisondevelopingtheirservers’customer

serviceskills,whichthencontributedtotheluxuryfeeloftherestaurants.Beforethe

introductionoffastfood,itwasuncommonforrestaurantworkerstoreceiveextensivetraining

innotjusttheirbasicserviceskills,butintheirmannerofservice.BothKFCandMcDonald’shad

trainingprograms,McDonald’shadHamburgerUniversity64andKFChadatraininginstitute,

thattaughttheirserverstobefriendlytotheircustomers,offersmilesandpleasantriessuchas

“Thankyou,”alongwiththemealstheyserved,andteamworkskillsthatwouldallowthe

serviceteamtoworkmoreeffectivelytogether.Perhapsthemostimportantaspectofstaff

trainingattheseestablishmentswastheirextensivehygienetraining.65

High-qualityservicewasnotrestrictedtohygieneandgreetingsattheserestaurants,to

accommodatetheirChineseclientele’sneeds,thecompanieschangedtheirhiringprocesses

andrestaurantofferingsaswell.Forexample,childreninChinawerefoundationaltothe

developmentofWesternfastfoodbrandsbecausetheylovedtherestaurants’appearancesand

offerings,whiletheirparentsusedtheopportunityofdiningattheserestaurantstointroduce

theirchildrentoWesternculture.66McDonald’s,becameaplacetocelebratebirthdayparties,

anniversaries,weddings,andotherspecialevents.67Inadditiontotheirglobalmascot,Ronald

63Watson,p.42.64Watson,p.31.65Shelman,MaryL.“KFC’sRadicalApproachtoChina.”HarvardBusinessReview,Web.66Watson,p.63.67Ibid.

41

McDonald,McDonald’sinChinadevelopedafemalemascot,AuntMcDonald,whojobwasto

attendbirthdaypartiesandentertainthechildren.68McDonald’salsohiredfemalereceptionists

whohelpedparentsbywatchingtheirchildrenwhiletheydinedattherestaurant.69Thiswas

onlyoneofmanynewdevelopmentsincustomerserviceinChinathathelpcreatethe

welcomingandhigh-classatmospherethatwaslaterattributedtotheseWesternbrands.

Ifthefastfoodcompanieshadfailedtoestablishsuchdefinedbrands,hadnotbeen

consideredtobesoquintessentiallyAmerican,orifChinawerenotprimedbyalongcultural

historyofstreetfoodtoacceptquickservicerestaurants,thefastfoodrestaurantsmaynot

havehadsuchsustainedgrowth.Inrecentyears,ithasbecomeapparenthowfragilethese

brandsare.KFCinparticularhassufferedfrommultipleoccurrencesoffoodsafetyconcerns

andoutbreaksofillnessstemmingfromissuesinboththeirsupplychainandthehygieneof

thoseservingfoodattheirrestaurants.In2012,scandalbrokewhenlocalChinesemedia

outletsuncoveredthatthesuppliersforKFCandMcDonald’schickenwereinjectingtheanimals

withexcessiveamountsofantibiotics.70Onlytwoyearslater,anothersupplier,ShanghaiHusi

FoodCo,wasfoundoutbyatelevisionreporttobesupplyingtherestaurantswith

contaminatedmeat,eitherfreshmeatthathadbeencontaminatedbyexpiredmeatormeat

thathadfallenonthegroundandnotbeencleaned.71The2014scandalseverelydamagedthe

68Ibid.69Ibid.70Jourdan,AdamandLisaBaertlein.“Yum,McDonald’sapologizeasnewChinafoodscandalhits.”Reuters,Jul21,2014.Web.71Solomon,Brian.“McDonald’s,KFCSnaggedbyNewFoodSafetyScandalinChina.”Forbes,2014,Web.

42

brands’formerlypristinereputations;theseluxuryrestaurantswerenolongerseemingly

impervioustofailuresorflaws.

Althoughtherestaurantscontinuedtopromotetheirhighqualityfoodandhygienic

restaurants,theirmessagingwasundercutbycustomers’andnewsoutlets’socialmediaposts

thatcontradictedtheirstatements.InChina,socialmediahasemergedasoneofthemost

importantwaystoforcompaniestocommunicatewiththeirconsumers,especiallyintimesof

crisis;itallowscompaniestorespondtosituationsinrealtime,butitalsoincreasesthevitality

ofcrisesandmakesinformationeasiertodisseminate.WhenKFCandMcDonald’sbothfaced

foodsafetycrisesin2012,bothcompaniestooktosocialmediatoresolvethecrises,buttook

twocontrastingapproaches.In2012,McDonald’swasfoundinahiddencamerainvestigation

byChinaCentralTelevisiontobesellingexpiredfoodatoneoftheirmostprominentstores:the

McDonald’sfranchiseontheSanlintun.72Onlythirtyminutesafterthestorybroke,McDonald’s

issuedanapologythroughsocialmedia,statingthattheoffendingfranchiseehasbeen

suspended,andonly90minuteslater,McDonald’sofficialmicroblogissuedaformalapology.

Theseapologieswereforwardedover17,394timesandreceived13,286comments,mostof

whichwerepositiveandpraisedMcDonald’sfortheirquickresponseandwillingnesstoaccept

responsibilityfortheiractions.73WhenKFCfacedsimilarscandal,theChinaEconomicNet

reportedthatoneofKFC’spoultrysuppliersraisedchickentomaturityinonly45daysbefore

sendingthemtoslaughterforuseinKFCcooking,theydecidedtodenyculpability.74Rather

thanadmittingtoanywrongdoing,KFCtriedtojustifytheiractionsastheindustrystandard,

72Zhu,p.489.73Ibid.74Ibid.

43

anditwasnotuntilovertwomonthslater,whenevidencewasprovidedthatprovedthe

allegationstrue,thattheChairmanandCEOofYum!ChinaissuedanapologyonKFC’sofficial

microblog.ThepopularresponsetoKFC’shandlingofthecrisiswasoutrage.75Theirconsumers

commentedresponsestotheapologysuchas,“NexttimeIgetsick,I’mgoingtoKFC.Getmy

antibioticfix[ed]fromtheirchickens–savemeatriptothehospital!”whichdemonstrated

theirfeelingthatKFCdamageditshealthyandcleanreputation.76Despiteanymanagementor

proceduralchangesKFCmadetorepairtheirrelationshipwiththeircustomers,theirreputation

hasyettorecoverfromthescandals.77

Attheirsimplest,whentheadvertisements,fancyrestaurantdisplays,novelty,and

prestigearestrippedaway,McDonald’sandKFCarenomorethananewstyleofquickservice

food.Bylookingatspeedofservicealone,fastfoodmightappearsimilartostreetfoodsor

otherquickservice,traditionalChinesefoods,howeveronecannotsimplyignorethefactors

thatseparatethetwo.Whilefastfoodisservedquickly,itisconsumedslowly,whichisastark

departurefromthewayinwhichstreetfoodisconsumed.Bothdiningstylesmayrequirefast

service,butthespeedatwhichfoodaloneisserveddoesnotdefineitsservice.Atfastfood

restaurants,serviceworkersundergoextensivecustomerservicetraining,carefortheir

customers’children,andevenassistinweddingceremonies,allofwhichareunhearddegrees

ofserviceforatraditionalChinesefoodvendor.Sohowexactlydoesonedefinethe“service”of

75Ibid.76Ibid.77Filloon,Whitney.“TenJailedinChinaforSupplyingExpiredMeattoMcDonald’s,KFC.”Eater,2016,Web.

44

quickservice?Moreover,inwhatwayhastheintroductionofWesternfastfoodalteredthe

meaningof“fastservice”andtheconsumerexpectationof“fastservice”fortraditionalChinese

restaurants?TotrulyunderstandtheimpactthatWesternfastfoodhashadontraditional

Chineserestaurants,onemusttakeamorenuancedapproachtounderstanding“fastservice”

andthepotentialrangeofrestauranttypesthatcouldbeconsidered“fastservice.”

45

CHAPTERTWO

Expanding“Fast-Service”

Inthepreviouschapter,IexaminedtheentranceofWesternfastfoodbrandsinChina,

thecircumstancethatsurroundedandprecededtheirentrancetherelationshipChinese

customershavewiththebrands,andultimatelyfoundthatthesebrands’successesare

inextricablylinkedtotheirbrand’sperceptionasahigh-quality,luxurygood,withlittlebrand

loyalty.Eventhoughthesebrandselicitlimitedloyaltyfromtheircustomers,theyhavehad

unprecedentedsuccessinChina.In2017,KFCreported5,138operatinglocationsinChinaand

McDonald’shadapproximately2,500restaurantswithplanstodoublethatnumberby2022.1,2

Likeanyforeignintroduction,however,thesebrandsbringwiththemculturaltraditionsoftheir

Americanhomeland,mostapparentlytheirdifferentcuisines,servicestyles,andstandardsof

cleanliness.McDonald’sandKFC,despitethesevariancesfromtraditionalChinesefoodservice

andculture,havestillembeddedthemselvesintoChinesefoodculture.Amongthemiddle

class,theserestaurantsbecamehabitualdiningspots,placestorelax,andplacestospendtime

withtheirfamilies.Theyhavesosuccessfully“glocalized”thatmodernChinesechildrenwhen

surveyeddonotidentifyeitherbrandas“foreign.”3Inpart,theirsuccessfulintegrationwasdue

totheirwillingnesstoadoptmoretraditionalChineseflavorprofilesandtoaccommodate

differentserviceneedsspecifictotheirChinesecustomers.Inthischapter,Iposethequestion

1“YumChina.”YumBrands,Web.2“McDonald’sbumpsupestimateforstoresinChinaby2022.”Reuters,August8,2017,Web.3Bell, David, and Mary L. Shelman. “KFC’s Radical Approach to China.”

46

ofwhetherthisexchangewasreciprocal?WhileWesternbrandsadoptedaspectsofChinese

culturetobecomemoresuccessful,didtheWesternculturetheyintroduced–servicestyles

anddiningstyles–influencethedevelopmentofnativeChinesefast-servicerestaurantbrands?

AroundthetimeofMcDonald’sandKFC’sintroduction,restaurantslikeLanzhouLa

Mian(Figure2)begantoformallyestablishthemselvesasbrandsandbegantofranchise,much

liketheearlyfast-foodrestaurantsfranchisedinAmerica.Whiletheserestaurantsretained

theirmoretraditionallyChineseappearanceandmenus,otherfastservicerestaurantsbeganto

openaswell,forexampleDico’s(Figure9)andZhenKungfu(Figure10),whichhadan

appearancesimilartothatofaWesternchainrestaurant,butwerecompletelyChinese,from

menutomanagement.ThischapterwillexplorewhatinfluencetheintroductionofWestern

fastfoodhashadonChinesefoodculture,specificallyhowitmayhavealteredtheexpectation

ofserviceandofspeedofservice.First,IwillexaminehowtheintroductionofWesternbrands

likeKFCandMcDonald’shaveexpandedthedefinitionof“fastservice”inChinabeyondjust

fastfoodorcanteenstyledining,andcreatedanewnichewithinthediningculturefortheir

particularservicestyle,thatofa“fastfoodrestaurant.”Todoso,Iwilldefinewhatthe

expectationsanddefinitionsfor“fast”andfor“service”areinChinaandcomparethistothe

Westernexpectations,therebyillustratinghowWesternfastfoodchainshaveexpandedupon

thepreviousunderstandingofa“fastservice”restaurant.ThenIwilllookatthemoretangible

influencesthroughacasestudy;Westernfastservicerestaurantsmayhaveimpactedthe

customers’expectationsforthesewords,buthowhasthatinfluencemanifestedintraditionally

Chineserestaurants?Inthepreviouschapter,IlookedatwhataspectsofChineseculturethe

47

Westernchainsadopted,andinthischapterIwillexaminetheinverse–whatattributes,ifany,

oftheseWesternfastfoodchainshavebeenadoptedbyChineserestauranteursandwhy?

First,Whatis“Fast?”

Inthischapter,Iwillexploretheexpansionsofthedefinitionsof“fast,”“service,”and

“fastservice,”inChinaafterWesternfast-foodenteredtheircanonoffoodculture.Aroundthe

timeofWesternfast-foodbrands’entranceintoChina,localentrepreneursandfirmsbeganto

developnativeChinesechainrestaurantsthatmarrysomeoftheintroductionsfromWestern

fastfoodwithmoretraditionalChinesepracticestocreateahybriddiningstyle.Iwouldliketo

examineboththedefinitionsof“service”and“fast”pre-entranceandpost-entrance,whether

ornotitwaseffected,andifcustomers’expectationsforthesetermschanged.Forexample,

whiletheWesternfast-foodchainshaveextensiveservicetraining,Chinesefoodservice

purveyorshaveneverbeforeenforcedsuchpractices.WiththeintroductionofWesternbrands

toChina,hastheconsumers’expectationforqualityofserviceinfoodservicesettings

changed?Iwouldsimilarlyliketoexaminethealterationsmadetothedefinitionof“fast,”and

“fastservice,”post-entranceandiftheentranceofWesternbrandshasaffectedtheir

definitions,howhasitdoneso?

Beforeexploringhowthedefinitionoffasthaschangedwithrelationtofood,onemust

firstunderstandhowspeedisevaluatedbasedontheculturalconceptualizationoftime.In

ChinaandinAmerica,thesedefinitionsstandincontrast.Americansociety,muchlikeGerman,

Swiss,orBritishsociety,ismonochronic,meaningthatAmericansprefertodooneactionata

48

timeandwithinatightschedule,andseethisasthemostefficientwaytooccupytheirtime.4In

America,timeislinear,constantlymovingforward,andhighlyvaluedasarepresentationofan

individual’searningpotential.5Thecentralideaofthisvaluationoftimeisthatthemorehours

spentworking,themoresuccessfulanindividualwillbecome,inpartbecauseofthegreater

amountofmoneyitallowsonetomake.Whentimeisspentdoingsomethingseenashavingno

value,Americansoftenviewthisaswastedtime.

InChina,individualsdeeplyrespectthevalueofothers’time,andmakegreateffortsto

bepromptorevenearly,butalsoensurethattheyarenotrushingameetingoncetheyhave

another’stime.Accordingtoananecdotalessaybycross-culturalresearcherRichardLewis,

peopleinChinacarefullynurturethepersonalrelationshipssurroundingameeting,ratherthan

treatingtheinteractionasmerelytransactional.6Similarly,qualitativeresearchconductedbyat

OceanUniversityinChinasuggeststhatinmodernChina,thereisadifferenceinhowtheolder

generationmanagestimecomparedtotheyoungergeneration.Intheoldergeneration,the

“cultofidlelife,”canstillbeobservedinmanyordinaryChinesepeople’slives,especially

amongtheoldergenerations,butinthemajorcitiesespecially,moreandmoreyoungChinese

peopleareadoptingaquickerpaceoflife.7Thesameresearchexaminedtheinfluencemajor

schoolsofphilosophyandreligionhaveonanation’sperceptionoftime.TheChinesevaluation

4Ibid.5Hall, Edward T. “Monochronic and Polychronic Time.” In Larry A. Samovar, Richard E. Porter (Eds.), Intercultural Communication: a reader, 9th edition, p. 314. Web. 6Lewis,Richard.“HowDifferentCulturesUnderstandTime.”BusinessInsider,June1,2014,Web.7Li,Mengyu.“TheUniqueValuesofChineseTraditionalCulturalTimeOrientation:InComparisonwithWesternCulturalTimeOrientation.”InterculturalCommunicationStudies,Vol17,No.1,2008,p.70.Web.

49

oftimestemsfromtheintersectionofthreephilosophicalorreligioustraditions:Buddhism,

Taoism,andConfucianism.InConfucianism,timeorientationismultidimensional;itispast-

focused,whichallowsforgreaterconsiderationofChina’slongphilosophicalandethicalhistory

andconsidersthecurrentsituationinlightofthosepasseddowntraditions.Moreover,in

Confucianism,timeisconsideredflexibleandpractitionersemphasizethe“rightoccasion”or

“rightopportunity”whendealingwithanaffairorevent,whichisfacilitatedinpartbythe

flexibleconceptualizationoftime.8

Taoismadvocatesforrelativismandthelimitlessnessoftime,butthemostimportant

tenantofTaoismis“Tao,”theprinciplethatestablishesthatthereisnocleardivisionbetween

lifeanddeathorpastandpresent,theyaresimplyrelative.9Anexampleusedtoillustratethis

conceptinTaoismisthelifespanofatreecomparedtothelifespanofahumancomparedto

thelifespanofafly.Whiletothefly,its24-hourlifespanmayseemlong,toahumanitisonly

amoment,likewisewhileahuman’s100-yearlifespanmayseemlong,toatreethatmaylivea

thousandyears,thehuman’slifeisshort–thetimeofeachoftheselifespansisrelativetothe

individualperceivingit.10

InBuddhistphilosophy,timeispartofourconsciousnessandappearsduringthe

processofknowing,andisaproductofahuman’sinteractionswithmatters.11Asaresult,time

issubjectivebecauseitisdependentontheacknowledgementofindividuals’consciousness,

8Li,Mengyu,p.67.9Ibid.10Li,Mengyu,p.68.11Bunnag,Anawat.“Theconceptoftimeinphilosophy:AcomparativestudybetweenTheravadaBuddhistandHenriBergson’sconceptoftimefromThaiphilosophers’perspectives.”KasetsartJournalofSocialSciences,2017,p.2Web.

50

andisalsothereforerelative,becauseitreliesonindividuals’perceptions.Furthermore,

Buddhistphilosophysuggeststhattimedoesnotreallyexist,itisonlyaconceptwitharelative

truthdependingoneachoftheworldexperiencesofeachindividual’sconsciousness.12Even

thoughpeopleinChinadeeplyrespectoneanother’stime,traditionalChineseculture

conceivestimeassubjective,relative,andflexible,whichiswhyevenabriefexchangehas

spaceforpleasantriesandthecultivationofrelationships.

AtrestaurantslikeMcDonald’sandKFCinChina,their

servicestyleadaptedtobettersuitthiscarefulbalanceof

neithertakinguptoomuchoftheircustomers’timeorbeing

disrespectfullybluntintheirinteractionswithcustomers.

Whilecustomersareservedquickly,bothMcDonald’sandKFC

providethenecessaryaccommodationstomeettheneedsof

theircustomers,betheyindividualsorfamilies,toallowthem

todinewithoutfeelingrushedordelayed.Basedonmy

researchinthelastchapter,afewexamplesofthese

accommodationsincludelargerstoresizes,greaternumbersofseats,hostessestohelpwith

children,andmostrecently,tablesthatbetteraccommodatefamily-styledining.

China’srelativeunderstandingoftimeisperfectlyexpressedbytheirpatternsfordining.

WhethercustomersmaketheefforttodineoutataWesternfastfoodrestaurantlikeKFCor

McDonald’sortheydineastreetfoodstall.Ineithersituationtheyexpectfastservice,slow

12Bunnag,p.5.

Figure7:Family-stylediningtableatmodernChineseMcDonald's.Source:SouthChinaMorningPost

51

serviceisseenasawasteoftime,butthetimetotheytaketoconsumethefoodmayvary

dependingonthecompanytheykeep,theirenvironment,orothercircumstantialeffectors,

withoutfeelinglikewastedtime.Bothmealstechnicallyfitwithinthesingularnicheof“fast”

service,howevertheyoccupyverydifferentspaceswithintheChineseconsumers’ideaof

dining–oneprovidesthenecessaryfacilitiesforacustomertositandsavorthemealwhilethe

otherisstrictlyforspeed.Thespeedofserviceisrelativelystandardacrossthesetwodining

formats,soitisthe“service”aspectof“fastservice”thatmoresignificantlydistinguishesthe

two.

Second,WhatisGood“Service?”

Inthefastfoodindustry,thefoodsatisfiesthecustomers’hunger,buttheservice,more

oftenthannotdetermineshowacustomerviewstheexperience.Goodservicecanmake

amendsforlow-qualityfoodoranincorrectorder,butbadservicewillleaveasourtasteinthe

customer’smouth.Thedefinitionof“service,”though,changesdependingonthecultural

expectationofdifferentcountries.InAmerica,“goodservice”isusuallyatermassociatedwith

friendly,attentiveservice,somethingnotnecessarilyexpectedinothercountries,including

China.13DuringCommunistEraChina,serviceworkerswererankedatthebottomofthesocial

hierarchy.Asaresult,serviceworkerswereknownfortreatingthegeneralpublic,who

regardedthemassolowly,withcontempt,weredifficulttoworkwithorgettheattentionof,

13Min,Hokey.“Benchmarkingtheservicequalityoffast-foodrestaurantfranchisesintheUSA:Alongitudinalstudy.”Benchmarking:AnInternationalJournal,Vol.18Issue2,p.299.

52

andoftenrudetotheircustomers.14Aswagesandworkingconditionsimprovedinthe1980s

withDengXiaoping’seconomicreforms,servicebegantoimprovesometoo,butstillwas

unrecognizablebytheAmericanstandardofservice.15WhenKFCandMcDonald’sfirstopened

inChina,theyhadtohaveadvocatesforthecompanyexplaintocustomersthattheservice

workers’smileswerenotmockingthe,theyrepresentedhowexcitedtheworkersweretoserve

theirclientelebecausethestyleoftheirservicewassodifferentfromthenorm.16

WhenChinesecustomersoftheseWesternfastfoodrestaurantswerepolledabout

whichaspectsofcustomerservicetheyconsideredtobemostimportant,servicequalityand

customersatisfactionwerethetwomostimportant.Inthiscontext,servicequalityand

customersatisfactionaredefinedprimarilybythecustomer’sexperiencewiththeir

environmentandtheirsocialinteractionwiththeoperatorsoftherestaurant.Thesefactors,

interactionandphysicalenvironment,areprioritizedeventooutcomequality,meaningthe

qualityofthefooditemtheyareserved,tomanyChineseconsumersatrestaurants.17When

customersevaluatetheinteractionandphysicalenvironmentofarestaurant,theylookat

speedofcustomerservice,easeofobtaininginformationandservice,andtheserver’s

experience,andknowledgeabouttheproductandservice.18Asearlyas1971,Western

newspapershaveinterestinChinesecustomers’expectationsofservice:customersinChina

expectedpatient,thoughtfulservicefromtheirservicepeople,wheretheserverconsidersthe

14Watson,p.32.15Ibid.16Watson,p.2817Chow,IreneHau-siu,et.al.“ServicequalityinrestaurantoperationsinChina:Decision-andexperiential-orientedperspectives.”HospitalityManagement,Vol26,p.706.Web.18Chan,TzehChyi.“WinningtheheartsoftheChineseconsumer:Capitalizingonfivetrendstodrivegrowthandhighperformance.”Accenture,2013,p.13.Web.

53

consumer’sbestinterest.19Considerationforthecustomer’stimeandpatronagetiesbackto

theChineseunderstandingoftimebecausebehaviorthatreflectsthisrespectforthecustomer

ispartofthepolitenessnecessaryforservicenottoseemabrupt.Eventhoughmany

restaurantsinChinaofferfastserviceoffood,thewaitingtimesbeforeservicecanbelong.

WhenarestaurantbecomeswellknowninChinaforhigh-qualityfood,thefoodiesofChinaline

uptodinethere,enduringuptoanhourlongwaitduringtheweekandevenlongerwaittimes

overtheweekend.Toensurethattheircustomersarecontenttowaitforservice,

restauranteursinChinabecamecreativewithhowtooccupytheircustomersduringthat

waitingperiod.Whileitisnotnecessarilya“fastservice”chainrestaurant,awell-knownhot-

potrestaurantchainacrossChina,HaiDiLao(海底捞),usedthewaitingtimebeforeserviceto

treatcustomerstoacomplimentaryhandmassagetohelppassthetime.20Otherlocations,and

otherquickservicerestaurants,offerfreesnacks,Internet,gamesofChinesecheckers,poker

games,andevena“noodledance”show,whichlooksmuchlikeaChineseribbondance,but

withwheatnoodlesstretchingupto10metersinsteadofribbons.21Theshowsorservices

providedtocustomerswhiletheywaitaddtothecustomers’overallsatisfactionbyproviding

valuetotheircustomers’overalldiningexperience.

Ultimately,customersexpectahighdegreeofcompetencyandacomplete

understandingofthebrandorproductthatserversrepresentbecause,whenpolled,customers

reportedthatreceivingsomethingotherthanwhatwasordered,orhavingtoaskaservice

19Topping,Seymour.“CustomersinChinaGettingaBetterDeal.”TheNewYorkTimes,May31,1971,Web.20Burkitt,Lauren.“ChineseHotPotChainHaiDiLaoMakesMovetoUS.”TheWallStreetJournal,May22,2013.Web.21Nan,Chen.“Smartphoneappscutdownwaitatrestaurants.”ChinaDaily,Feb3,2015.Web.

54

personmultipletimesforthesameservicemadeconsumersthemostfrustratedcomparedto

otherpotentialfailuresinservice.22BecauseofthestandardizationacrossWesternfastfood

chainrestaurantandtheextensivetrainingthattheirserviceworkersreceive,restaurantslike

McDonald’sandKFCsatisfytheirChineseclientele’sexpectationforcompetency.23

Despitehighdegreesofcustomersatisfaction,Westernfastfoodrestaurantsdonot

havehighdegreesofcustomerloyalty.Customersatisfactionandperceivedservicequalityare

directlyrelatedtointeractionsindividualshaveatonerestaurant,whilecustomerloyaltyis

moresignificantlyinfluencedbytheconsumer’sperceptionofthecompanyasawhole.24

ModernChineseindividuals’customerloyaltyisdrivenbyfactorsbeyondjustwhatismost

financiallyaccessible.Consumersprioritizecompaniesthathaveopenandhonest

communicationswiththeircustomers,thatrespondtocustomerfeedbackbyadjustingtheir

productsorservicemethods,andthatshowacommitmenttocorporatesocialresponsibility.25

Essentially,Chineseconsumersareloyaltocompaniesthatactinthebestinterestoftheir

communities,notjusttheirowncompany.Inlightoftheseexpectations,itbecomesapparent

whyMcDonald’sbrandrecoveredmorequicklythanKFC’swhennavigatingfood-safety

scandalsin2014;McDonald’swascompletelytransparentwiththeircustomers,apologized,

andeveninvitednewscrewsintotheirkitchens,whileKFCdeniedanywrongdoinguntilitwas

proven.26TherewereenoughfundamentalsimilaritiesbetweentheWesternfastfood

restaurants’servicestylesandChineseconsumers’expectationsforcompetentserviceforthe

22Chan,p.13.23Watson,p.21.24Chan,p.12.25Ibid.26Moorman,Adam.“FortheLoveofLamian.”BeijingReview,No.40,October6,2011,Web.

55

restaurantstosatisfytheircustomerswithonlyminoradjustments.However,totrulybecomea

Chinesebrandthatgarnerscustomerloyalty,theWesternbrandsmustbetterunderstand

consumers’expectationsformembersoftheircommunityandstrivetomeetthose

expectations.

FoodFight:LanzhouLamian

Withboththedefinitionsandexpectationsfor“fast”and“service”establish,Icannow

explorehowthesedefinitionsmanifestintraditionalChineserestaurantsandmorecompletely

characterizethe“fastservice”nicheoffoodservice.Tobetterunderstandhowthese

definitionsmanifestintraditionalChineserestaurants,withoutsimplyaskingbroad,difficultto

answerquestions,IwouldliketouseLanzhoulamianasacasestudyofalocalfooditemthat

hasbeenbranded,commodified,andmadeintoanationalchainrestaurant.Forthissectionof

thethesis,mysourcesaremostlyinformalsources,customerandbloggertestimonialsonline,

andmagazinearticlesbecausetherehasbeenlimitedscholarlyresearchconductedonthe

effectofthatWesternfastfoodhadonfoodcultureinChina.

Lanzhoulamian(兰州拉面)isatypeofhand-pullednoodlefromthecapitalofthe

Gansuprovince,Lanzhou.Noodle-makingisoneoftheChina’soldestfoodtraditions–

archeologistshavefoundrecordsofnoodlesinbooksfromtheEasternHanDynastyover2,000

yearsago,andnoodlesfoundintheLajiasiteontheYellowRiverthatdatebackover4,000

years.Intheearly1800’s,duringtheQingDynasty,aHuiMuslimchefcreatedthisparticular

recipefornoodlesoupthatbecameoneofthemostpopulardishesinLanzhou;localsconsume

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lamianforbreakfast,lunch,ordinner,andsometimesallthree.27Lamianisaparticulartypeof

noodledish,similartoJapaneseramen,“La”(拉)meanstopull,whichishowthedoughis

stretchedintolong,thinnoodles,and“mian”(面)meansnoodle,whichisthecentral

componentofthesoupdish.Thenoodlesarestretchedandpulled,folded,rested,andrefolded

untiltheybecomethin,chewystrips,thenarequicklycookedinsoup.28In2010thecity

governmentofLanzhoucreatedanofficialbrandfor“LanzhouBeefLamian”andbegan

licensingitsusetoacateringcompanycalledEasternPalace,whohavesinceopened400

officiallamianrestaurants.EasternPalacewasnotthefirstproprietortosellLanzhouLamianon

abroaderscale,theHualongHui,aMuslimethnicminoritygroup,operatedover10,000

restaurantswhenthelicensingagreementcameintoplace.29Ratherthancreatingtheirown

brand,HualongLamian,theHuiprotestedtherestaurantsEasternPalaceopenedandfought

rabidlyfortheirrighttosellLanzhouLamian.Whataboutthisfoodstuffchangedwhenitwas

brandedthatmadethebrandsovaluabletothepurveyorsasabrand?AsMcDonald’sand

KFC’ssuccessesdemonstrated,brandingmatters.

ButhowdidthecityofLanzhoucreateabrandfortheirvarietyoflamian?Thereare

variationsofnoodlesoupsalloverChina,thereisnospecialservicetrainingforserviceworkers,

andyet,evenjustbyestablishinganauthentic“brand,”forthelamianfromLanzhou,officials

disruptedtheLanzhoulamianstatusquo.Asestablishedinthepreviouschapter,despitethe

27Moorman.“FortheLoveofLamian.”28Lander,Nicholas.“Theancientartofnoodles.”FinancialTimes,Sept20,2013.Web.29Huang,Zheping.“With100,000-pluseateriesserving“Lanzhoulamian”can’tbeignored–especiallybyLanzhou.”Quartz,Aug10,2015.Web.

57

prevalenceandacceptanceofShanzhai30culture,Chinese

consumersarebrand-sensitiveforanumberofreasons

includingfortheirhealthandsafety,forstatusgainedby

purchasingabrandnameitem,andtoensuretheauthenticity

oftheitemorservicetheypurchase.31Thesefearsstemfrom

China’shistoryofproducingcounterfeitgoods;thereisstigma

bornewithpurchasingcounterfeititemsoftenbecauseoftheir

inferiorquality,inauthenticity,andlowerpricetag.Ifonehas

thecapacitytobuyanauthenticbrandeditem,theywouldchoosetodosoratherthansacrifice

qualityandsafetyforalowerpricetag,thereforethepurchaseofcounterfeititemshasbecome

asymbolofthelowerclasseswhomaynothavetheextracapitaltopurchaseauthentic

goods.32Anexampleofthiskindofcounterfeitingisthecopy-catWesternfastfoodchainsthat

openedaroundthetimeofthesebrands’entrancesandbecameanalternativetotheauthentic

Westernchainsforpeoplewhocouldnotaffordtheirmore-luxurypricing.33Thisbegsthe

question,ifsomebodyisabletodineatanauthenticLanzhourestaurant,butdoesnotpaya

premiumfortheauthenticproductoverthecounterfeit,doesitstilldifferentiatethemby

degreesofstatus?Thatistosay,issomebodywhodinesatanEasternPalaceLanzhoulamian

30“Shanzhai”(山寨)isatermusedtodescribethecultureofcounterfeitingproductsinChina,whichisgenerallyviewedasakindofRobinhoodstorywherecounterfeitersmakecheaperversionsofluxurygoodssothatthosegoodsaremoreaccessibletolowerincomeindividuals.31Williams,JacquelineandXiuzhongXu.“ChinaCravesForeignGoods.StudentsinAustraliaSupplyThem.”NewYorkTimes,May2,2017.Web.32PhauandTeah,“TheDevilwears(counterfeit)Prada:astudyofantecedentsandoutcomesofattitudestowardscounterfeitsofluxurybrands,”p.19.33Yang,Fan,FakedinChina,p.69.

Figure8:ALanzhouLamianrestaurantinChina,Source:TripAdvisor

58

restaurantofahigherclassthansomebodywhodinesataHualongHui-operatedrestaurant?

ThisiswhereLanzhoulamiandivergesfromtheenteringWesternfastfoodchainsinallbuta

fewways.Firstly,diningataLanzhoulamianrestaurantwasneverastatussymbolinChina.

Secondly,therecipeforanyLanzhoulamianrecipeisessentiallythesameandconsistsoffive

keycomponents:yiqing(一清),erbai(二白),sanhong(三红),silu(四绿),andwuhuang(五黄).

Theyiqing,whichmeans“oneclear”isthesoup’sclearbroth;erbai,whichmeans“twowhite,”

arethewhiteradishesinthesoup;sanhong,meaning“threered,”isthedarkredchilithatgives

thesoupitssignaturespice;silü,meaning“fourgreen,”representsthegreengarlicstemsand

corianderleaves;andfinally,wuhuang,meaning“fiveyellow”isfortheyellowwheatnoodles.34

WhileboththeHuiandEasternPalacelamiannoodledishesmaybeauthenticintermsoftheir

ingredientsandservice,theHuimayfearthatbecausetheirstoresarenolonger“official”

Lanzhoulamianrestaurants,thattheywillsufferthissamestigmaofbeingacounterfeitbrand.

EventhoughtheHuioperatestwenty-fivetimesthenumberofLanzhoulamianstoresthat

EasternPalaceoperates,andpeopleinChinahavebeendiningattheserestaurantsfor

decades,theystillcouldpotentiallysufferfromlosingtheirauthenticity.35

BrandingisarelativelyrecentintroductiontoChina;beforethe1970s,therewerevery

fewChinese,brand-namecompaniesexcludingahandfulofbanksorautomotiveproducers.In

1978,whenChinaunderwenteconomicreformandopenedtoforeignbusinesses,both

WesternandnativeChinesebrandsproliferated.Thefirstbrandedfast-foodrestaurantinChina

34Moorman.“FortheLoveofLamian.”35Ibid.

59

wasMr.Lee,foundedin1988,36oneyearaftertheentranceofKFC,followedbyDico’s37and

CNHLS(Wallace)in1994,twoyearsafterMcDonald’s

openedin1992.38ThereislimitedresearchonifWestern

fastfoodchainshadaneffectonChinesefood-brand

development,orifdevelopingthesekindsoffranchised

brandsaresimplyaproductofChina’soveralleconomic

developmentandgreaterformalizationofbusinesses.

However,futureresearchintothepressureWestern

brandsplacedonlocalChinesebusinessestoestablish

themselvesaslegitimatebrandsandcapitalizeonthe

brand-feverthatsweptthroughChinacouldbevaluableto

morecompletelyunderstandtheimpactWesternfastfood

chainshadonthefoodindustryandChinesefoodcultureinamoreglobalsense.

Otherthanthenewly-officialbrandingofthisancientdish,hastheinfluenceofWestern

fast-foodbrandsaffectedthedevelopmentoftheserestaurants,ortheirperceptionbylocals,

inanyotherway?Westernfast-foodbecameastatussymbolfortheemergingChinesemiddle

class,buthavetheselocalbrands,andifnot,whynot?Theevolutionoffastservicefood

cultureiscomplexandmultifaceted,butwithregardtofastfoodinChina,thetopichasalmost

exclusivelybeenstudiedbylookingatWesternfastfoodrestaurantsandthecausesoftheir

36Caldwell,MelissaL.andJamesD.Watson,TheCulturalPoliticsofFoodandEating:AReader,Cambridge,MA:BlackwellPub,p.83.37“Dicosfast-foodrestaurantclosestwooutletsinXiamen|What’sonXiamen,”What’sOnXiamen,Jul9,2009.Web.38“No2HuaLaiShi,”ChinaDaily,Jul28,2014.Web.

Figure9:Dico'srestaurantinChina,Source:http://www.ipeen.com.tw/comment/721808

Figure10:ZhenGongfurestaurantinChina,Source:https://listings.echinacities.com/zhuhai/detail/7270-Zhen-Kungfu

60

success.Althoughthereislimitedavailableacademicresearchontheeffecttheinfluence

WesternfastfoodhashadonChinesefoodculture,Ibelievemyresearchdemonstratesthat

thetopicsdeservesfurtherexploration.QuickservicefoodinChinamightinitiallyappeartobe

dichotomous,WesternfastfoodversusChinesestreetfood,butinreality,thereisaspectrum

ofcuisinesandservicestylesinChinesefastservicecuisine.Ratherthanonlyexistingin

contrasttotraditionalChinesefastservicerestaurants,Westernfastfoodchainscontributedto

theexpansionofthedefinitionof“fastservice”foodinChina.

61

CONCLUSION

FastBecomesFaster,butWhereWillServiceGoNext?

Figure11:FleetofDeliveroodrivers,Source:"HowtoorderdeliveryonChina'sMeituanApp,"That'sMagShanghai.

Now,almost30yearsafterKFCfirstenteredChina,Westernfastfoodrestaurantshave

becomesowidespreadandglocalizedthattheyhavelostmuchoftheirnovelty.These

restaurantsstillrepresentluxuryandWesternculturetomanyChineseindividuals,but,

especiallyasthemiddleclasscontinuestogrowanddevelopsdeeperrootstotheirclassstatus

throughotherculturalsymbols,theserestaurantsdonotcommandthesamepowerthrough

62

theirbrandsthattheydidintheearly1990’s.1Eventhoughtheirbrandsmightnotreceivethe

sameattentionastheyoncedid,fastfoodhasstillimpactedChinesefoodcultureinwaysnot

yetfullyexplored.WithgreaterresearchintothedevelopmentofnativeChinesefastfood

brands,changestoquickserviceandcustomerexpectations,andcontinuedresearchonthe

growthoftheseWesterncompanies,wecanbuildamorecompleteunderstandingoftheir

impact.Asstatedearlierinthisthesis,foodcultureneverstopsdeveloping,sowhilethis

researchonWesternfastfoodbrandsdeservestocontinue,wemustcontinuelookingfornew

frontiersinfoodculture.Inmyresearchon“fastservice,”IfoundwhatIbelievetobethenext

technologythatwillrevolutionizethatterm:smartphonesandtheinternet.

AsChinacontinuestomodernize,develop,andutilizetechnologynationwide,itis

inevitablethatthesetechnologieswillincorporatedinallfacetsofdailylifeincludingdining.

Oneparticularlynotableinstanceoftechnologyindiningistherapidlygrowingfooddelivery

industry.Attheendof2017,theonlinefooddeliverymarketreachedatotalvalueof

approximately$31.9billion(204.6billionyuan),a23%increasefromthepreviousyear.2

Approximately300millionChinesecitizensuseonlineservicestoorderfood,andaccordingtoa

reportbytheChinaDaily,thatonlyaccountsforasmallpercentageofthetotalfoodcatering

market.3AlthoughdeliveryhasexistedfordecadesinChina,itwasnotuntiltheageof

smartphonesthatthedeliveryindustryflourishedandsincethenithasbecomeoneofChina’s

1Liu,Coco.“AretheChinesefallingoutoflovewithMcDonald’s.”SouthChinaMorningPost,Nov2017.Web.2Xinhua.“China’sfooddeliverymarketgrows23%.”ChinaDaily,Jan22,2018,Web.3Ibid.

63

mostcompetitiveonlinemarkets.4Myquestionnowis,willsmartphoneandInternet

technologies,likefastfood,bethenextcatalystforwidespreadchangeinfoodserviceinChina?

Theseapplicationsarepopularforareason;theymakeorderinginfoodconvenientand

easy,andoftencheap.Theservicesoperatethroughapplicationsonusers’phones,whichshow

foodprovidersnearthecustomer’slocation,allowthemtofiltertheirsearch,showthem

menus,allowthemtoorderthroughtheapp,andevenallowcustomerstotracktheirorders,

untilthefoodarrivesattheirdoor,removinghumancontactalmostcompletelyfromthe

orderingprocess.5ThedeliverydriversmostlyworkforoneofChina’sfivedeliverybrands:

El.eme(饿了么),Deliveroo,Baidu-Waimai(百度外卖),MeituanDianping(美团点评),or

WeChat.6Usually,deliverydriversforanyofthesefivecompanieshavesixorderstodeliverin

anhouroverawidearea,sothedriversareknownforracingthroughthestreetsathighspeeds

onmotorbikes,onlytodismountwhentheyarriveattheirdestinationandrunupmanyflights

ofstairs.Ifthedeliveriesarrivelate,theblameisplacedonthedeliverydrivers,whoreceive

ratingsmuchlikeUberdriversdothatreviewtheirperformanceandcanaffecttheirjobstatus.7

Thedrivers’speedisnottheonlyfactorthatcanaffectcustomers’reviews.Accordingtoa

reportbytheWallStreetJournal,customersoftenaskdeliverydriverstopick-upotheritems,

forexamplecigarettesorsanitarypads,andwillreviewthempoorlyiftheyarrivewithoutthe

4Gao,Yuan.“China’sHottestInternetSectorisOld-FashionedFoodDelivery.”BloombergNews,August4,2017.Web.5Tao,Li.“Dinneratyourdoor:insideChina’sUS$37billiononlinefooddeliveryservicesmarket.”SouthChinaMorningPost,Sept16,2017,Web.6Lin,LizaandWayneMa.“OlympicAthletesHaveNothingonChina’sLunch-DeliveryGuys–Driversgunscooters,sprintupstairstomeetbrutalquotas;‘challengingwork’.”TheWallStreetJournal,March28,2017.Web.7Lin.“OlympicAthletesHaveNothingonChina’sLunch-DeliveryGuys–Driversgunscooters,sprintupstairstomeetbrutalquotas;‘challengingwork’.”

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additionalitems.Forallintentsandpurposes,thedeliverydriversandtheircompaniesarethe

foodserviceproviderstotheircustomers,nottherestaurantsfromwhichthecustomer

ordered.8

WhenChina’sseemingly-exponentialeconomicgrowthbegantoslowin2014and2015,

theChinesemiddleclassbegantofeeltheneedtotightentheirpursestringsandbemore

economicalabouttheirpurchases,whichincludedtheirdininghabits.Tosavemoney,Chinese

customersturnedtotheonlinefooddeliveryapplicationwithgrowingfrequencybecausethey

oftenoffereddiscountswhendininginatrestaurantsororderingdelivery,makingdiningout

lessexpensive.9Thesediscountsattractedmoreandmorecustomerstoengagewith

restaurantsonlinefirst,thenchoosewheretheywoulddineoutbasedonthedealofferedand

theonlinereviews,ratherthanrelyingonjusttheirownpersonalknowledgeorphysical

advertisements,becausetheynowhadgreateraccesstoinformationaboutdealsallovertheir

city.10OneofthesideeffectsoftheserestaurantaggregatorsisthatWesternfastfood

restaurants’saleshavesufferedsincetheirinception.11EventhoughKFCandMcDonald’sare

popularlyorderfordeliveryinChina,theyfacestiffcompetitionfromthethousandsofother

restaurantsthatcrowdtheseonlinemarketplaces.Toremaincompetitiveastechnology

becomesmoreintegratedintothediningexperience,Yum!Chinaiscurrentlyindiscussionto

8Lin.“OlympicAthletesHaveNothingonChina’sLunch-DeliveryGuys–Driversgunscooters,sprintupstairstomeetbrutalquotas;‘challengingwork’.”9Baertlein,LiseandDonnyKwok.“Hungry?China’sfooddeliveryappsbiteintoYumrevival.”Reuters,October9,2015.Web.10Baertlein.“Hungry?China’sfooddeliveryappsbiteintoYumrevival.”11Ibid.

65

buyDaojia.com,asmallerfooddeliveryservicesfirm.12Whiletheirlongtermgoalsaretoopen

20,000KFCrestaurantsinChina,theexecutivesatYum!Chinainterestindemonstratesthe

perceivedvalueofdeliveryservicesinChina’schangingdiningculture.

Thirdpartydeliveryasthenewmediumforfoodservicehasthepotentialtochange

completelycustomers’metricsforgoodorfastservicebyreplacingtraditionalservice

interactionswithfeaturesonanonlineapplication.Whenindividualsuseafooddeliveryservice

toorderfooddirectlytotheirhomes,ratherthandiningout,theymakesomanyoftheprior

metricsusedtomeasurespeedandserviceobsolete.Forexample,customersorderingdelivery

maynotbeinfluencedbytherestaurant’sappearance,whichhadbeenoneofthemost

significantinfluencesincustomersatisfactionintraditionalfoodservicesettings,becausethey

donotinteractwiththerestaurant.Likewise,mayremovetheaspectof“beingseen”from

diningbecausebyorderingin,onecannotbeseendiningoutortreatingotherstomealsat

upscalerestaurants.Whiledininginitselfmaybeastatussymbolbecauseitmeansonehasthe

abilitytopurchasefoodratherthancookforthemselves,deliveryapplicationsoftenmake

orderingininexpensiveandwidelyaccessible,soitisuncleariforderingdeliveryisseenasa

symbolofstatus.13Finally,whenindividualsorderdinner,theirconceptualizationof“fast

service”maychangebecauseofhowmuchfurthertheirmealmusttraveltoarriveattheir

homeratherthantheirtablewithinarestaurant.Currently,thereislittletonoresearchon

consumers’expectationsforfooddeliveryserviceandspeedinChina,sothisislargelymyown

12Reuters.“YumChinaMayBeSnappingUpThisDeliveryFirmfor$200Million.”Fortune,November25,2016.Web.13Tao,Li.“Dinneratyourdoor:insideChina’sUS$37billiononlinefooddeliveryservicesmarket.”

66

speculationbasedonmypreviousresearch.However,Ibelieveitisimportanttoconsiderhow

deliveryrelatestotheexpandeddefinitionsandexpectationsof“fastservice”tounderstand

howitmightfitintothatnicheoffoodculture.

TechnologyintegratingintodiningisnotrestrictedtodeliveryaloneinChina,itishas

becomeamarketplacefordiscountdiningvouchers,restaurantreviewsandrecommendations,

andhasevenbecomethenewwaytoorderfoodinarestaurantorbeforeevenarrivingata

restaurant.Sinceitslaunchin2003,Dianpingbecamethego-toonlinevenueforrestaurant

reviews,information,reservations,anddiscounts.Mostsignificantly,theapplicationhasno

Englishoption,itonlyoperatesinMandarinChinese,meaningitisintendedforaChinese

audienceandnottoaccommodatevisitingWesterntourists.BecauseofDianping’smassive

userbase,approximately260millionactiveusers,therestaurants’profilesandofferingson

Dianpingactasimportantadvertisements.14OnlinereviewsitesinChinahavechangedthe

landscapeformarketingforlocalrestaurants:therestaurantreviewsandphotosuploadedto

theapplicationbycustomerscreateabrandfortherestaurantthatrepresentsthem,either

positivelyornegatively,withoutallowingtheproprietortocuratetheirbrand,andthen

broadcastthatbrandtoamuchbroaderaudience.15Whilearestaurant’sproductandin-

restaurantservicestillcarrysignificance,theyarenolongertheonlymetricsbywhich

customersevaluatetherestaurantsdesirability.16

14Hersey,Frank.“Meituan-Dianpingreport:Only4%ofdiningrevenuecomesfromdelivery.”Technode,July12,2017.Web.15Escobedo,Joe.“HowtobeNo.1onDianping,China’sVersionofYelp.”Forbes,Oct31,2016.Web.16Ibid.

67

AstechnologycontinuestointegrateintoChinesefoodservice,itwillcontinueto

changetheexpectationforservice,speed,andeveninfluencefoodcultureinwaysthatcannot

yetbepredicted.Withtechnologycomesefficiencyandthereforspeedofservice,butwhat

wouldhappentocustomers’perceptionofarestaurants’servicewhentechnologyis

integrated?Aswepreviouslyestablished,inChina,competency,speedofcustomerservice,

easeofobtaininginformationandservice,andtheserver’sexperience,andknowledgeabout

theproductandservicearethemostimportantconsiderationsindeterminingqualityof

service,socouldtheseservicesbesubstitutedwhenacustomerinterfaceswithtechnology?

SomerestaurantsinChinaareexploringthisterritory,forexample,KFChasintroducedtablet

orderingatsomeofitslocationsthatonlyrequiresascanofone’sfacetopay,butrealpeople

deliverfoodtotheircustomers.17Otherrestaurantsfurtherintegratetechnologyintotheir

diners’experiencesbyreplacingtheirserverscompletelywithphoneapplicationsorrobots.18

EventhoughtechnologyandrobotsmaymeetaChineseclientele’sexpectationsforserviceon

paper,cantheymakeupforthelackthepleasantriesandhumancontactofamoretraditional

serviceexperience?

Chinahascontinuedtobeoneofthecountrieswherecompaniestestoutinnovationsin

technology,thenexpandthosetechnologiestootherexistingmarkets.Theprimaryexampleis

onlinedelivery.WhiledeliverywasavailableoutsideofChinaformanyyears,itwasmostly

carriedoutbyindividualoperatorswhoworkedfortherestaurants,ratherthanoutsourcedto

17Mullen,JethroandSerenitieWang.“PaywithYourFaceatthisKFCinChina.”CNNTech,September1,2017.Web.18Correa,Cynthia,“RestaurantinChinaReplacesServerswithPhoneApp.”Eater,December30,2015.Web.

68

anonlinethirdparty.Theideaofhavingafleetofdeliverydriverstocatertoawideaudience,

ortohavedeliverybeaprimarymethodfordining,organizedthroughanonlineormobile

platform,didnottrulyarriveintheWestuntiltheemergenceofaggregatorslikeUberEats,

Grubhub,orPostmates.19AfterseeingwhatsuccesstheyhadwithaggregatorsinChina,and

afterhavingadeclineinin-storesalesintheUnitedStates,McDonald’sbroughtdeliveryback

withthemtotheUSandbeganapartnershipwithUberEatsinanefforttoboosttheirsales

nationwide.20BothintheWestandinChina,fastfoodchainsseeefficient,widespreaddelivery

serviceasthenextstepforwardinthefoodserviceindustry,eitherthroughpartnershipsor

developingtheirowntechnology.Thepressurefortakingtheleadindeliveryserviceshaslead

companiestoinnovatenewstoretypes,newmethodsofdelivery,newstaffingprocedure,and

newadcampaignsintheWest.Beyondjustmovingorderingfoodfromin-storetoonline,

companiesareintegratingtechnologyintofoodserviceinamultitudeofdifferentways.For

example,Domino’sPizzarecentlylaunchedapilottest,inconjunctionwithFordMotors,ofa

self-drivingdeliverycarthatcooksapizzaonthewaytothecustomer.Insteadofneedingto

waitforapizzatobecookedin-store,giventoadeliverydriver,andbroughttothecustomer,

theycompliedthosethreestepsintoone,leavingloadingthecarwithrawpizzaastheonly

humaninteractionwiththepizzabeforedelivery.21Otherfastservicerestaurantsare

consideringopeningkitchen-onlyrestaurantsthatactasahubfordeliverydrivers.Therewould

19Hirschberg,Carsten,etal.“Thechangingmarketforfooddelivery.”McKinsey,Nov2016.Web.20Tu,JanetI.“McDonald’striesdeliveryviaUberEatstoboostbusiness.”TheSeattleTimes,May31,2017.Web.21Durbin,DeeAnn.“Deliverywithoutdrivers:Dominos’,Fordteamupfortest.”ChicagoTribune,August29,2017.Web.

69

benocustomerinterfaceattherestaurant,itwouldsimplyserveasaplacetoquicklyproduce

foodthatdeliverydrivers,potentiallythirdpartydrivers,woulddeliverdirectlytotheirawaiting

customers.22

Withtheremovalofhumansfromtheservicesideoffoodservice,fastserviceagain

shiftsinitsmeaning.“Fast,”nolongerhastheneedsforhumaninteractionsthatcouldextend

theperiodoftimecustomersarecomfortablewaiting,nordoesitmakespaceformanual,

multi-stepactionsinfoodservice.Inafoodserviceindustryrunbytechnology,“fast”maynow

assumeautomationandstandardization.Ratherthanhopingone’spizzaarrivesin30minutes

oranhour,withthehelpofdrones,self-drivingcars,andmobilecookingunitsorsatellite

kitchens,deliverytimescouldbeguaranteed.“Service”maynolongerbedeterminedbasedon

humaninteractionsoraccommodations.Instead,goodservicewillbedeterminedbyhow

intuitiveacompany’sapplicationis,howappealingtheonlineimagesoftheirfooditemsare,

howquicklythoseitemscanbemadeanddeliveredtothecustomer,andhowintegratedthe

paysystemisintheorderingprocess.Thesetrendsarestilljustnowemerging,beingtested,

andenteringnewmarkets,sotheoveralleffecttechnologyhasonadiner’sexperiencehasyet

tobeseen.Wecanberelativelysure,however,theunderstandingoffastservicewillchangein

Chinaandbeyond,justaswhenWesternfastfoodexpandedthedefinitionofwhatafast

servicediningexperiencecouldbe.

22Tristano,Darren.“Growthof‘Ghost’RestaurantConceptsProvesDelivery-OnlyTrendHasLegs.”Forbes,April13,2017.Web.

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