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Chapter 2The Historical Context of Contemporary
International Relations
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Contemporary International
System
Key conceptsstate, nation, sovereignty, power, international
state system, balance of power
Key historical moment1648, Treaty of Westphalia, ending
Thirty Years War; emergence of modern state system
Secular authority replaced religious authority Territorial integrity of states as legally equal and sovereign
participants in international system
Contemporary international system grounded in European-
centered Western civilization (as Mingst points out, for better or
worse, p. 15) Important not to overlook other civilizations and their impact on
international system including India, China, Japan, S.E. Asia, Central
and South America (Aztec, Maya, Inca), Africa (Mali, Ghana), among
others
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Key Developments Pre-Westphalia
Greek city-states (circa 400 B.C.) Classic power politics, diplomacy, economic relations, trade, and military
conflict; precursor of modern state system
Roman Empire (50 B.C.-400 A.D.) Larger, centralized political system through imperial expansion; empire
united through law and language
Middle Ages (400-1000) Disintegration of Roman Empire, emergence of feudalism in Europe and
rise of Roman Catholic Church
Emergence of three major civilizations: Arabic, Byzantine, remains of Holy
Roman Empire
Late Middle Ages (1000-1600) Secular trends undermine decentralization of feudalism, universalism of
Christianity in Europe
Commercial activity expands, communications and technologies improve
Emergence of transnational business community, revival of classicism, and
European territorial expansion (principally due to new technologies and
economic interests)
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Emergence Of Westphalian System
Treaty of Westphalia (1648) ended Thirty Years War
(1618-1648) in Europe
Thirty Years Warfought mainly in Germany; initially conflict
between Protestants and Catholics (in Holy Roman Empire);
grew into larger conflict involving major European powers
European states embraced notion of sovereignty
States established national militaries
Established core group of states that dominated worlduntil beginning of 19thcentury
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Sovereignty
Key theorist: French philosopher Jean Bodin (1530-1596):
absolute and perpetual power vested in a commonwealth
distinguishing mark of the sovereign that he cannot in any way be
subject to the commands of another, for it is he who makes law for
the subject, abrogates law already made, and amends obsolete
law Although absolute, not without limits; leaders limited by:
Divine law or natural law (laws of God and nature)
Type of regime, constitutional laws of the realm
Covenants, contracts (with people within commonwealth), andtreaties with other states (with no supreme arbiter in relations
among states)
Sovereignty = authority of the state, based on recognition by other
states and nonstate actors, to govern matters within its own borders
that affect its people, economy, security, and form of government
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Key Effects of Westphalia
Sovereignty Small states in central Europe attain sovereignty (demise of H.R.E.)
Monarchs inherit religious authority over people (sovereign authority,
exclusive rights within given territory)
Territoriality, territorial state legitimized
Right of states to choose religion, determine domestic policies free
from external pressure with full jurisdiction; right of noninterference
State leaders establish permanent national militaries and
centralize control producing ever-more powerful sovereign states
with national armies
Core group of statesAustria, Russia, Prussia, England, France,
United Provinces (Neth./Belgium) emerge as dominant players In west, capitalism emerges: private enterprise, infrastructure, trade
In east, feudalism remains, economic change stifled
European politics marked by absolutist regimes, multiple rivalries,
and shifting alliances
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19thCentury Europe:
Key Principles
American and French revolutions against absolutist
rule, Enlightenment thinking and social contract
theorists, usher in 19thcentury
Absolute rule subject to limits imposed by man
Locke: political power rests with people;monarch/leader/government derives legitimacy
(moral and legal right to rule) from consent of
governed
Nationalism: people share devotion and allegiance tonation based on shared characteristics, common
religion, language, historical experience, etc.
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Developments in
19thCentury Europe
Concert of Europe (Napoleon defeated in 1815, Congress of
Vienna), establishes period of relative peace
Great powers meet periodically (Britain, Austria, Russia, and
Prussia) to reach agreement on problems threatening peace among
European states Initially aimed at containing France, achieve balance of power;
maintain territorial arrangements made at Congress of Vienna
(1814-1815); kept relative peace for about 40 years
Major economic, technological, and political changes
Populations and commerce grew
Italy and Germany unified; Holland split (Netherlands, Belgium);
Greece, Moldavia, Romania achieved independence
No wars among great powers. Why?
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Explaining 19thCentury Peace
European solidarity
European elites united by fear of revolution from below
Preoccupied by German and Italian unification
European states engaged in territorial expansion, colonialism;
Gold, God, Glory (hence, competition exported to Africa and Asia)
Congress of Berlin (1885) divided Africa
European states controlled 4/5 of world (1914)
Balance of power
Out of fear for emergence of hegemon, states with relatively equal
power formed alliances to counteract any potentially more powerfulfaction
Breaks down when alliances solidify, two camps emergeTriple
Alliance (Germany, Austria, Italy) and Dual Alliance (France and
Russia)and conflict between allied states leads to World War I
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Key Developments
in Interwar Years
Three empires collapse leading to resurgent nationalisms Russia by revolution
Austro-Hungarian Empire by dismemberment (Austria, Hungary,
Czechoslovakia, parts of Yugoslavia and Romania)
Ottoman Empire by external wars, internal turmoil (Turkey)
Germany dissatisfied with Treaty of Versailles (ending WWI) and
reparations provides climate for rise of Hitler (who finds allies in Italy and Japan)
League of Nations, IGO formed to promote diplomacy, economic
liberalism, association and prevention of future wars did not have
political weight, legal instruments, or legitimacy to fulfill mandate
Unable to respond to widespread economic unrest or Japanese,Italian and German aggression
Leads to formation of Axis (Germany, Italy, Japan) and Allied
Powers (U.S.S.R., England, France, U.S.)
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Aftermath of WWII: Cold War
Atlantic Charter (U.S., G.B., U.S.S.R.) evolves intoUnited Nations; Axis powers defeated; power
redistributed, political borders altered Key outcomes of WWII
Emergence of two superpowersU.S. and Soviet Union
as primary actors (relative decline of Europe) Fundamental differences in national interests and ideology
(capitalism vs. socialism) leads to 45 years of high level
tension, competition, and crises between the superpowers,
but not direct military conflict
Development of NATO and Warsaw Pact Gradual end of colonialism
Cold War competition played out through third-parties,
clients, proxies throughout the entire globe
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IMPORTANT EVENTS OF THE COLD WAR 1
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Cold War: Series of Major Crises
and Long Peace
Berlin blockade (1949), Korean War (1950-53),
Cuban missile crisis (1962), Vietnam War, proxy
wars in Middle East, Africa, Asia, South/Central
America
Why long peace? absence of war between
great powers? According to Gaddis:
Nuclear deterrence (mutually assured destruction,
MAD)
Parity of power (i.e., bipolarity)system stability
U.S. economic hegemonypaid for stability
Economic liberalism transnationalized politics creating
interests, coalitions across state borders
Long historical cycles of war (every 100-150 years)driven by uneven economic growth
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Post-Cold War World
Change made in Soviet/Russian foreign policy, withdrawal from
Afghanistan, Angola in late 1980s; glasnostand perestroika
Explanations for change/breakup of Soviet Union: Wests preparations for
war, military strength, strong alliance system; Western power and policy;
events within USSR; economic, bureaucratic failureunclear, probably
multiple factors
Key developments in post-Cold War world (New World Order)
Iraqi invades Kuwait (1990); multilateral response unites former Cold War
adversaries
Yugoslavia disintegrates into independent states; civil war in Bosnia and
Kosovo; U.N. and NATO respond
Widespread ethnic conflict arises in Central and Western Africa, Central Asia,Indian subcontinent
Al Qaeda attack on 9/11, US war on terror; US and coalition invades
Afghanistan
US invades, occupies Iraq
Looking ahead: unipolarity, multipolarity; cooperation or conflict among
great powers?
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Discussion Questions
1. Why was the Treaty of Westphalia important for international relations?
What concepts and principles informed it? What changes did it set in
motion? How might contemporary IR be different without the Treaty of
Westphalia?
2. What are the most important reasons for the relative peace that
characterized nineteenth-century Europe? Do you think any principles of
nineteenth-century European politics are applicable to contemporary IR?
3. What started the Cold War, and how was it different from previous
ones within the international system? What are its lasting effects on U.S.-Russian relations and IR more broadly?
4. John Lewis Gaddis and other scholars refer to the Cold War as the
long peace. Do you agree with this characterization? Include in your
response a discussion of Gaddiss assertions.
5. Did the end of the Cold War mark the beginning of a New WorldOrder, or did it have little effect on IR? Draw on your knowledge of
history and specific contemporary events to support your position.
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