ORIGINAL PAPER
Evaluating reconstruction effects on urban resilience:a comparison between two Chilean tsunami-prone cities
Irina Tumini1 • Paula Villagra-Islas2 • Geraldine Herrmann-Lunecke3
Received: 17 March 2016 /Accepted: 13 October 2016 / Published online: 25 October 2016� Springer Science+Business Media Dordrecht 2016
Abstract Facing natural disasters is a priority challenge for cities, exacerbated by
increases in urban population and climate change. Improving the resilience of cities is a
critical need for the international community and especially for territories exposed to
multiple risks, such as Chile. Although disasters are always tragic, the recovery and
reconstruction post-disaster may provide a unique opportunity to prevent future suffering,
enhancing the resilience of local communities. This paper presents the analysis of two
Chilean reconstruction programmes applied in Mehuin and Dichato, after the earthquake
and tsunami of 22 May 1960 and 27 February 2010, respectively. In both cases, recon-
struction programmes were supported by the Chilean Government, but using different
approaches: one focused on providing housing for people injured in the earthquake, while
the other also included urban amenities and services. This article proposes an urban
morphology analysis framework; in addition, it presents the assessment of the two case
studies before and after a disaster, thus evaluating their resilience. By comparing urban
morphology resilience pre- and post-disaster, a discussion about the effectiveness of two
reconstruction approaches is presented. Finally, conclusions and recommendations to
& Irina [email protected]
Paula [email protected]
Geraldine [email protected]
1 Department of Planning and Urban Design, Bıo-Bıo University, Avda. Collao 1202,Casilla 5-C - CP, 4051381 Concepcion, Chile
2 Laboratory of Landscape and Urban Resilience, Institute of Environmental Sciences and Evolution,Austral University of Chile, Edificio Emilio Pugın, of. 326, Campus Isla Teja, Region de Los Rıos,Valdivia, Chile
3 Faculty of Architecture, Art and Design, Diego Portales University, Manuel Rodrıguez Sur 415,Santiago, Chile
123
Nat Hazards (2017) 85:1363–1392DOI 10.1007/s11069-016-2630-4
better integrate resilience into urban planning are proposed, with the aim of opening the
discussion about how to make cities more resilient to natural disasters.
Keywords Post-disaster reconstruction � Urban resilience � Urban morphology indicators �Earthquake � Tsunami
1 Introduction
National and international policies nowadays emphasize the need of integrating the con-
cept of resilience into urban planning for areas that are subjected to natural disasters (e.g.
Hyogo Framework for Action 2005–2015 and Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk
Reduction 2015–2030), with the aim of reducing the impact of these events in terms of
human life, economic losses and environmental damage (UNISDR 2005; SUBDERE 2011;
UNISDR 2011).
Chile is a country which is affected by a variety of natural disturbances, with the most
dramatic being some of the largest earthquakes and tsunamis seen around the world.
Notably, in Chile, since 1939, effects of extreme natural events have triggered the
development of land-use plans and urban policies, with an emphasis on improving building
codes to resist future events, but also on reconstruction plans. These were developed from
the urgency of needing to provide homes for those left homeless by the event and focused
on a ‘housing provision approach’.
However, after signing the Hyogo Protocol in 2005 and after the 8.8 Mw earthquake in
2010, which devastated over 1000 km of coastline including human settlements, the
Chilean Government adopted a different reconstruction approach. This approach, which we
have called ‘cross-sectoral reconstruction approach’, focuses on increasing synergies
between stakeholders, including institutions, social agents, experts from the field of risk
reduction planning and citizens. But the extent to which this approach—or the former
‘housing provision approach’—has addressed the resilience of cities is still unknown.
Disaster resilience is the capacity of systems, such as cities, to adapt after a disaster
without losing their basic structure and characteristics (Stumpp 2013). The concept of
urban resilience has been borrowed from ecology and refers to the manner in which
systems cope with stress and disturbance caused by external factors (Walker and Salt,
2006; Jabareen 2009). In other words, it could be defined as the ‘ability of the system,
community or society exposed to hazards to absorb, resist, accommodate to and recover
from the effect of hazards in a timely and efficient manner, including the preservation and
restoration of basic functions’ (Jabareen 2013, p. 221). This concept and its application in
the urban context are becoming, de facto, a framework for enhancing the level of disaster
preparedness, response, prompt recovery and long-term adaptability to changes caused by
crisis and catastrophic events (Cutter et al. 2014; ISDR 2005). Thus, post-disaster recon-
struction provides the opportunity to ‘build back better’ (Tran 2015), which means
developing more resilient cities.
This paper studies urban resilience in Chilean reconstruction programmes by comparing
two different approaches used to rebuild two cities affected by extreme tsunamigenic
events: Mehuin in 1960 (9.5 Mw) and Dichato in 2010 (8.8 Mw). While in Mehuin a
traditional ‘housing provision approach’ was used, in the case of Dichato a more partic-
ipatory ‘cross-sectoral reconstruction approach’ was adopted.
1364 Nat Hazards (2017) 85:1363–1392
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A disaster, despite damages and losses, represents an opportunity to redirect and
reconceive urbanization processes. Under the hypothesis of adaptive models and unpre-
dictable disturbance, the urban planning process becomes an ‘experiment’ from which
designers, experts and policy makers may gain new knowledge (Holling 2001; Ahern
2011). This research analyses to what extent each approach has addressed resilience during
post-disaster reconstruction, focusing specifically on urban morphology aspects. The
question that can be asked is whether planners and authorities were able to capitalize on
knowledge from previous experiences in order to better integrate resilience into urban
planning during post-disaster reconstruction in Chile. Furthermore, and given the two
different reconstruction approaches, were there important differences in the resilience
improvement? Or was this in fact worsened?
The main objective of this research is to study the effectiveness of post-tsunami
reconstruction approaches in Chile in improving urban resilience. In this respect, the paper
provides a comparative study of two reconstruction approaches (Mehuin 1960 and Dichato
2010) and concludes with a discussion on the nexus between reconstruction approaches,
urban morphology and resilience with the goal of proposing urban planning strategies
which incorporate resilience into post-disaster reconstruction.
2 Post-disaster reconstruction approaches and resilience
2.1 Post-disaster reconstruction approaches
Traditionally, reconstruction policies, especially in developing countries, have been ori-
ented to rebuilding the homes of people left homeless after a disaster (Olivera and Gon-
zalez 2010). These so-called housing provision approaches focus on resource allocation
and on housing reconstruction management. However, post-disaster reconstruction prac-
tices with an unilateral focus on housing provision have shown poor results for urban
resilience enhancement (Boen 2001; Arguello-Rodriguez 2004; Aliste and Perez 2013;
Tran 2015).
Recently, different scholars (Burak Enginoz 2006; Olivera and Gonzalez 2010; Cheng
et al. 2015) have suggested including cultural and local identity dimensions during
reconstruction. Thus, a more holistic approach has become highly influential, replacing the
traditional one (Boen 2001; Arguello-Rodriguez 2004; Olivera and Gonzalez 2010; Cheng
et al. 2015). The ‘cross-sectoral reconstruction approach’, as we call it here, consists in
including prevention and mitigation projects, paying special attention to the coordination
between different sectors as well as involving local stakeholders in the reconstruction
process. The international literature has shown that the initial effort of coordinating a
comprehensive plan will result in the enhancement of synergies and long-term cost savings
(GFDRR 2015; Kallaos et al. 2014). In fact, the Hyogo Framework of Action 2005–2015
points out the need to allocate financial and human resources across sectors, involving both
different government levels (national, regional and local) and society in general. The
current international literature (Arguello-Rodriguez 2004; United Nations 2005; Duyne
Barenstein 2006; Oliveira Panao et al. 2009; PNUD Chile 2012; Cheng et al. 2015;
GFDRR 2015) suggests that the reconstruction experiences which have demonstrated
better results in terms of adaptability and prompt recovery include the coordination of
institutions and stakeholders within an integrated recovery programme, working with
Nat Hazards (2017) 85:1363–1392 1365
123
affected populations, reinforcing social cohesion and increasing learning and cultural
resources at the same time.
2.2 Reconstruction programmes and post-disaster reconstruction approachesin Chile
A similar change in reconstruction approaches to those discussed internationally can be
observed in Chile. In 1939, after the Chillan earthquake (7.8 Mw), the reconstruction was
entrusted to the Housing Corporation (CORVI),1 who in conjunction with the Ministry of
Housing and Urbanism (MINVU) promoted a ‘housing provision approach’ which was
oriented solely towards the construction and renovation of housing. Since then, during the
last 50 years, different social programmes have promoted and implemented this approach
through social housing construction programmes and privately funded initiatives, including
self-reconstruction. An example of this is the reconstruction of communities affected by
the 1960 earthquake and tsunami in Chile (9.5 Mw), as is the case of the coastal town of
Mehuin.
In order to rebuild housing, the reconstruction process involved the modification and
strengthening of several laws as well as government organizations. This included the
approval of a bill (Norm 14-171, 1960) to collect funds from different ministries and the
modification of the donation law to finance housing reconstruction. Through this, it was
possible to empower the roles of CORVI and CORFO2 to provide housing while staying
within an economic planning framework: both institutions obtained power to manage
financial resources, to expropriate lands, to rebuild or to repair private and public buildings as
well as to assign credit to families for self-reconstruction (Aliste and Perez 2013). Following
along the same lines, the Ministry of Economy was transformed into the Ministry of Econ-
omy, Development and Reconstruction to develop a more comprehensive reconstruction
planning approach.3 This huge change in governmental action within the national economy
was possible because of the need to rebuild the country. Reconstructionwas thus inserted into
a broader understanding of the country’s development, where post-disaster recovery became
the lever of change (Aliste and Perez 2013). Mehuin’s reconstruction actions were imple-
mentedwithin this early reconstruction period in Chile, where the focuswas on governmental
and funding organizations with the aim of restoring housing. But unfortunately, within a
month of the 1960 tragedy, reconstruction plans were not being designed to allocate new
homes (Aliste and Perez 2013), and neither was there a coordinated approach to organize the
international help and resources that were arriving in Chile (Saldivia 2009).
However, in Chile, with the 2010 earthquake (8.8 Mw), the housing provision paradigm
changed to a cross-sectorial reconstruction approach. Chile had become a global neoliberal
economy and needed to face the challenge of integrating public and private stakeholders as
1 The Housing Corporation (the Spanish-language acronym: CORVI) was founded in 1953 with the aim ofcentralizing the national government’s actions related to social housing provision. After the 1960 earth-quake, CORVI and CORFO were the institutions in charge of organizing public resources for housingreconstruction.2 Production Development Corporation (CORFO) is a Chilean governmental organization that was foundedin 1939 to promote economic growth in Chile. CORFO oversees a variety of programs aimed at generatingthe economic development of Chile, through the creation of national basic industries such as energy, oil,steel and sugar.3 Later on, in 1974, the ONEMI (the National Emergency Office) was created with the aim of planning andcoordinating the use of human and material resources from the institutions, and from public and privateservices, to prevent or reduce damage from earthquakes, disasters or public calamities (BCN 2015).
1366 Nat Hazards (2017) 85:1363–1392
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well as citizens. Chile now required greater efforts to guarantee systematic planning and
coordination to accomplish a more cross-sectorial approach (GSAPP 2015). The novelty of
this reconstruction approach is the acknowledgement of the local community’s role; for
example, the design of the reconstruction plan was developed by the local and regional
government in coordination with the local community, in contrast to the more centralized
top-down process used previously. Furthermore, the reconstruction plan aims at providing
permanent housing access for families left homeless by disasters, but also ensuring heritage
recovery, the reconstruction of open spaces, infrastructure and urban facilities, and
updating urban planning tools to include risk reduction. Hence, this programme tries to
integrate and provide solutions for the provision of emergency and basic services while
improving long-term urban planning oriented towards enhancing urban quality and pre-
paredness of the society to better face future events. The Dichato reconstruction pro-
gramme was developed under this new cross-sectorial reconstruction approach, where a
comprehensive Master Plan was prepared with the objective of: (1) reorganizing zoning
and urban planning instruments, (2) providing a new image for the city using local identity
and (3) managing investments. The big innovation of the programme is the cross-sectorial
design that involves coordination between stakeholders: main action lines were defined and
the role of local, national and international institutions was allocated according to these
lines. Citizens, through participatory workshops, played a fundamental role in building
local identity and designing actions for each line. The implementation of the participatory
programme’s results and the coordination of agents at different levels were achieved
thanks to the Master Plan. As a result of this new urban and territorial regulation, cities
affected by the tsunami were furthermore encouraged to change the current planning
instruments in order to include risk into planning regulations (MINVU 2013; GSAPP
2015).
2.3 Urban morphology and resiliency after disasters
Extrapolating the concept of resilience to human communities, the notion of adaptability as
the capacity of the system to retain critical resources and reorganize itself following the
disturbance should be incorporated in the reconstruction of cities as well. Thus, disturbance
is a part of development, and it has the potential to create the opportunity for recombi-
nation, innovation and transform into new configuration (Walker et al. 2004; Folke 2006).
This means shifting urban environments from an unsafe condition into a more resilient
stage (Cutter et al. 2014, p. 65).
Although the resilience concept assumes different meanings in the different fields, most
authors suggest that the concept of community resilience emerges from the process linking
networking resources and capitals to adaptation after a disturbance (Cutter et al. 2003;
Norris et al. 2008; Burton 2012). Cutter et al. (2014) defines resilience as the relation
between spatial patterns and inherent disaster resilience (Cutter et al. 2003, 2014), while
Allan and Bryant (2011) link adaptation and recovery to specific spatial morphologies
(Allan and Bryant 2011). In their studies for post-earthquake recovery, they discovered the
strong relationship between urban morphology and adaptive response during the emer-
gency stage. They saw that before external resources (such as state or humanitarian help)
began to take effect, communities need to rely on what is to hand in order to survive. Thus,
in this phase, the link between urban environment and adaptive response is clearest (Allan
and Bryant 2011; Allan et al. 2013).
Three broad areas of urban morphology which contribute to adaptation have been
studied as resilience resources during emergency periods after disasters: open space
Nat Hazards (2017) 85:1363–1392 1367
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system, the use of public buildings and proximity to open and built elements. The first one,
the open space system, has been described as a dormant network of streets, parks and
squares that activates after disasters to satisfy survival needs (Allan et al. 2013). Open
spaces have been found to be necessary for people to escape, gather together, and find
safety and shelter. The contribution to resilience is related to the amount and location of
open spaces which are useful after a disaster in respect to population density (Allan et al.
2013; Cutter et al. 2014; Villagra et al. 2014). Secondly, resilience is also related to the use
of public buildings (e.g. churches, schools), particularly those safe from the effect of
disturbances, which can be used as temporary shelters after disasters (The Sphere Project
2011; Chou et al. 2013). Thirdly, proximity and accessibility to both open (e.g. pedestrian
network) and built elements (e.g. services) are a key aspect for resilience because the need
to link places and activities spatially separated. In cities, connectivity determines the
degree of bonding (within a community) and bridging (between communities), which
reflects the degree and strength of a network (Allan and Bryant 2011; Walker et al. 2015).
Physical connections include transportation options or available means, along with the
density of pathways. In the post-disaster scenario, pedestrian connections are also funda-
mental for resilience (Norris et al. 2008; Marın Cots 2012; Rueda 2012; Pickett and Zhou
2015). In other words, urban amenities and spatial distribution should provide diversity of
options and resources for recovery, flexibility to adapt to changed conditions and new
functions (Allan and Bryant 2011; Walker et al. 2015). Above all, these elements—open
spaces, public buildings and pedestrian networks—need to be redundant in the city,
because if one collapses, then another can take over its role (Walker and Salt 2006). In
addition, public open spaces and walkways are important to cities because they accom-
modate daily pedestrian traffic, provide spaces for outdoor activities and contribute to
urban liveability and vitality (Chen and Ng 2012). They promote citizen interaction and
reinforce social cohesion, which are important for improving social capital as well (Norris
et al. 2008; Allan et al. 2013). Thus, urban morphology plays a fundamental role in the
adaptability of cities.
After a disturbance, a dynamic system such as the city can move to a contingent new
state of equilibrium, which is the condition where it can respond to the needs of citizens
and recover functionalities. Depending on the amount of resources used and the time
required for the recovery, this new post-event stage can be more or less resilient than the
previous one. Hence, changes in urban morphology resilience can be evaluated by con-
trasting pre-event conditions to those after the reconstruction phase, provided that critical
indicators give a measure of resilience in terms of adaptability to future disturbance (Bozza
et al. 2015). This approach is used in this study to explore the extent to which the Chilean
reconstruction approaches described above, add to or subtract from the resilience of cities.
3 Methodology of the resilience analysis
Up until now, experiences in post-disaster recovery in Chile focus mainly on housing
reconstruction because of the essential good for the well-being and development of most
societies (Barakat 2003). However, after signing the Hyogo Protocol in 2005, Chilean
authorities have adopted a more holistic approach to the reconstruction programme since
2010, which involves local government, stakeholders and citizens in designing more
comprehensive strategies for long-term solutions. This approach, which fosters mutual
understanding among different stakeholders and establishes cross-sectoral cooperation, has
1368 Nat Hazards (2017) 85:1363–1392
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demonstrated better capacity in meeting local needs (UNISDR 2004; The World Bank
2013). In addition to this, the Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction 2015–2030
encourages the establishment of the necessary mechanisms and incentives to ensure dis-
aster risk management integration across all sectors, including those addressing land-use
and urban planning (UNISDR 2015). Hence, by using a cross-sectoral approach for
reconstruction, we may also expect an improvement in the resilience capacity of cities, in
terms of an urban morphology which is more adaptable to future disasters. Accordingly,
and based on the conceptual model of Fig. 1, urban morphology measures should be
improved through the reconstruction process, if the cross-sectorial approach is used.
1960Housing Provision App.:• Resources alloca�on• Management for the
reconstruc�on process
2010Cross-sectorial Reconstruc�on App.:
• Research• Cross-sectorial design• Stakeholders par�cipa�on
Reconstruc�on Approaches for Risk Reduc�on
Mehuin Dichato
New con�ngentstate of equilibrium
Change in Urban Morphology Resilience
Frompre-event
Toreconst.
RM RD
New knowledge
Improvement in reconstruc�on processes
Improvement in urban resilience
Fig. 1 Conceptual study model: the two approaches are analysed through the urban morphology resilienceevaluation of two case studies: Mehuin and Dichato. The evaluation compares pre-event conditions withpost-disaster reconstruction in order to identify resilience improvement or worsening. The comparisonbetween RM for Mehuin and RD for Dichato will provide information about the improvement inreconstruction approaches, which will also be expected to produce a more resilient city. Source: Elaboratedby authors
Nat Hazards (2017) 85:1363–1392 1369
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The objective of this research is to study two post-tsunami reconstruction approaches in
Chile through a comparative analysis and to discuss their effectiveness in improving urban
resilience, specifically through changes in urban morphology. For this purpose, this study
(1) identifies a study framework of urban morphology indicators and (2) assesses and
compares the resilience capacity of each city before the tsunami event and after
reconstruction.
3.1 Description of the case studies
Mehuin is a small coastal city located in the Los Rios Region, in the South of Chile. After
the earthquake and tsunami of 22 May 1960, buildings under 10 m.a.s.l., all of Mehuin’s,
with 132 inhabitants at the time, were destroyed (Municipality of Mariquina 2015). The
Lingue River, which borders Mehuin to the south, was modified by dramatic geomor-
phological changes. Sea waves reached 8 km inland and, as a result, 27 people died; 77
summer houses, 112 houses of fishermen, 4 hotels and 10 commercial premises were
destroyed (Saldivia 2009).
The Government of Chile, with support from the USA, rebuilt Mehuin through an
international cooperation programme (Alliende Garces 2011). The reconstruction focused
on an area across the river called Mississippi, localized at higher altitudes above the
tsunami inundation level. Between 1960 and 1965, 42 houses were built in Mississippi
making good use of the elevated area to place houses where future tsunami waves would
not reach. In this period, new fishermen arrived to the area to improve traditional fishing
techniques, and the school, health and water facilities were created (Chilean Red Cross
2014). The Maiquilahue road (see Fig. 3b) was built as a way to give an alternative access
to the area. Finally, the bridge that connects the area of Mississippi with the old town was
only created in 2014; hence, this year is considered as the end of the reconstruction phase.
Until then, Mehuin’s original neighbourhood was also rebuilt and has grown in all
directions reaching 1135 inhabitants (Fig. 3).
Dichato (Fig. 2) is a small coastal city with 3878 inhabitants (INE 2002), located in the
Coliumo Bay in the Bio Bio Region. The pre-event urban system shows a high vulnera-
bility to tsunamis (Cartes Siade 2013) due to the localization of its downtown at sea level
and the predominance of low-height buildings (mainly 1 storey houses) with a poor
resistance to wave impact (wooden frames). The earthquake and tsunami of 2010 produced
enormous damage to residential and commercial areas. Existing amenities were destroyed,
and the collapse of two pedestrian bridges and a vehicular bridge caused the isolation of
areas to the north for several weeks (Cartes Siade 2013). In addition, the chaos and delay in
emergency activities over the ensuing weeks demonstrated the weakness in the emergency
management and the lack of coordination between urban planning and recovery agents
(GSAPP 2015). In Dichato, reconstruction activities began one year after the catastrophe
and most of them have now been implemented. A comprehensive Master Plan has been
elaborated focusing on (1) a holistic view of urban and land-use planning through a cross-
sectorial design approach, (2) coordination between public and private agents, (3) linking
local and regional actions for building resilience and (4) involving citizens in the recon-
struction process. Emphasis on mitigation has been promoted by building anti-tsunami
barriers and embankments to reduce flooding levels. Additionally, new residential areas
and public buildings were located in safe zones, while ‘anti-tsunami’ houses were built in
the flood zone (Bio–Bio Gobierno Regional (Regional Government) 2010).
1370 Nat Hazards (2017) 85:1363–1392
123
3.2 Resilience indicators and data collection
With the aim of exploring the extent of urban resilience achieved in the reconstruction
approaches used in Mehuin and Dichato, this study identifies eight indicators to construct
an urban morphology study framework (Table 1). These indicators address the main
aspects of urban morphology that affect resilience: the open space system, the use of public
buildings and proximity to open and built elements (Sect. 2.3).
With regard to the open space system, this study includes the indicators of population
density (PD), relationship between unbuilt and built areas (BI) and useful temporary secure
open spaces (SOSs). PD refers to the number of inhabitants per hectare, considering that a
high PD means low system resilience. Cutter et al. (2014) relates urban resilience and high
population density to economic and human losses that might be expected from a hazard
event. In the same line, other authors (Romero-Lankao and Dodman 2011; The World
Fig. 2 Mehuin and Dichato Orthophoto with localization in Chile and neighbourhood identification andtsunami inundation zone (in blue). Source: Esri, Mop-Government of Chile, Elaborated by authors
Nat Hazards (2017) 85:1363–1392 1371
123
Table
1Resilience
indicatorsforurban
morphologyanalysis:nam
eofindicator,descriptionandcalculationmethod,relationwithresilience—positive(?
)ornegative(-
)—literature
andsourceforcollectingdata.
Source:
Elaboratedbytheauthors
Indicator
Description
Relationwithresilience
References
Datasource
Population
density
(PD)
[inh./ha]
Thismeasuresthepopulationdensity
inurban
areasas
PD
=(Tot.inh./area)
-[
Density
intsunam
ifloodarea
[Economic
andhuman
losses\
Resilience
Cutter
etal.(2014)
INE,Census
Balance
Index
(BI)[m
2/m
2]
Thisindicates
theprovisionofopen
areasforem
erging
activities(usefulareas)
inthecity;calculatedas
BI=
(Runbuiltusefulareas/Rbuiltareas)
?[
Unbuiltarea
\Density[
Recovery
Area[
Resilience
CerveroandDuncan
(2003),Chouet
al.
(2013)
Municipal
maps,
Orthophoto
Urban
Planning
documents
Tem
porary
secure
open
space(SOS)
[m2/inh.]
Thisevaluates
theprovisionofsecure
evacuationareas
inthecity;calculatedas
SOS=
(RSOSareas/inh.)
?SOSC
4m
2[
Resilience
TheSphereProject
(2011),Chouet
al.
(2013),Villagra
etal.(2014)
INE,Census
ONEMIOSS
identification
Community
Amenities
Index
(CAI)
[m2/inh.]
Thismeasurestheprovisionofcommunityam
enitiesper
inhabitantin
urban
areasCAI=
(Ramenitiesarea/
inh.)
?[CAIC
45m
2[
Resilience
TheSphereProject
(2011),Chouet
al.
(2013)
INE,Census,
Municipal
maps
Evacuation
Route
Index
(ERI)[n�/
inh.]
Thisevaluates
theprovisionofsecure
evacuationroutes
inurban
areas,calculatedas
ERI=
(Rn�E
vacuation
Route/(inh./100))
?[
EscapeRoute[
Redundancy
[Resilience
Norris
etal.(2008);
Allan
etal.(2013)
INE,Census
ONEMI
Emergency
Map
Evacuation
Route
Distance
(ERD)[m
]
Thismeasuresthedistance
ofevacuationroutesfrom
thefarthestpointin
EuclideanDistance
-[
600m
or10-m
inwalk(Euclidean
Distance)\
Resilience
Rueda(2006),Norris
etal.(2008)
Municipal
maps,
Orthophoto
ONEMI
Emergency
Map
Walkability
Index
(WI)
[%m/m
]
Thismeasuresthemobilityandaccessibilityfor
pedestriansWI=
(Walkways
length/Tot.streets
length)9
100
?[
Pedestrian
streets[
connectivity[
resilience
C75%
Rueda(2006),Marın
Cots(2012)
Municipal
maps,
Orthophoto,
Inform
ation
aboutstreets
1372 Nat Hazards (2017) 85:1363–1392
123
Table
1continued
Indicator
Description
Relationwithresilience
References
Datasource
Proxim
ity
Index
(PI)
[%]
Thismeasurestheproxim
ityandaccessibilityto
basic
services,such
asfoodsupply,education,health,sport
orculturalcalculatedas
PI=
(Inh.nearbasic
services/Tot.inh.)9
100
?[
Proxim
ityservices[
social
interaction[
social
capital[
resilience
Rueda(2006),Marın
Cots(2012)
INE,Census
Localizationof
basic
services
Nat Hazards (2017) 85:1363–1392 1373
123
Bank 2013) refer to the need of balancing urban density in order to avoid, on the one hand,
urban sprawl and, on the other, problems due to overcrowding. The PD is a relevant
indicator for the cases being analysed because in both cases, it changed in the different
neighbourhoods due to reconstruction planning, thus affecting resilience. In the same way,
the BI and SOS express the amount of open public areas above the tsunami inundation
zone that are useful for shelter and recovery. For this reason, changes in urban morphology
have to be interpreted as an equilibrium between potential losses and adaptive resources.
Thus, an increase in PD could be positive or negative depending on the provision of space
for recovery (BI and SOS). In both case studies, SOS provided emergency shelters and
spaces during and after the tsunamis; therefore, if the amount of these open areas has
decreased after reconstruction, or if the balance between open and built areas has been
modified, which could lead to a decrease in resilience. When the value of the BI index is
high, there are lower building density and a higher percentage of unbuilt area, and the
system is potentially more resilient. In contrast, when the value of this index is low, the
system is denser and potentially less resilient.
In relation to public buildings, this study incorporates the Community Amenities Index
(CAI). This index expresses the amount of built areas per inhabitant that are useful for
post-disaster emergency activities above the tsunami inundation zone. Along with open
spaces, amenities are considered adaptable resources that enhance urban resilience. In this
context, international references (The Sphere Project 2011) set out that the minimum space
for shelter in the immediate aftermath of a disaster is equal to 3.5 m2 per person (short-
term shelter) and 45 m2 per person for temporary planned or self-settlement camps, con-
sidering communal services that can provide useful spaces for recovery purposes. These
measurements are considered for the purpose of this study.
Finally, to address issues of connectivity, this study includes indicators regarding the number
of evacuation routes (assessed by ERI) and distance to evacuation routes (assessed by ERD), as
well as connectivity of pedestrian systems (WI) and proximity to basic services (PI) after dis-
asters. For tsunami-prone cities, a prompt evacuation after earthquakes occur is crucial for saving
lives. Thus, urban space has to provide well-known, accessible and safer evacuation routes
(Murakami et al. 2012). The ERI expresses the number of evacuation routes, as acknowledged
and signposted by the National Security Public Service Office (ONEMI) per neighbourhood. In
the case of ERD, this research has defined the distance of 600 m (or 10 min walking) as a
benchmark because the time before a tsunami hits the coastline after an earthquake is only
20–40 min; thus, evacuation has to be as quick as possible (Lammel et al. 2010).
Furthermore, proximity and accessibility to basic services are essential to citizen well-being,
promoting interrelation between people and urban space as well as increasing social cohesion
(Marın Cots 2012). Social cohesion also fosters the enhancement of social capital that is positive
for resiliencebecause it providesgroupnetworks,with reciprocal links,whichare able to establish
supportive interactions and cooperative decision-making processes (Norris et al. 2008). The
Walkability Index (WI) and Proximity Index (PI) emphasize the importance of the pedestrian
scale for facilitating communication and exchange of goods and services amongcitizens.Thefirst
(WI) is assessed as the percentage of pedestrian streets and walkways separated from roads for
vehicles. The second (PI) appraises the balanced distribution of urban amenities (schools, health
centres, sports facilities, etc.) according to the percentage of citizens that live close to them (Marın
Cots 2012).
The relationship between resilience and each variable is described and indicated with a
? or - (in the column next to the description), showing that an increase in an indicator
value is positive (?) or negative (-) for urban resilience. Data to calculate these indicators
1374 Nat Hazards (2017) 85:1363–1392
123
were collected from municipalities and regional authorities and analysed using geographic
information systems.
3.3 Data analysis
Cities may be described as a modular system of a collection of relative autonomous
modules, connected to each other, with a neighbourhood being a suitable urban unit to
represent this autonomous module. The resilience of a city is determined by the resilience
of each individual neighbourhood (autonomous module) and the operation at a collective
level. Thus, a resilience analysis should focus on the relationship between scales, and
between the module’s operations, autonomously and collectively (Allan and Bryant 2011).
Hence, for the purpose of this study, each city was divided into units of analysis or
neighbourhoods with different urban morphologies, considering 5 neighbourhoods in
Mehuin (Mehuin Caleta, Mehuin Balneario, Pichicuyin, Mississippi and Mehuin Bajo) and
6 in Dichato (Litril, Centro, Villarica, Posta, Santa Alicia and Villa Fresia) (Fig. 2).
For the resilience analysis, only open and built areas over 10 metres above sea level
(m.a.s.l) were considered (Figs. 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8), because the floods of the 1960 and 2010
tsunamis reached between 10 and 12 m.a.s.l (EEERI 2010); hence, no infrastructure below
that benchmark would be useful as an adaptive resource after a tsunami strikes. Data
collected in the pre-event and reconstruction conditions are presented in Tables 2 and 3. To
further understand morphological changes, maps with the urban configuration in the two
phases are presented in Figs. 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8.
4 Results of the resilience analysis
4.1 Urban resilience indicators in Mehuin
The results of Mehuin (Table 2) show that in every neighbourhood, the value of each
resilience indicator increased. This increase is larger in Mississippi which is the area
rebuilt after the 1960 tsunami, where people were relocated to (Fig. 3). The BI, SOS and
ERI increased in Mississippi, meaning a rise in open spaces that can be used for shelter.
Thus, the population increase is balanced by the improvement in open spaces that is
positive for the resilience.
Data in Table 2 also show that the amount of SOS is above 4 m2 per inhabitant
(Table 1) in Mississippi indicating a good amount of open areas that are useful after a
disaster. This is not the case for the amount of facilities used for refuge after a disaster
(CAI) which are non-existent above 10 m.a.s.l (Fig. 4b). A similar situation is seen in
Pichicuyin, Mehuin Bajo and the Mehuin Balneario (Mehuin Beach), where the low urban
density including agricultural land suggests a better resilience capacity in terms of the open
space available for recovery, but less resilience capacity in terms of built elements that are
useful for shelter.
In contrast, Mehuin Caleta (Mehuin Cove), one of the denser neighbourhoods, where
the fishing industry, restaurants and schools are located, shows an increase in SOS and
ERI; however, the amount of open spaces that are useful after a disaster is the lowest when
compared with other neighbourhoods (Table 2). Indeed, there is no significant change in
the case of BI, with a small increase in the amount of built facilities (CAI), but still this
increase is not enough to ensure the recovery of all citizens. This suggests a low resilience
Nat Hazards (2017) 85:1363–1392 1375
123
capacity for Mehuin Caleta because the increment of PD is not offset by the amount of
open space and built elements available for recovery after a disaster.
With regard to escape routes, the ERI was increased in all cases, as prior to 1960 escape
routes were not part of the land-use plan (Figs. 3b, 4b). Evacuation routes were imple-
mented mainly in Pichicuyin and Mississippi near residential areas; however, this was not
done in other neighbourhoods that did not comply with the distance (ERD value) required
0 100 200 500
Neighborhood
Flooding zone
Pedestrian street
(a)
Fig. 3 Urban morphology of Mehuin a pre-tsunami and b after reconstruction. For the neighbourhoods, seeFig. 2. Source: Author elaborated started from ESRI map, digital cartography of Mehuin Municipality andONEMI
1376 Nat Hazards (2017) 85:1363–1392
123
to reach safety. Finally, accessibility to pedestrian streets (WI) improved in all cases
because prior to 1960 there was no evidence of this information in each unit of analysis.
Mehuin Caleta and Mehuin Balneario show sufficient pedestrian connectivity, while in the
other three neighbourhoods, there are failures in walkability and connectivity. Proximity to
amenities only improved in the Mehuin Balneario (Fig. 3) because all amenities in other
neighbourhoods are below 10 m.a.s.l. Thus, only the Mehuin Balneario neighbourhood
provides citizens with pedestrian connections and accessibility to basic services after a
disaster.
a SAN JOSE DE LA MARIQUINA
a la CALETA
CENTRO
terre no a c omp rar
LOS
RO
BL ES
Jaime Pau lsen403calle 17 n °57 5rol 42 4-4
0 100 200 500
Secure Open SpaceEvacuation Route
Amenities in safe area Secure AreaNeighborhoodFlooding zone (10masl)
Amenities in unsafe area New connection
New Bridge
T-20 roadMaiquillahue road
(b)
Fig. 3 continued
Nat Hazards (2017) 85:1363–1392 1377
123
It should be noted that during the last fifty years, the city developed mainly in Mehuin
Caleta and along the main road (T-270). New residences and basic services were developed
without taking into account local resilience needs. These are the balance between built and
unbuilt areas for daily activities as well as for adaptation post-tsunami, the provision of
space for recovery in safe areas and the redundancy of connectivity. Regarding the
reconstruction process, after the earthquake and tsunami in 1960, the central government
was unprepared to respond to this major emergency as it was a catastrophe with dimen-
sions never seen before. The government changed several norms in order to organize the
humanitarian aid and promote housing reconstruction (Norm 14-171 and donation law. See
Sect. 2.2, second paragraph for more detail). Despite this, the reconstruction of basic
Amenities in safe area
Neighborhood
Flooding zone (10masl)
Amenities in unsafe area
(a)
Fig. 4 Mehuin, Mississipi neighbourhood a pre-tsunami and b after reconstruction. Source: Authorelaborated started from ESRI map, digital cartography of Mehuin Municipality and ONEMI
1378 Nat Hazards (2017) 85:1363–1392
123
services and key infrastructures took more than fifty years. The end of the reconstruction
process could be considered in 2012 with the inauguration of a new bridge that connects
Mehuin Caleta and Mehuin Bajo.
4.2 Urban resilience indicators in Dichato
The results of Dichato show that overall resilience increased through reconstruction. With
the aim of reducing risk and meeting local needs, the reconstruction plan proposed miti-
gation measures such as an anti-wave barrier and a land-use change in lots located by the
sea, changing from residential to commerce and service. The anti-wave barrier was
designed as a seafront promenade, and a new pedestrian area in the Centro (downtown)
was built in order to promote touristic activity (Fig. 6). In the Centro neighbourhood, the
terreno a comprar
0 50 100 200Secure Open Space
Evacuation Route
Secure Area
(b)
Fig. 4 continued
Nat Hazards (2017) 85:1363–1392 1379
123
destroyed houses have been rebuilt on the same site, part of which is within the flood area.
This neighbourhood shows an increment in PD, which suggests a decrease in resilience
(Figs. 5, 6). Similar to what was observed in the denser neighbourhoods in Mehuin, the
enhancement of population is not balanced with a consistent increment in BI, SOS and CAI
that suggests less resilience capacity (Table 3). In the case of Litril, new housing blocks are
built to relocate citizens and the PD and SOS variation between the two phases is not
significant.
The Villarrica neighbourhood, which was particularly hit during the 2010 tsunami, has
experimented a PD decrease because most of its inhabitants left the area; SOS and BI did
not vary. This area was reconstructed with ‘anti-tsunami’ houses (a metallic structure with
a free ground floor and a first floor adapted for residential use) to provide safe coastal
houses for fishermen.
With a higher elevation, results for Santa Alicia and Villa Fresia neighbourhoods show
an improved resilience capacity. Changes in values observed for PD, BI and SOS (Table 3)
are not as relevant because both neighbourhoods are above the tsunami flood level, which
Secure Open Space
Amenities in safe areaNeighborhoodFlooding zone (10 masl)
Amenities in unsafe area
(a)
Fig. 5 Urban morphology of Dichato a pre-tsunami and b after reconstruction. For the neighbourhoods, seeFig. 2. Source: Author elaborated started from digital cartography of Dichato Municipality
1380 Nat Hazards (2017) 85:1363–1392
123
make them less vulnerable. Besides, an increase in CAI can be observed in both neigh-
bourhoods, which is good for resilience. The security zones for Dichato are allocated in
these neighbourhoods, which, if accompanied by good accessibility and enough commu-
nity facilities, can provide adequately equipped shelters to cope with disasters.
The Posta neighbourhood is also located above the inundation zone. Thus, a new
residential neighbourhood as well as amenities and services that are useful during emer-
gencies (e.g. fire station, city council and sanitary services) were relocated to this area, with
an increase in CAI values. In this case, the PD increase explains the resilience’s
improvement, because inhabitants and community facilities are located in safe areas
(Fig. 7). However, the main problem of Posta is the lack of connectivity observed in the
0 50 100 200 500
Secure Open SpaceEvacuation Route
Amenities in safe area
New HousesSecure Area
NeighborhoodFlooding zone (10 masl)
New Public Spaces
Amenities in unsafe area
(b)
Fig. 5 continued
Nat Hazards (2017) 85:1363–1392 1381
123
change in WI values (Fig. 8). The new residential area in Posta is placed behind the hills,
far from the city centre with few walkways for pedestrian connection, which is important
during an emergency if roads collapse. Also, by placing most of the emergency services in
this area, accessibility is even more important. It should be noted that the other neigh-
bourhoods maintain and improve the WI and PI values suggesting a positive approach in
terms of citizens’ capacity to move within the same neighbourhood and among them, as
well as good accessibility to basic services located in safe areas.
The reconstruction has paid special attention on providing new evacuation routes, which
have been implemented in each neighbourhood (ERI), and the distance from residential
areas to evacuation routes is now close to 300 m (ERD), or 5-min walking in all cases
(Table 3; Fig. 5).
Concerning the reconstruction programme, the new government engaged in the tasks at
hand with the commitment to complete these in four years. The first problem was the
financial resources allocation, achieved by changing the Finance Law and using the
National Reserve Fund. The second was to recover the economic activities and rebuild
urban spaces. The reconstruction plan started a few days after the event, and after six
EsteroDichato
Calle Arturo Prat
EsteroDichato
0 50 100 200
Not Residential Use
New Public SpacesNeighborhood
Flooding zone
Fig. 6 Reconstruction of Dichato, Centro neighbourhood. On the seafront, a wave mitigation wall withpublic spaces has been constructed and behind it, non-residential buildings have been rebuilt. Source:Author elaborated started from digital cartography of Dichato Municipality
1382 Nat Hazards (2017) 85:1363–1392
123
months 96 % of key infrastructures, which were damaged by the natural disasters,
recovered their functionality (Gobierno de Chile 2010). After the earthquake and tsunami
in 1960, Chilean authorities improved their experience and preparedness in disaster risk
management and post-disaster reconstruction (see Sect. 2.2). The main novelty in the case
of Dichato is that the reconstruction was organized by the Regional Government (GORE)
in lieu than Central National authorities, which proposed a comprehensive plan for
coordinating institutions, private agents and involving citizens in the decision-making
process (MINVU 2016).
5 Discussion
5.1 Effects of the housing provision and cross-sectoral reconstructionapproaches on resilience in Mehuin and Dichato
The reconstruction along the Pacific Coast entails a main dilemma: relocating settlements
to a safe area or rebuilding the city on the pre-event location. In both case studies, the local
economy is based on fishing and tourism; thus, massive resettlement would mean depriving
Pasa
jeAlqu
inta
CalleVictorJar
a
0 50 100 200
New Houses
New Public SpacesNeighborhood
Flooding zone
Anti-tsunamiHouses
New residential areas out of flooding area
Fig. 7 Reconstruction of Dichato, Anti-tsunami houses below flood level and new houses in Postaneighbourhood. Source: Author elaborated started from digital cartography of Dichato Municipality
Nat Hazards (2017) 85:1363–1392 1383
123
the inhabitants of the possibility to maintain their activities, undermining the survival of
the local communities. Due to this, both reconstruction processes maintained the original
location and implemented mitigation measures, using different approaches, in order to
‘internalize’ the natural risk.
The results of this research indicate that the effectiveness of the reconstruction process
in terms of improving urban resiliency is influenced by the reconstruction approaches
under which Mehuin and Dichato have been rebuilt. Although in both reconstruction
processes resilience has been improved, creating more connected and adaptable spaces for
recovery after a disaster, Dichato’s cross-sectoral reconstruction approach has enabled a
more comprehensive reconstruction of open spaces, infrastructure and urban facilities, and
the updating of urban planning tools to include risk reduction. Indeed, Dichato has
developed significant mitigation policies and projects during reconstruction: urban land use
was changed along the sea front from residential to commercial use, an ‘anti-wave’ wall
was constructed and ‘anti-tsunami’ houses were developed. Furthermore, CAI increased
(a)
Fig. 8 Pedestrian road and walkways in Posta neighbourhood a pre-tsunami and b reconstruction. Source:Author elaborated started from digital cartography of Dichato Municipality
1384 Nat Hazards (2017) 85:1363–1392
123
significantly in Dichato in areas located above the tsunami inundation level improving
resilience, while in Mehuin public buildings were built mainly in tsunami inundation
zones. Also, it should be highlighted that in Mehuin the reconstruction took more than fifty
years, while Dichato’s reconstruction process was largely finished after five years.
In the case of Mehuin, the aftermath of the tsunami threatened the local economy,
because it destroyed their fishing boats and the cove, where sea products were commer-
cialized. The BI indicator addresses this issue since it refers to the balance between open
and built areas, where, for example, fishing infrastructure can be set up. The results in
Table 2 and also in Figs. 4 and 5 show that although there are open areas available for this
purpose, they are below the tsunami flood line. This means that these new open areas are
threatened and can be easily destroyed by tsunami waves.
In Mehuin, local inhabitants were aware about the lack of local amenities before the
tsunami, which was emphasized further still by the lack of refuge options in the aftermath.
Pasa
jeAlquinta
CalleVictorJar
a
0 50 100 200
Neighborhood
Flooding zone (10 masl)Lack of Pedestrian streetPedestrian street
Amenities
(b)
Fig. 8 continued
Nat Hazards (2017) 85:1363–1392 1385
123
Table
2MeasurementsofMehuin,pre-tsunam
iandreconstruction.Elaboratedbytheauthors
Indicator
Mehuin
pre-tsunam
iphase(1960)
Mehuin
reconstructionphase
Mehuin
Caleta
Mehuin
Balneario
Pichicuyin
Mississippi
Mehuin
Bajo
Mehuin
Caleta
Mehuin
Balneario
Pichicuyin
Mississippi
Mehuin
Bajo
PD
(inh/ha)
1.00
0.00
0.00
1.15
07.23
1.96
0.60
20.03
1.81
BI
00
00
00.03
0.05
1.06
0.66
3.43
OSS(m
2/
inhab)
00
00
02.75
8.58
160.87
28.14
127.62
ERI
00
00
00.25
0.96
5.26
0.57
0.00
ERD
(m)a
600
600
600
600
600
914.00
648.00
257.00
273.00
3422.00
CAI(m
2/
inhab)
00
00
02.79
3.89
00
2.34
WI(%
)0
00
00
0.70
0.86
0.20
0.38
0.21
PI(%
)0
00
00
0.00
100.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
aNote
onERD
pre-tsunam
ievaluation:thevalueof600m
isdefined
asthemaxim
um
usefuldistance
forapromptevacuation(10min).Thesevalues
arebeingusedto
comparepre-tsunam
iconditions,when
therewerenoevacuationroutes,withpost-reconstruction
1386 Nat Hazards (2017) 85:1363–1392
123
Tab
le3
MeasurementsofDichato,pre-tsunam
iandreconstruction.Elaboratedbyauthors
Indicator
Dichatopre-tsunam
iphase(2010)
Dichatoreconstructionphase
Litril
Centro
Villarrica
Posta
Santa
Alicia
Villa
Fresia
Litril
Centro
Villarrica
Posta
Santa
Alicia
Villa
Fresia
PD
(inh/ha)
18.71
41.13
82.94
18.89
35.84
50.18
18.25
91.84
21.58
45.55
29.17
38.34
BI
00
0.02
0.37
0.18
0.18
00.03
0.02
0.53
0.01
0.06
OSS(m
2/hab)
00
3.89
38.84
19.80
11.28
03.36
3.89
10.36
1.04
3.53
ERI
00
00
00
1.47
0.18
1.21
0.19
0.22
0.08
ERD1(m
)600
600
600
600
600
600
352
183
227
234
00
CAI(m
2/hab)
00
00.72
0.00
02.60
1.10
010.26
0.80
1.70
WI(%
)0
00
1.00
1.00
1.00
11
10.83
11
PI(%
)0
00
0.86
0.23
01
11
11
1
Nat Hazards (2017) 85:1363–1392 1387
123
As illustrated in Figs. 3 and 4, new amenities have been provided (i.e. schools, health
facilities, naval office, fire brigade and police departments). However, the provision of
these public buildings is not well balanced with the population increase (see PD values in
Table 2); thus, the current urban configuration does not provide enough space in safe areas
for temporary shelters and emergency activities.
After the earthquake, there are also evident mobility needs to quickly evacuate people to
secure areas and during the emergency to connect inhabitants with temporary services
(such as a field hospital and field school). With the reconstruction, evacuation routes and
pedestrian connectivity among neighbourhoods in Mehuin have been improved (as ERD,
WI and PI demonstrate). Figures 3b and 4b show an urban grid with well-established roads
with pedestrian space, while Fig. 3b shows the location of the bridge that now connects
Mehuin Caleta with Mississippi, as well as the road to Maiquillahue. The inhabitants of
Mississippi and Mehuin Bajo can use the latter as an alternative evacuation route if the
bridge collapses.
Even with this, the interconnection among neighbourhoods after a disaster can become
difficult due to the dependence on vehicles to reach safety zones (high ERD in Mehuin
Caleta, Mehuin Balneario and Mehuin Bajo) and basic services (WI and PI values). Hence,
if the bridge collapses to the south or if landslides occur to the north, these evacuation
routes can be jeopardized. Connectivity is key to resiliency (Norris et al. 2008; Marın Cots
2012; Rueda 2012) and one key rule of resiliency is redundancy (Walker and Salt 2006); if
one neighbourhood collapses, the others should be prepared to take on their role, and the
actions taken by the ‘housing provision approach’ are clearly not following this premise.
In the case of Dichato, a more significant resilience improvement can be observed. In
neighbourhoods facing the sea, such as Centro, Villarica and Litril a mixed land use
including housing and commerce was set out and ‘anti-tsunami’ measures implemented as
part of the cross-sectoral approach (GSAPP 2015). These solutions face the need of
maintaining economic activities (tourism and fishing) on the seafront, while at the same
time reducing vulnerability. Besides this, Posta, Villa Fresia and Santa Alicia in the higher-
lying areas, were defined as the safe zones where most new public buildings and new open
spaces were constructed.
In contrast to the case of Mehuin, the ‘cross-sectoral reconstruction approach’ clearly
promotes the interconnection among neighbourhoods after a disaster, thus facilitating
resiliency. Posta, Villa Fresia and Santa Alicia have a similar configuration and distance to
lower-lying city areas; if one of them collapses, the other could take its role in assuring
evacuation and accessibility to safety zones, adding to the redundancy of the system and
hence to resiliency (Walker and Salt 2006). Nonetheless, it is important to consider that
regardless of the improvement in accessibility and connectivity in these areas—which can
facilitate peoples’ access after a disaster (improvements in ERI, ERD, WI and PI)—these
three neighbourhoods do not have enough open and built space to locate the entire com-
munity after a disaster (low values of SOS, CAI).
For Dichato, the cross-sectoral design has resulted in a more comprehensive Master
Plan, one where housing, infrastructure, amenities and public spaces were designed under
agreement with the different actors (Bio–Bio Gobierno Regional 2010; MINVU 2013;
GSAPP 2015). Paying attention to the population’s well-being, including them in the
policy and planning decision is also crucial to reinforce the social capital of local com-
munities, a characteristic of resilience as well as of sustainable and equitable cities (PNUD
Chile 2012; Childers et al. 2015).
Finally, this reconstruction approach also places emphasis on the synergy between
mitigation measures and urban environment amelioration; for instance, the mitigation park
1388 Nat Hazards (2017) 85:1363–1392
123
built in Dichato provided new green areas, cultural spaces and services for all citizens. This
multi-functionality of using the open space system along with the capacity to adapt from
recreational activities to a mitigation device is a characteristic observed in resilient cities as
well (Allan et al. 2013; Villagra et al. 2014).
5.2 Recommendations to improve resiliency in urban planningand reconstruction planning based on morphological factors
Regarding the reconstruction programme evaluation, and despite a general amelioration of
urban space quality, some questions about the effectiveness of the current planning
instruments in improving resilience arise.
Indeed, the current planning tools do not appropriately regulate morphological factors to
increase resiliency and often fail in the strategic and long-term view; hence, they generate
urban areas which can fall into vulnerable condition over time. For example, to promote
resilience, it is important to balance population density at a neighbourhood scale as well as
providing the accessibility and mobility of the inhabitants to open areas which are des-
ignated as evacuation routes and safety zones. In Chile, the current urban planning regu-
lations establish a minimum public space provision according to population density (D.S.
n47-1992, art. 2.2.5), but there are no differences between spaces exposed to risk and
others not directly exposed. Therefore, the urban planning regulation needs to integrate the
resilience aim by modifying the current requirements accordingly.
The results of this study show that more effort in urban planning and reconstruction
should be focused on:
• Including resilience thinking in urban planning with a long-term vision, meaning
evaluating the adaptive capacity of cities after a disaster.
• Promoting the cross-sectorial design to improve synergies among actors in order to
translate gains of resilient recovery into better urban environment quality.
• Proposing more adaptive planning, by providing a more flexible framework which may
promote ‘learning by doing’ and improve local capacities.
• Integrating and evaluating urban morphology resilience indicators during the recon-
struction and planning processes for future urban developments, in order to ensure
resilient cities capable of facing future catastrophic events.
• Defining appropriate benchmarks for the community amenities provision and
modifying the urban planning regulation accordingly, paying attention to differentiate
requirements between urban areas exposed and not exposed to risks.
• Considering change in population distribution after tsunamis in terms of density
increase in areas not affected by the tsunami’s flooding, and how these areas should be
flexible enough to adapt for the recovery of the entire population.
• Promoting the multi-functionality of using the open space system and the capacity to
change from recreational activities to a mitigation device.
6 Conclusions
This study shows that in both cases—Mehuin and Dichato—the resilience of urban mor-
phology improves after the reconstruction. Nevertheless, the two reconstruction approa-
ches show significant differences on the extent of resilience achieved. In fact, Dichato’s
Nat Hazards (2017) 85:1363–1392 1389
123
cross-sectoral reconstruction approach has enabled a more comprehensive and resilient
reconstruction than Mehuin’s ‘housing provision approach’.
Compared to the ‘housing provision approach’, the 2010 reconstruction programme was
managed and carried out by local authorities, proposing a more flexible collaboration
framework than the national government structure. The application of a ‘cross-sectorial
approach’ resulted in local capacity improvement (a task force was created, involving
universities, institutions, stakeholders and key agents), a prompt recovery and more quality
of urban spaces. In other words, the ‘cross-sectorial approach’ resulted in a more resilient
reconstruction process.
Although this reconstruction process is not free of criticism, especially in regard to the
management of the participatory processes, the ‘cross-sectorial reconstruction approach’
shows a breakthrough in comprehensive risk management. Starting from understanding
disaster as an ‘opportunity’ to ‘learn by doing’ (Ahern 2011), planning became a process in
which experts, designers and decision makers may gain new knowledge in order to develop
innovative and adaptive urban planning.
With regard to the urban morphology evaluation methodology, the proposed study
framework is suitable for the analysis of changes in urban morphology in tsunami-prone
cities, because key aspects (people distribution, public spaces, basic services, complexity
and connectivity) are taken into consideration; hence, it can be a useful tool to evaluate
resilience after implementing reconstruction plans. It should also be emphasized that the
resilience appraisal should be done by analysing the whole framework, because the balance
between indicators is more relevant than benchmark achievements. In this way, it is
relevant to contrast and adapt the analysis framework with local needs in order to add and/
or eliminate indicators, as required. In terms of the scale of analysis, the dimension of
‘neighbourhood’ is suitable for evaluating the resilience capacity; for instance, the analysis
at a lower scale is not significant and the city scale is not representative for distribution and
connectivity.
This analysis provides a view of physical and morphological aspects related to resi-
lience that are useful for planners and urban designers. Notwithstanding this, to carry out a
more comprehensive resilience analysis, more dimensions, such as social, economic and
governance, should be taken into account. In addition, further exploration on how people
reorganize during the emergency phase might be useful in order to understand resilience. In
fact, actions carried out and decisions made during this phase may be determining for the
adaptability, the prompt recovery, as well as for the innovative reconfiguration of a system
(Holling 2001). The understanding of urban morphology’s role might orientate actions and
policies as well as produce new and innovative solutions to allow tomorrow’s cities to
better adapt to the changing world.
Acknowledgments The paper has been developed partially using the results obtained in the I-2014-11 andPEF-2014-01 and CONICYT Program-Fondecyt N.1150137 research projects.
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