Since 1993 the number of victimizations are declining
NCVS Data
Patterns of victimization are stable
Victimization is not random
Becoming a crime victim has a lot to do with personal and
ecological factors
How is this useful?
Researchers can make judgments about the nature of
victimization
Efforts can be made to reduce the victimization rate
3. Environmental Criminology
Examines the location of a specific crime and the context in
which it occurred in order to understand and explain crime
patterns.
Where and when did the crime occur?
What are the physical and social characteristics of the crime
site?
What movements bring offender and target together at the crime
site?
4. Rational Choice Perspective Clark & Cornish
Rational Choice perspective developed by Ronald Clarke and
Derek Cornish and based on two theoretical approaches
Based on utilitarianism, assumes that people make decisions
with the goal of maximizing pleasure and minimizing pain.
Based on traditional economic choice theory, which argues that
people will evaluate the options and choose what they believe will
satisfy their needs.
5.
Rational choice implies a limited sense of rationality, that
is, an offender does not know all the details of a situation;
rather he or she relies on cues in the environment or
characteristics of targets
Most crime is ordinary and committed by reasoning individuals
who decide that the chances of getting caught are low and the
possibilities for a relatively good pay off is high.
6.
A variety of factors or characteristics come into play when an
offender decides to commit a crime. These factors are called choice
structuring-properties
Characteristics fall into two distinct sets: those of the
offender and those of the offence.
7. Decision to commit burglary Selected (Middle Class Area)
Easily accessible few police patrols low security housing larger
gardens Rejected (Middle Class Area) Unfamiliar; distant
neighborhood watch no public transport Burgled Home no one at home:
Especially affluent, detached, patio doors bushes and other cover
corner site Not Burgled Home Nosy neighbors, burglar alarm nor rear
access, visible from street window locks; dog
8. Routine-Activity Approach Cohen & Felson
A crime can occur only if there is someone who intends to
commit a crime (likely offender).
Something or someone to be victimized (a suitable target).
No other person present to prevent or observe the crime (the
absence of a capable guardian).
No person to control the activities of the offender (personal
handler).
9. Components of a Criminal Event
10.
Routine patterns of work, play, and leisure time affect the
convergence in time and place of motivated offenders who are not
handled, suitable targets, and the absence of guardians
If one component is missing, crime is not likely to be
committed.
11. Routine-Activity Approach
Certain technological changes and alterations in the workforce
create new crime opportunities
Increase in female participation in the labor force
Out-of-town travel, automobile usage, and technological
advances that account for higher risks of predatory
victimization.
12. Theories of Victimization Lifestyle Theories
Proposition:
The probability of suffering a personal victimization is
directly related to the amount of time that a person spends in
public places.
The probability of being in public places varies as a function
of lifestyle.
Social contacts and interactions occur disproportionately among
individuals who share similar lifestyles.
13. Lifestyle Theories Continued
An individuals chances of personal victimization are dependent
upon the extent to which the individual shares demographic
characteristics with offenders.
The proportion of time that an individual spends among
non-family members varies as a function of lifestyle.
The probability of personal victimization increases as a
function of the proportion of the time that an individual spends
among non-family members.
14. Lifestyle Theories Continued
Variations in lifestyle are associated with variations in the
ability of individuals to isolate themselves from persons with
offender characteristics.
Variations in lifestyle are associated with variations in the
convenience, the desirability, and visibility of the person as a
target for a personal victimization.
15. Burglars and Burglary
Before committing their offenses, burglars take into
account
Familiarity with the area,
Fear of recognition
Concern over standing out as somebody who does not belong
16. Burglars and Burglary
Planning professional burglars plan more than do amateurs
Systematic selection of a home - some burglars examine clues
such as burglar alarm, watchdog, mail piled up in mailbox,
accumulated newspapers. Closed windows with A/C turned off
Situational Cues some burglars routinely choose a corner
property for it offers avenues of escape, fewer adjoining
properties low visibility.
17. Victim-Offender Interaction Marvin Wolfgang
Coined the term victim precipitation to refer to situations
where victims initiate the confrontations that lead to their
death.
Wolfgang estimated that as many as one quarter to one half of
intentional homicides are victim precipitated.
18. Theories of Victimization Continued
Repeat victimization
Hotspots of crime
Geography of crime
19. Repeat victimization
Dispel the myth that crime is uniformly distributed. A small
number of people and places account for a large amount of the
crimes committed.
Risk of repeat burglary are highest immediately after a
previous burglary
Offenders choose targets based on the knowledge they gained in
the previous victimization about the risks and rewards of a
particular offence.
20. Hot Spots
Studies show that certain types of crime are concentrated in
what police refers to as hot spots
The researchers surmise that attempts to prevent victimization
should be focused not on victims but on the places themselves by
making them less vulnerable to crime.
21. Geography of Crime
Researchers have found that more crime occurs around high
schools and blocks with bars, liquor stores, the city center and
abandoned buildings .
22. The Social Ecology of Victimization
Violent crimes are slightly more likely to occur in a public
area during daytime or early evening hours
More serious violent crimes typically occur after 6 p.m. to 6
a.m.
Rape and aggravated assault
Less serious violent crimes more likely occur in the day
Purse snatching and unarmed robberies
23.
The risk of murder is highest in disorganized inner-city
areas
Rural areas have significantly lower victimization rates than
urban areas (half as much)
Schools are also the location of many victimization
Numbers are decreasing
24. The Victims Household
In the U.S. certain homes are more vulnerable to crimes
Larger homes (family size)
African American
Renters
Western and urban homes
Rural white homes in the Northeast are least likely to contain
crime victims
25. Important Victim Characteristics
Gender
Age
Social status
Marital status
Race and Ethnicity
Repeat victimization
26.
Gender
Males are more likely to be the victims of violent crimes
(robbery/assault)
Except for rape or sexual assault
Two thirds of women are victimized by someone they know or live
with
Half of male victims are attacked by someone they know
With the increase in gender equality, womens victimization
rates are as well
Age
Young people have a much higher victimization rate
Victim risk rapidly diminishes after age 25
By age 65 chances of being victimized greatly decrease
1% of violent victimizations
With increases in reports of elder abuse, victimization rates
for the elderly will increase
More likely to be victims of crimes such as
Frauds and scams
Purse snatching
27.
Social Status
The poorest Americans are the most likely victims of violent
and property crime
Regardless of age, gender, and race
The wealthy are more likely the targets of personal theft
crimes
Marital Status
Never-married men and women have higher victimization rates
than married people
Widows and widowers have the lowest victimization rate
The relationship between marital status and victimization is
probably influenced by gender, age, and lifestyle
28. Crime Prevention Through Environmental Design
Originated by C. Ray Jeffery
CPTED posits that environments can be altered, often at little
expense, to decrease victimization.
Defensible Space by Oscar Newman refers to improved
architectural designs, particularly of public housing, in order to
provide increased security.
29. Situational Crime Prevention
The phantom crime prevention at Disney World
Situational prevention of auto theft
Convenience stores
Parking facilities
Displacement
30. Top 25 Most Commonly Stolen Vehicles in 2001
31. 1995 Honda Civic 1991 Honda Accord 1989 Toyota Camry 1997
Ford F150 Series 1994 Chevrolet C/K 1500 Pickup 1994 Acura Integra
2004 Dodge Ram Pickup 1994 Nissan Sentra 1988 Toyota Pickup 2007
Toyota Corolla Source: Intellichoice.com 2008