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EXPOSURE TO VEHICULAR
POLLUTION AND RESPIRATORY
HEALTH STATUS OF
THE URBAN INHABITANTS OF
KOLKATA: A CROSS SECTIONAL
DISTRIBUTION
A THESIS SUBMITTED AS A PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF
THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF
MASTER OF SCIENCE
IN
ENVIRONMENTAL SYSTEM MANAGEMENT
OF PRESIDENCY COLLEGE, KOLKATA
(AUTONOMOUS)
UNDER THE UNIVERSITY OF CALCUTTA
2009
Submitted By
MURARI MOHAN MANNA
Registration No. 063730 of 2004-05
DEPARTMENT OF APPLIED GEOLOGY &
ENVIRONMENTAL SYSTEM MANAGEMENT
PRESIDENCY COLLEGE, KOLKATA
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
I feel immense pleasure in expressing my sense of gratitude and gratefulness to
Dr.H.N.Bhattacharya, Professor and Departmental Head, Department of Applied
Geology and Environmental System Management, Presidency College, Kolkata, for kind
permission to allow me to perform this project work in the department and giving
valuable suggestions to complete the entire study.
I convey my regards, sincere gratitude and gratefulness to Dr. Saradindra
Chakraborty, Departmental coordinator and Reader, Department of Environmental
System Management, Presidency College, Kolkata for his overall guidance and
constructive criticism to perform this project work and giving the valuable suggestions inentire study.
I am thankful to the Director, National Institute of occupational health, (NIOH),
Ahmedabad and officer in charge, Regional Occupational Health Centre (Eastern),
Kolkata for providing infrastructural facility and according permission for carrying out
the study in the esteemed institute.
I convey my great regards, sincere gratitude and gratefulness to Dr. B.P.
Chattopadhyay, Scientist Emeritus of Respiratory Physiology Division Regional
Occupational Health Centre (E), Indian Council of Medical Research (ICMR), Block-DP
Sec-V, Salt Lake, and Kolkata-700091 for his guidance, supervision, realistic criticism
and valuable suggestion of this project. I am really indebted to you Sir.
I also convey my regards, sincere gratitude and gratefulness to Dr. Subrata Ghosh,
Reader, Department of physiology & Environmental System Management, Presidency
College, Kolkata for his guidance to perform this project work and giving the valuable
suggestion in the entire study.
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I express my deepest gratitude to Mubaraq Hossain (Research Scholar), Sk. Jane
Alam (Technician) and Tilak Kanti Dasgupta (Lab Assisstant) Respiratory physiology
division of R.O.H.C (E) for their co-operation and encouragement throughout the entire
project work.
I am truly grateful to the inhabitants of Kolkata whom I have studied for their
voluntary cordial cooperation and successful completion of the work. Their kind
cooperation is thankfully acknowledged.
Lastly I convey my thanks to all of my friends and batch mates for their heartily co-
operation and continuous encouragement through out the study.
Date: 01.06.2009 MURARI MOHAN MANNA
Department of Applied Geology
and Environmental System
Management
Presidency College
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Introduction:-
Since the onset of the industrial revolution, there has been a steady change in the
composition of the atmosphere mainly due to the combustion of fossil fuels used for the
generation of energy and transportation. Air pollution is a major environmental health
problem affecting the developing and the developed countries alike. The effects of air
pollution on health are very complex as there are many different sources and their
individual effects vary from one to the other.
Air pollution has been aggravated by developments that typically occur as
countries become industrialized: growing cities, increasing traffic, rapid economic
development and industrialization, and higher levels of energy consumption. The high
influx of population to urban areas, increase in consumption patterns and unplannedurban and industrial development has led to the problem of air pollution. Currently, in
India, air pollution is widespread in urban areas where vehicles are the major contributors
and in a few other areas with a high concentration of industries and thermal power plants.
Vehicular emissions are of particular concern since these are ground level sources and
thus have the maximum impact on the general population. Also, vehicles contribute
significantly to the total air pollution load in many urban areas.
The behaviour of the particles and gases in the respiratory system is greatly
influenced by the region of the lung in which they are located. After the air is channelized
through the trachea to the first bronchi the air is divided at each subsequent bronchial
bifurcation until very little apparent flow is occurring within the alveolar sacs. Because of
the very different flows in the various sections of the respiratory region, particles
suspended in air and gaseous air pollutants are treated differently in the lungs. For
gaseous pollutants released from automobiles, solubility controls removal from the air
stream. Highly soluble gases like SO2 are absorbed in the upper airways , whereas less
soluble gases like NO2, O3 may penetrate to the pulmonary region .Irritant gases are
thought to stimulate neuroreceptors in the respiratory walls and cause a variety of
responses including sneezing, coughing, broncho-constriction and rapid shallow
breathing.(1)
Many studies have shown links between pollution and health effects. Increases in
air pollution have been linked to decreases in lung function, neurological impairments
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and increases in heart attacks. High levels of air pollution directly affect people with
asthma and other types of lung or heart disease (according to the EPA Air Quality Index).
The elderly and children are especially vulnerable to the effects of air pollution in
large metropolitan cities like Kolkata.
The level of risk depends on several factors:
The amount of pollution in the air,
The amount of air we breathe in a given time
Our overall health.
Other, less direct ways people are exposed to air pollutants are:
eating food products contaminated by air toxins that have been deposited where
they grow,
drinking water contaminated by air pollutants,
Ingesting contaminated soil, and touching contaminated soil, dust or water.
The pollution in Kolkata is further aggravated by usage of adultered fuel by the
two-stroke auto-rickshaws. Thousands of these auto-rickshaws fleet plies crisscrossing
the city caring a fig to the Pollution guidelines and health safety of the inhabitants of the
city. Considering the environmental pollution of the city the respiratory health status of
the population is very much essential to be evaluated. Considering the above facts the
present study was undertaken to evaluate the respiratory function status of the inhabitants
of Kolkata. The respiratory function status of the inhabitants is also to be assessed among
according to their age, duration of stay on that area and smoking habit.
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Review of Literature:-
The combustion in the diesel engine produces soot along with smoke. Soot
consists of aggregates of spherical primary particles that form in the combustion
chamber, grow by agglomeration and are emitted as clusters having average particle
diameter ranging from 0.1-0.5 micrometer (2).As released to the environment, the
portions of the mass of the diesel soot consisting of adsorbed organic matter can range
from 5-90 percent (3). Values of 10-15% are representative of modern engines under
most operating conditions. The size of the diesel soot particles makes it easily respirable
.Approximately 20-30 % of the inhaled particles in diluted exhaust can be expected to
deposit in the lungs and airways of humans (4).Regarding the carcinogenicity of diesel
exhaust, however results from animals have not proved to be very helpful becauseessentially the same lung tumor response is obtained with pure carbon soot and other
inert particles as with diesel exhaust at comparable mass concentration (5).When bound
to soot or to haematite, pure chemical carcinogens such as benzo-alpha-pyrene known to
be present in polluted air have been shown to be carcinogenic for lungs of rodents by
intertracheal instillations.(6).In US , the EPA has concluded that diesel particulate is a
probable human carcinogen. The International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC)
concluded that diesel exhaust is a probable human carcinogen (7). California in 1998
listed diesel exhaust as a toxic air contaminant (California, EPA, 1998)
The important contaminants of the automobile exhausts are oxides of nitrogen
(NOx), CO, hydrocarbons, respirable particles, sulphur dioxide and volatile organic
compounds. Increased Volatile Organic Compounds (VOCs) in ambient air of urban
areas observed because of vehicular exhausts, petrol bunk emissions and industrial
activities prevailing within the areas (8). Ulvarson et al (9) established the reduction of
FVC, FEV1 in vehicular exhaust exposed persons and causing obstructive type of PFT
changes. Nakai et al (10) stated the personal exposure of NO2 concentrations decreased as
distance from the roadside is increased. Laxen and Noordally (11) assessed the major
pollutant NO2 arising from automobile exhausts at a street in London and the
concentration declined as the distance from the road increased. Chattopadhyay et al. (12)
stated the decrement of PFT values with the synergistic effect of age and automobile
exposures. The gaseous pollutants and VOCs are mainly formed due to fuel adulteration,
keeping the vehicles in running condition and traffic density (8). Rao et al (13) revealed
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that exposure to auto exhaust pollutants caused both restrictive and obstructive type of
respiratory impairments. Some studies have already reported the health risks like
increased mortality, morbidity rates and hospital admission due to cardio respiratory
disease, oxidative stress and increase the incidence of cancer among urban population
(14, 15, 16, 9).
Rao et.al (17) reported various volatile hydrocarbons including benzene in ambient air of
industrial areas in New Mumbai. Srivastava et.al (18) identified more than sixty VOC
species in Delhi air at residential, commercial and industrial areas. Pandit et.al (19)
showed that about 10 % of the C2-C5 hydrocarbons are emitted from auto-exhaust in
Mumbai. Ingle et.al (20) reported ambient air levels of pollutants like SO2, NOx and
PM10 in traffic areas of Jalgaon and significant reduction in pulmonary function test
values, particularly the FEV1 and PEFR among traffic police.
One study demonstrated that children inhaling grossly polluted air of Calcutta
suffer from adverse lung reactions and genetic abnormality in the exposed tissues. The
potential health hazards associated with inhalation of airborne pollutants are now well
recognized. In this context, children are reported to be more susceptible to environmental
exposures than adults An estimated 4 million children in developing countries die each
year from respiratory diseases which are potentially preventable and/or treatable. In
addition, some of the adverse effects of air pollution may be obvious in the adult owing
to the prolonged latent period (21). Some 70% of people in the city of Calcutta suffer
from respiratory disorders caused by air pollution, a recent study by a prominent cancer
institute in India has concluded. The city of Kolkata ranks highest in the country in terms
of pollution. Ailments include lung cancer, breathing difficulties and asthma, the
Chittaranjan National Cancer Institute (CNCI) study says. (22) .Diesel soot emitted from
automobiles is carbon compound coated with organic matter are generally less than 1
micron in diameter and can penetrate in the lower portions of the lungs. (23).Suspended
particulate matter is one of the most critical air pollutants in most of the urban areas of
India and permissible standards are grossly violated frequently (24)
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Aims and objectives:
The Study was conducted with the following aims and objectives.
To evaluate pulmonary function status of the inhabitants of Kolkata.
To assess the PFT according to their age, duration of stay and smoking habit.
To evaluate the respiratory function impairments amongst the inhabitants as a whole.
To evaluate the respiratory function impairment amongst the inhabitants according totheir duration of stay in their area.
Comparative analyses of the lung function of North, Central and South Kolkatainhabitants.
Pic: 5- Two-stroke auto rickshaws are a Pic: 6-City pedestrian, porters, hawkers,major source to the city air pollution. rickshaw pullers are vulnerable groups to
citys environmental pollution.
Pic: 7- People working in the open air like food sellersand traffic policemen are at risk of Citys environmental pollution.
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Materials & Methods:
Selection of subjects:
The present study was carried out North, Central and Southern pockets of
Kolkata. The pulmonary function study was carried out on total 113 inhabitants from the
three areas. The subjects were classified into broadly three groups North (37), Central
(35) and South (41).The subjects were selected from 21-50age range from varied
economic class people.
Questionnaire method :
Detailed present and past personal and occupational history was taken.
Due stress was given to note the smoking history and the frequency of smoking per day.
Among the inhabitants who smoked at least 5-6 beedi and/or cigarette per day are
included in the smoking category and those who have not smoked through out their life
time was considered as non-smoker and those who left smoking are considered as ex-
smokers. The time of taking personal history of the individuals special attention was
given to make the respiratory impairments if any.
Pulmonary Function Test:
Vital capacity (VC) and Forced Vital Capacity (FVC) was recorded by
Spirovit SP-10(Pic-15) (Schiller Health Care Pvt Ltd., Switzerland) and Peak Expiratory
Flow Rate by Wrights Peak Flow meter (Clement and Clarke, UK). Forced expiratory
volume in one second (FEV1) Forced expiratory volume in 1st
sec. as the percentage of
FVC (FEV1%), forced expiratory flow at 200 ml 1200 ml, 25 75% and 75 85% was
calculated from the tracings. Before the recordings were taken all subjects were made
well motivated thus ensuring recording at optimum levels. The PFT measurements were
made in a comfortable standing position. The body height and body weight were
measured with a standard scale without footwear. All measured lung volumes obtained
was expressed in body temperature pressure saturated with water vapour (BTPS). Body
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surface area (BSA) was calculated from the Du-Bois and Du-Bois formula. Pulmonary
function test values were predicted from the standard prediction equation of the Kolkata
normal subjects. The criteria followed for categorization of the severity of restrictive
impairment are based upon the ratios between predicted and observed values of VC and
obstructive impairment based of FEV1%.
Statistical Analysis:
Student two tailt tests are being performed by the inhabitants to find
whether there are any significant changes due to duration of staying at that area.
Formulae Used:
BMI = Weight in Kg / (Height in Metre)2
BSA = (Height in cm) * 0.725*(Weight in Kg) * 0.425 * 71.84 / 10000
Criteria for Determination of Obstructive Type Impairment:
Obstructive Type Impairment is determined with respect to the FEV1% value.
Normal 70%
Mild Obstructive 65-69.99%
Moderate Obstructive 50-64.99%
Severe Obstructive 49.99%
Criteria for Determination of Restrictive Type Impairment:
Restrictive Type Impairment is determined with respect to the SVC
For male (Predicted SVC value) -0.024 * age + 0.044 * height in cm - 2.704
For female (Predicted SVC Value) -0.025 * age + 0.021 * height in cm 0.003
(Predicted SVC Value Observed SVC Value)*100/Predicted SVC Value
Up to 20 Normal
20.01-30 Mild Restrictive Type
30.01-40 Moderate Restrictive Type
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40.01 Severe Restrictive Type
Terminology and Definitions of Static and Dynamic PFT
parameters:-
Static PFT parameters:-
TV Tidal Volume The respiratory excursion for each breadth.
SVC - Slow vital capacity - This test is performed by having the patient slowly and
completely blows out all the air from the lungs.
IC Inspiratory Capacity - The volume of gas that can be taken into the lungs in a full
inhalation, starting from the resting inspiratory position; equal to the tidal volume plus
the inspiratory reserve volume.
IRV - Inspiratory Reserve Volume Maximum Volume that can be inspired is beginning
from the position of resting inspiration.
ERV - Expiratory Reserve volume Volume which can be expired by a maximum effort
beginning at the position of resting expiration.
Dynamic PFT parameters:-
FVC - Forced Vital Capacity - after the subject has taken in the deepest possible
inspiration, this is the volume of air which can be forcibly and maximally exhaled out of
the lungs until no more can be expired. FVC is usually expressed in units called liters.
This PFT value is critically important in the diagnosis of obstructive and restrictive
diseases.
FEV1 - Forced Expiratory Volume in One Second - this is the volume of air which can be
forcibly exhaled from the lungs in the first second of a forced expiratory maneuver. It is
expressed as liters. This PFT value is critically important in the diagnosis of obstructive
and restrictive diseases.
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FEV1/FVC - (FEV1%) - This number is the ratio of FEV1 to FVC - it indicates what
percentage of the total FVC was expelled from the lungs during the first second of forced
exhalation - this number is called FEV1%, %FEV1 or FEV1/FVC ratio. This PFT value is
critically important in the diagnosis of obstructive and restrictive diseases.
FEV3- Forced Expiratory Volume in Three Seconds - this is the volume of air which can
be forcibly exhaled in three seconds - measured in Liters - this volume usually is fairly
close to the FVC since, in the normal individual, most of the air in the lungs can be
forcibly exhaled in three seconds.
FEV3/FVC FEV3%- This number is the ratio of FEV3 to the FVC - it indicates what
percentage of the total FVC was expelled during the first three seconds of forced
exhalation. This is called %FEV3 or FEV3%.
PEFR - Peak Expiratory Flow Rate - this is maximum flow rate achieved by the patient
during the forced vital capacity maneuver beginning after full inspiration and starting and
ending with maximal expiration - it can either be measured in L/sec or L/min - this is a
useful measure to see if the treatment is improving obstructive diseases like broncho
constriction. This parameter can be studied by Wrights Peak Flow Meter and expressed
in l/min.
FEF - Forced Expiratory Flow - Forced expiratory Flow is a measure of how much air
can be expired from the lungs. It is a flow rate measurement. It is measured as
liters/second or liters/minute. The FVC expiratory curve is divided into quartiles and
therefore there is a FEF that exists for each quartile. The quartiles are expressed as
FEF25%, FEF50%, and FEF75% of FVC.
FEF 25% - This measurement describes the amount of air that was forcibly expelled in the
first 25% of the total forced vital capacity test.
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FEF 50% - This measurement describes the amount of air expelled from the lungs during
the first half (50%) of the forced vital capacity test. This test is useful when looking for
obstructive disease. The amount of air that will have been expired in an obstructed patient
is smaller than that measured in a normal patient.
FEF.2-1.21- Forcefully expiratory flow rate during expired air 200ml to 1200ml of the
forced vital capacity test.
FEF25%-75% - This measurement describes the amount of air expelled from the lungs
during the middle half of the forced vital capacity test. Many physicians like to look at
this value because it is an indicator of obstructive disease.
FEF75-85% - Lung flow rate during expiration of 75% to 85% of the forced vital capacity
test.
MVV - Maximal Voluntary Ventilation - this value is determined by having the patient
breathe in and out as rapidly and fully as possible for 12 -15 seconds - the total volume of
air moved during the test can be expressed as L/sec or L/min - this test parameter reflects
the status of the respiratory muscles, compliance of the thorax-lung complex, and airway
resistance
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Pic: 11- Taking personal history of the subjects using Pic: 12 Stadiometer (height
standard proforma by questionnaire method. and weight measurement).
Pic: 13- Measurement of weight and height of subjects using Stadiometer.
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values in height (male-159.72cm, female-149.94cm), weight(male-54.94Kg, female-
46.59 Kg), body surface area(male-1.56 m2 , female-1.39 m2 ), body mass index (male
21.42, female 20.59)
In South Kolkata, the mean age of male and female individuals are 34.52(8.53)
and 34.95(7.34) respectively. Because of the sex difference males have higher mean
values in height (male-166.33cm, female-148.45cm), weight(male-62.76Kg, female -
53.50 Kg),body surface area(male-1.69 m2
, female-1.46 m2
).The body mass index
showed higher values in females (male 22.74, female 24.3)
Significant changes have been observed in the height and body surface area
between the inhabitants of Central Kolkata male and South Kolkata male and in body
mass index when compared Central Kolkata female with South Kolkata females. The
statistical analyses were carried out separately in the two sexes.
Pulmonary function Tests (PFT) of the study population are presented in Table-3
and Fig:2, 3 and 4. The male subjects are having higher mean values in lung volumes and
flow rates compared to the female inhabitants.
Table:-3: Lung volume and flow rates of male and female inhabitants of north,
central and south Kolkata (Mean SD)
[* p
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The SVC, FEF25-75% and FEF75-85 % values of Central Kolkata male population
has been found to be statistically lower than South Kolkata males. The SVC, FVC and
FEV1 values of Central Kolkata female inhabitants have been found to be statistically
lower as compared to North Kolkata females. The PEFR value of North Kolkata female
population has also been statistically found to be higher than South Kolkata females. In
general the lung volume and flow rates of South Kolkata population have been observed
to be better than North Kolkata and the values of Central Kolkata population have been
found to be the least.
.
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The PFT values of male inhabitants according to their duration of stay in theregion have been given in Table-4 and fig 5-11.All the subjects were classifiedaccording to their duration of stay in the area into four groups as: up to 20, 21-30, 31-40,41-50.
Table:-4: Lung volumes and flow rates of male individual according to duration of
stay in north, central and south Kolkata (Mean SD)
Category Duration
of stay
(Yrs)
SVC
(l)
FVC
(l)
FEV1(l)
FEV1% FEF.2-
1.21ml
(l/s)
FEF25-
75%
(l/s)
FEF75-
85% (l/s)
PEFR
(l/min)
Up to 20(n=0)
- - - - - - - -
21-30(n=8)
3.920.35
4.170.56
3.650.43
87.672.97
6.601.73
4.581.06
1.970.79
462.50117.81
31-40
(n=8)
3.51
0.56
3.72
0.79
3.04
0.81
81.26
8.24
6.20
1.95
3.22
1.49
1.06
0.64
453.75
130.81
North
Kolkata
Male
(n=21)
41-50(n=5)
2.55**0.89
2.64*1.19
2.02**0.98
74.95*12.33
3.782.56
1.97***0.61
0.59***0.26
344.00154.37
Up to 20(n=5)
3.620.52
3.740.49
3.180.69
84.409.96
6.562.36
3.601.42
1.320.49
472.0081.98
21-30(n=5)
3.200.09
3.240.12
2.740.26
84.405.18
5.390.76
3.011.01
1.100.38
406.0053.20
31-40(n=6)
3.290.50
3.240.46
2.850.33
88.172.64
5.921.69
3.390.61
1.230.17
430.0064.50
Central
Kolkata
Male
(n=18)
41-50(n=2)
3.320.92
3.261.00
2.780.74
86.004.24
6.720.59
3.390.23
0.900.08
480.000
Up to 20(n=1)
4.53 4.60 3.75 82.00 6.25 3.47 1.68 400.00
21-30(n=7)
4.280.96
4.230.99
3.820.86
90.626.91
7.811.37
4.911.35
2.010.86
532.8670.17
31-40(n=6)
3.741.04
3.581.48
3.241.41
86.8711.18
6.623.23
4.582.11
1.860.95
478.33187.87
SouthKolkata
Male
(n=21)
41-50(n=7)
3.390.66
3.610.54
3.000.54
82.886.40
6.692.22
3.110.87
1.160.54
437.14126.06
[* p
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Fig-8: Different flow rates of north Kolkata male
inhabitants according to duration of stay
0
1
2
3
4
56
7
up to 20 21-30 31-40 41-50
Stay range distribution
Flow
rates(l/sec
)
FEF.2-1.21ml (l/s)
FEF25-75%(l/s)
FEF75-85% (l/s)
Fig-9: Different flow rates of central Kolkata maleinhabitants according to duration of stay
0
2
4
6
8
up to 20 21-30 31-40 41-50
Stay range distribution
Flow
rates(l/sec)
FEF.2-1.21ml (l/s)
FEF25-75%(l/s)
FEF75-85% (l/s)
Fig-10: Different flow rates of south Kolkata male
inhabitants according to duration of stay
0
2
4
6
8
10
Up to 20 21-30 31-40 41-50
Stay range distribution
Flow
rates
(l/sec)
FEF.2-1.21ml (l/s)
FEF25-75%(l/s)
FEF75-85% (l/s)
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Fig-11: PEFR of Kolkata male inhabitants
according to duration of stay
0
100
200
300
400500
600
up to 20 21-30 31-40 41-50
Stay range distribution
PEFR(l/min)
North Kolkata male
Central Kolkata male
South Kolkata male
It has been observed that there is a gradual trend of decrement of lung volume and
flow rates with the increase of duration of stay in the respective areas.
Among the North Kolkata males there is a significant decrement of the SVC,
FVC, FEV1, FEV1%, FEF25-75%, FEF 75-85% values of the individuals residing in the area
residing for 41-50 years as compared to residents residing in the area for 21-30 years.
There is also a significant decrement of the FEF75-85 % value of the subjects residing for
41-50 years as compared to subjects residing for 31-40 years. Among the Central Kolkata
males there is a significant decrement of the FEF75-85% value of the subjects residing for
41-50 years as compared to subjects residing for 31-40 years. Among the South Kolkata
males there is a significant decrement of the FEF 25-75% value of the subjects residing for
41-50 years as compared to subjects residing for 31-40 years.
The SVC, FVC and FEV1 values of Central Kolkata in the age group of 21-30 has
been found to be significantly lower than their North Kolkata and South Kolkata
counterparts. In the 31-40 age group the FEV1% mean value of North Kolkata inhabitants
has been found to be significantly lower than the Central Kolkata inhabitants of the same
age group. In the age group of 41-50 the FEF25-75% and FEF75-85% of North Kolkata maleinhabitants have been found to be significantly lower than the South Kolkata inhabitants.
The FEF25-75% value of North Kolkata inhabitants of the same age group has also been
found to be significantly lower than the Central Kolkata male population of the same age
group.
The PFT values offemale inhabitants according to their duration of stay in the
area have been given in Table-5 and fig: 12-18. All the subjects were classified
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Fig-12: Lung volume of north Kolkata female
inhabitants according to duration of stay
0
0.5
1
1.5
2
2.53
3.5
Up to 20 21-30 31-40 41-50
Stay range distribution
litres
SVC (l)
FVC (l)
FEV1 (l)
Fig-13: Lung volume of central Kolkata femaleinhabitants according to duration of stay
0
0.5
1
1.5
2
2.5
3
Up to 20 21-30 31-40 41-50
Stay range distribution
litres
SVC (l)
FVC (l)
FEV1 (l)
Fig-14: Lung volume of south Kolkata female
inhabitants according to duration of stay
0
0.5
1
1.52
2.5
3
3.5
Up to 20 21-30 31-40 41-50
Stay range distribution
litres
SVC (l)
FVC (l)
FEV1 (l)
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Fig-15: Different flow rates of north kolakta female
inhabitants according to duration of stay
0
1
2
3
45
6
up to 20 21-30 31-40 41-50
Stay range distribution
Flow
rates(l/sec
)
FEF.2-1.21ml (l/s)
FEF25-75% (l/s)
FEF75-85% (l/s)
Fig-16: Different flow rates of central Kolkata
female inhabitants according to duration of stay
0
1
2
3
4
5
up to 20 21-30 31-40 41-50
Stay range distribution
Flow
rates(l/sec)
FEF.2-1.21ml (l/s)
FEF25-75% (l/s)
FEF75-85% (l/s)
Fig-17: Different flow rates of south Kolkata
female inhabitants according to duration of stay
0
1
2
3
4
5
up to 20 21-30 31-40 41-50
Stay range distribution
Flow
rates(l/sec)
FEF.2-1.21ml (l/s)FEF25-75% (l/s)
FEF75-85% (l/s)
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Fig-18: PEFR of Kolkata female inhabitants
according to duration of stay
0
100
200
300
400
up to 20 21-30 31-40 41-50
Stay range distribution
PEFR(l/min)
North Kolkata female
Central Kolkata female
South Kolkata female
It has been observed that there is a gradual trend of decrement of lung volume and
flow rates with the increase of duration of stay in the respective areas.
Among the Central Kolkata females there is a significant decrement in the SVC,
FVC and PEFR values of the resident duration range of 21-30 years as compared to the
group staying up to 20 years. Among the South Kolkata females there is a significant
decrement in the SVC value of the resident duration range of 41-50 years as compared to
the group staying up to 21-30 years.
In the age group of 21-30 the SVC, FVC, FEV1, FEF.2-1.21ml and PEFR of North
Kolkata and SVC, FVC, FEV1 of South Kolkata have been found to be significantly
higher than the population of Central Kolkata .
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The PFT values of male inhabitants according to their age distribution in the
region have been given in Table-6 and fig: 19-25.All the subjects were classified
according to their age into three groups: 21-30, 31-40, 41-50.It has been observed that
there is a gradual trend in the decrement of the lung volume and flow rates of the subjects
with age.
Table:-6: Lung volumes and flow rates of male individual according to age range
(Mean SD)
[* p
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Fig-27: Lung volume of north Kolkata female
inhabitants according to age distribution
0
0.5
1
1.5
2
2.5
3
3.5
21-30 31-40 41-50
Age range distribution
litres
SVC
FVC
FEV1
Fig-28: Lung volume of central Kolkata femaleinhabitants according to age distribution
0
0.5
1
1.5
2
2.5
3
21-30 31-40 41-50
Age range distribution
litres
SVC
FVC
FEV1
Fig-29: Lung volume of south Kolkata female
inhabitants according to age distribution
0
0.5
1
1.52
2.5
3
3.5
21-30 31-40 41-50
Age range distribution
litres
SVC
FVC
FEV1
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Fig-30: Different flow rates of north Kolkata female
inhabitants according to age distribution
0
1
2
3
4
5
21-30 31-40 41-50
Age range distribution
Flowr
ate(l/sec)
FEF.2-1.21ml (l/s)
FEF25-75% (l/s)
FEF75-85% (l/s)
Fig-31: Different flow rates of central Kolkata femaleinhabitants according to age distribution
0
1
2
3
4
5
21-30 31-40 41-50
Age range distribution
Flowr
ate(l/sec)
FEF.2-1.21ml (l/s)
FEF25-75% (l/s)
FEF75-85% (l/s)
Fig-32: Different flow rates of south Kolkata female
inhabitants according to age distribution
0
1
23
4
5
21-30 31-40 41-50
Age range distribution
Flow
rate(l/sec)
FEF.2-1.21ml (l/s)
FEF25-75% (l/s)
FEF75-85% (l/s)
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The PFT values according smoking habit are represented in Table-8 and Fig-33-
36. The PFT values of the smokers are slightly higher compared to the non-smoker in
several parameters.
Table: - 8:-Lung volume and flow rates of male subjects according to their smokinghabits (Mean SD)
[No statistically significant difference in the values has been observed]
No statistical significant variation has been observed in the
pulmonary function tests of various parameters between the smokers and the non-
smokers of the different areas but variations in the mean values have been observed.
Among the North Kolkata males the mean values of SVC, FVC,
FEF.2-1.21 and PEFR have been found to be higher in the smokers in comparison to that of
the non-smokers. Similarly among the Central Kolkata subjects the mean values of SVC
and FVC have been found to be higher in the smokers than in the non-smokers. Likewise
in South Kolkata all the PFT parameters have been found to be higher in the smokers as
compared to the non-smokers.
A number of reasons may be cited to explain this anomalous variation by the fact
that only small number of individuals (n) have been studied i.e the numbers of smokers
CategoryDuration
of stay
(Yrs)
BSA BMI SVC
(l)
FVC
(l)
FEV1(l)
FEV1% FEF.2-
1.21ml
(l/s)
FEF25-
75%
(l/s)
FEF75-
85%
(l/s)
PEFR
(l/min)
Non-Smoker(n=13)
1.660.19
24.073.38
3.420.85
3.631.04
3.100.98
83.999.46
5.712.40
3.821.45
1.470.89
430.00143.99
North
Kolkata
(n=21)Smoker(n=8)
1.60.19
20.95.06
3.470.70
3.640.96
2.410.93
79.28.2
5.892.11
2.831.53
1.010.71
432.50127.25
Non-Smoker(n=14)
1.550.16
21.262.63
3.340.48
3.380.51
2.930.47
86.794.04
6.171.24
3.460.89
1.220.35
452.1462.04Central
Kolkata
(n=18) Smoker(n=4)
1.580.20
21.994.37
3.440.47
3.390.45
2.800.52
82.5010.66
5.592.75
3.031.19
1.040.33
400.0071.18
Non-Smoker(n=14)
1.660.17
21.674.41
3.720.98
3.731.09
3.291.07
86.378.94
6.772.37
4.041.69
1.660.91
476.43142.70
South
Kolkata
(n=21) Smoker
(n=7)
1.76
0.15
24.86
5.35
4.07
0.80
4.11
0.89
3.56
0.78
86.86
7.66
7.52
2.01
4.36
1.48
1.69
0.69
484.29
111.93
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are very low in comparison to the non-smokers and they had better lung function values
than the non-smokers. From the given table it is observed that the mean values of BSA
and BMI of the smokers are higher than the non-smokers, as the thoracic cavity and the
body surface area of their body are higher they have a greater possibility to have more
lung volume and hence better flow rates. The smoking factor also depends on the number
of beedi/cigarettes smoked per day, duration of smoking and the number of puffs taken
each time.
Fig-33: Distribution of male Kolkata inhabitants
according to their smoking habit
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
14
16
North Kolkata Central Kolkata South Kolkata
Numbers
NON-SMOKER
SMOKER
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Conclusion:-
The health effect of environmental pollution has been a great concern for mankindsince several decades. In the developing countries industrial emission continues to be the
major source of air pollution but with the increasing number of vehicles, vehicular air
pollution is becoming increasingly important especially in the metropolitan city, Kolkata
is one of the polluted cities in India as per the CPCB. The pollution level showed a rising
trends from day to day. This is confirmed by the Lung function impairment data of the
inhabitants only due to the exponential vehicular pollution rise. This produces rise in
SPM and other pollutant levels in residential, commercial area. Urbanization creates
pollution. The 3 Ps- Population, Poverty and pollution are quite interlinked with one
another. Population explosion at Kolkata because of new births and migration is the most
vital reason for deterioration of the environment.
Vehicles pollution occurs due to:-
Unscrupulous use of Adultered Fuel.
Poor maintenance of the vehicles.
Faulty Driving techniques.
Road borne dust.
Age of the vehicle and its present roadworthiness.
Miscellaneous-
Open burning of garbage, running of generator sets, burning of
tyres etc.
Road side dust.
Construction activities.
Effect of deplantation.
Meteorological conditions.
The people residing in the city are exposed to that environment. The
particular populations residing nearer to the main traffic junction or by the side of the
main roads of the city are very much exposed to the automobile exhausts. Rapid increase
of number of vehicles, vehicular air pollution is becoming increasingly important
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Recommendation:-
In the context to the present study some ideas and suggestions for possible
management of environmental pollution of Kolkata air can be forwarded- .
The burning of fuel is major source of pollution so the possible measure should be
the replacement of burning fossil fuel by electricity or solar energy or by improvement of
the fuel quality and fuel burning process. There are number of mechanical devices that
might be helpful for reduction of pollutant emission level from different industries and
other sources.
Since vehicles contribute significantly to the total air pollution load in most urban
areas, vehicular pollution control deserves top priority. A practical strategy should be
devised that reduces both emissions and congestion. Some of these strategies may be Phase out the all vehicles older than ten to fifteen years, two and three wheelers
should have four stroke engines with catalytic converter and fuelled by Biodiesel, LPG or
CNG. Catalytic Converters convert comparatively more toxic CO and Hydrocarbons to
less toxic CO2 and water. In addition to these fuels, use of diesel fuel with lower sulfur
content can help to reduce emissions. A newer vehicle that meets more stringentemission standards is purchased to replace the scrapped vehicles.
Bharat Stage IV norms should be enforced on all vehicles and smooth movement
of vehicles should be facilitated by construction of new flyover, bridges, improvement of
road condition and width of the roads. Mass Rapid Transport System may be considered
for the fast expanding and major urban cities like Kolkata. Greater promotion and use of
alternative fuels such as CNG/LPG/Propane/ battery operated vehicles. Expansion of
CNG dispensing facilities and increased fiscal incentives for CNG kits should be
encouraged. Taxes on fuels, vehiclesthe revenue so generated could be used for
pollution control measures. Strengthening of inspection and maintenance (I&M) system:
The I&M system, comprising inspection, maintenance, and certification of vehicles, is
crucial for regulating pollution for the large fleet of in-use vehicles. It should include
testing of various elements of safety, road worthiness and compliance to pollution norms.
Diversion of heavy goods traffic in peak hours is very much essential to
minimize the automobile pollution and the pollution of the city as a whole. Use of Public
Vehicles should be encouraged as it saves not only fuel but also the load of city ambient
air pollution. Plantation at the city road side is essential to reduce the suspended
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(14) Dockery DW, Pope CA IV, Xu X, Spengler JD, Ware JH, Fay ME, Ferris BG,,
Spiezer FE (1993).An Association between air pollution and mortality in six US
cities. The New England Journal of Medicine 329: pp1753-1759.
(15) Padhy PK, Varshney CK (2000) Total non methane volatile organic compounds
(TNMVOC) in the atmosphere of Delhi. Atmospheric Environment 34: pp577-
584.
(16) Samet J, Domonici F, Curriero C, Coursac I, Zeger SL (2000) Fine particulate Air
Pollution and Mortality in 20 US cities,1987-1994,The New England Journal of
medicine 343:pp1742-1749.
(17) Rao MA, Pandit GG, Sain P, Sharma S, Krishnamoorthy TM, Nambi KSV
(1997). Non methane Hydrocarbon in Industrial location of Bombay atmospheric
environment 31(7) :pp1077-1085.
(18) Srivastava A, Joseph AE, Patil S, More A, Dixit RC, Prakash M (2005) Air toxics
in ambient air of Delhi. Atmospheric Environment 39: pp59-71.
(19) Pandit GG, Mohon Rao AM (1990) Evaluation of auto exhaust contribution to
atmospheric C2-C5 hydrocarbonat Deoner, Bombay. Atmospheric Environment
24A: pp811-813
(20) Ingle ST, Pachpande BG, Wagh ND, Patel VS, Attarde SB (2005) Exposure to
vehicular pollution and Respiratory Impairment of Traffic Policemen in Jalgaon
City, India , Industrial health. 43: pp656-662.
(21) Lahiri Twisha, Roy Senjuti, Basu Chandreyi, Ganguly Sangeeta, Et al (Jul 2000),
Indian Journal of Medical Research
(22) CNCI Report 2007.
(23) Wei E T, Shu Helen P et.al (September 1983), Nitro aromatic Carcinogens in
Diesel Soot, Vol. 73, No. 9.
(24) S. T. Ingle, N. D. Wagh, B. G. Pachpande, V. S. Patel and S. B. Attarde, The
influence of workplace environment on lung function of shopkeepers working
near National Highway in Jalgaon: A note. Transporatation Research: Part D,
2005.
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Proforma of the project:Proforma of the project:Proforma of the project:Proforma of the project:
Assessment of the Effects of High Particulate Pollutants on Pulmonary Health
Status in Selected Mega cities of South Asia
Area information
A. Serial no. B. Interviewer:
C. Air Quality Monitoring Station: D. Distance from the station
E. Date: F. Room Temperature:
Part 1. IDENTIFICATION DATA
01. Identification Number (4 Digits):
02. Name:
03. Name of the father/spouse:
04. Name of the Head of the family
05. Age:
06. Sex: (Male - 1, Female - 2)
07. Address:
Part 2. GENERAL INFORMATION ON HOUSEHOLD AND FAMILY
08. Distance from the main road:09. Any local sources of outdoor pollution: (eg. Factory etc):
10. Floor of residence:
11. Number of rooms:Kitchen is in the separate room or in the same room-----------------------------------
Ventilation of the house or room---------Good----------Satisfactory---------------Poor
Regional Occupational Health Centre
(Eastern)(Indian Council of Medical Research)
Block-DP, Sector-V, Salt Lake, Kolkata-700091
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21. How many bidis/cigarettes etc do you smoke or used to smoke every day?(Maximum no. ever) ------
22. How many years you smoked-----------------Number of smoker in the family---------------------------
23. If ex-smoker, reason for stopping: ____________________
24. PERSONAL HISTORY OF THE SUBJECT.
Are you suffering from any respiratory or other diseases already diagnose-----------------------------
If yes specify the name of the disease------------------------------------------------------------------------
Did you have any periodical illness---------------------------------------------------------------------------?
Did you have any respiratory problem like cough-------------------------------------------------Yes/ No,
Specify-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Did you have any respiratory problem like breathlessness---------------------------------------Yes/ No.
Specify-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Did you have any respiratory problem like morning cough--------------------------------------Yes/ No.
Specify-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Did you have any respiratory problem like chest tightness--------------------------------------Yes/ No.
Specify-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
--------------------
Did you have any respiratory problem like cough through out the day-------------------------Yes/No.?
Specify-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Do you have the respiratory problem during seasonal variations?Summer, winter, Rainy etc------------------------------------------------------------------
-------------------
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Do you feel any breathlessness: ----------------------------------------------------------------------Yes/No.
FAMILY HISTORY
Any of the family members suffer from respiratory disease--------------------------------------Yes/No.
Relationship with the subject-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------
If diagnosed name of the disease-------------------------------------------------------------------------------
A. Physical Characteristics
Height :______________( cm); Weight :_______________( Kg)
BSA: _______________ ; BMI: _________________
B. Static Lung Function Test Values
(In each parameter selected the best of three simultaneous records)
a) SVC---------------------- (l) b) ERV------------------------------- (l)
c) IRV----------------------- (l) d) TV--------------------------------- (ml)
C. Dynamic Lung Function Test Values:
(In each parameter selected the best of three simultaneous records)
(a)FVC------------------------------ (l)
(b)FEV1----------------------------- (l)
(c)FEV1/FVC---------------------- (%)
(d)FEF.2-1.21------------------------- (l/s)
(e)FEF25-75%-------------------------(l/s)
(f) FEF75-85%-------------------------(l/s)
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