Electrons in the Atom
Thomson: discovered the electron Rutherford: electrons like planets
around the sun
Experiments: bright – line spectra of the elements
Electromagnetic Spectrum
Complete range of wavelengths and frequencies (gamma to radio)
Mostly invisible to human eye Substances can either absorb or emit
different radiations
Continuous Spectrum Display of colors that are merging into
each other. Rainbow, visible light, heated gases emit continuous spectrum.
The range of frequencies present in light.
White light has a continuous spectrum. A rainbow.
Prism and White Light White light is
made up of all the colors of the visible spectrum.
Passing it through a prism separates it.
Continuous spectrum
Line Spectrum (Discontinuous)
Images appear as narrow colored lines separated by dark regions.
Bright Line Spectra: gases at low temperature emit lines of colors.
Each line corresponds to a particular wavelength emitted by the atom.
If the Light is not White By heating a gas
with electricity we can get it to give off colors.
Passing this light through a prism produces the bright line spectrum
Bright line spectra
Atomic Spectrum Each element
gives off its own characteristic colors.
Can be used to identify the atom.
How we know what stars are made of.
Atomic fingerprints
• These are called discontinuous spectra
• Or line spectra
• Unique to each element.
• These are emission spectra
• The light is emitted given off.
Hydrogen spectrum Emission spectrum: these are the colors
hydrogen emits when excited by energy. Called a line spectrum. There are just a few discrete lines showing
in the visible spectrum
410 nm
434 nm
486 nm
656 nm
What this means Only certain energies are allowed for
the electrons in hydrogen atom. The atom can absorb or emit only
certain energies (packets-photons, quanta).
Use Planck’s: E = h= hc / Energy in the atom is quantized.
Bohr’s Model of the AtomBased on
Spectra of the atoms Rutherford’s nuclear atom Classical electrostatics (like charges
repulse, unlike charges attract) Planck’s Quantum Theory
Bohr’s Postulates1. Atoms consist of central nucleus.
2. Only certain circular orbits are allowed. Radius of orbit proportional to 1/n2
3. Electron in an orbit has a definite amount of energy. It is quantized. It is in a stationary state. Its energy is:
2n1
hRΔE
4. Energy of the electron at infinity (when it is totally removed from the atom) is equal to zero.
5. Energy is emitted or absorbed when electrons JUMP from orbit to orbit (lower to higher: energy is absorbed; higher to lower: energy is emitted). In- between stages are forbidden
ΔE > 0 , energy is absorbed ΔE < 0, energy is emitted
Bohr’s ModelIn
crea
sing
ene
rgy
Nucleus
First
Second
Third
Fourth
Fifth
} Further away
from the nucleus means more energy.
There is no “in between” energy
Energy Levels
Bohr’s Model – Equations
• Energy of electron in an orbit:
Difference of energy between two levels
21nh
RE
)2
12
1(
fnin
hRE
The Bohr Model
• n is the energy level• for each energy level the energy is defined by
an equationE = -2.178 x 10-18 J (Z2 / n2 )
• Z is the nuclear charge, which is +1 for hydrogen; Rh is Rydberg constant equal to 2.178 x 10-18 J .
• n = 1 is called the ground state• when the electron is removed, n = and • ΔE = 0 of the electron.
Energy for Electron Transitions
• When the electron moves from one energy level to another, the change in energy is:
E = Efinal - Einitial
E = -2.178 x 10-18 [Z2 (1/ nf2 - 1/ ni
2)],
Joules, but z =1. Therefore:
E = 2.178 x 10-18 ( 1/ ni2 - 1/ nf
2 ) Joules
Examples
Calculate the energy needed to move an electron from its ground state (n=1) to the third energy level.
Calculate the energy released when an electron moves from n= 5 to n=2 in a hydrogen atom.
Changing the energy Heat or electricity or light can move the electron up
energy levels. Energy is being absorbed
Changing the energy As the electron falls back to ground state it
gives the energy back as light. Energy is being emitted
Further the electrons fall, more energy, higher frequency.
This is simplified picture the orbitals also have different energies
inside energy levels (more about it later) All the electrons can move around.
Ultraviolet Visible Infrared
The Bohr Ring Atom Could not explain that only certain
energies were allowed. He called these allowed energies energy
levels. Putting Energy into the atom moved the
electron away from the nucleus. From ground state to excited state
(energy is absorbed). When it returns to ground state it gives off
light of a certain packet of energy.
The Bohr Model Doesn’t work. Only works for hydrogen atoms. Electrons don’t move in circles. The quantization of energy is right,
but not because they are circling like planets.
The Quantum Mechanical Model of the Atom
A totally new approach. De Broglie (1892-1987) said:
matter could be like a wave.Matter waves are standing waves.The vibrations of the wave are like
of a stringed instrument.
What’s possible? You can only have a standing wave if you
have complete waves. There are only certain allowed waves. In the atom there are certain allowed
waves called electrons. 1925 Erwin Schrödinger described the
wave function of the electron. Much math but what is important are the
solutions.
Things that are very small behave differently from things big enough to see.
The quantum mechanical model is a mathematical solution
It is not like anything you can see.
The Quantum Mechanical Model
The physics of the very small Quantum mechanics explains how the
very small behaves. Classic physics is what you get when you
add up the effects of millions of packages (Newtonian Physics).
Quantum mechanics is based on probability because we cannot see the particles and they are many of them moving randomly.
Has energy levels for electrons.
Orbits are not circular. They are not uniquely defined. There is no definite path for the motion of the electron.
The model predicts the probability of finding an electron a certain distance from the nucleus. The space is defined by the solution of Schrödinger equation.
Orbitals are found in energy levels.
The Quantum Mechanical Model
The atom is found inside a blurry “electron cloud”
A area where there is a chance of finding an electron.
Draw a line at 90 % probability
The Quantum Mechanical Model
Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle
It is impossible to know exactly the speed and velocity of a particle.
The better we know one, the less we know the other.
The act of measuring changes the properties.
Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle Introduces the Unknown Factor
To measure where a electron is, we use light.
But the light moves the electron And hitting the electron changes the
frequency of the light. Therefore we are never sure where the
electron is.
Duality of Matter and Light Light behaves as a wave (Young +
others) Light behaves as stream of particles
(Einstein) Matter behaves as a particle
(ancients + Newton) Matter behaves as waves (deBroglie)
What is light
Light is a particle - it comes in chunks. Light is a wave- we can measure its
wave length and it behaves as a wave If we combine E=mc2 , c=, E = 1/2
mv2 and E = h We can get = h/mv The wavelength of a particle.
Matter is a Wave Does not apply to large objects Things bigger that an atom
A baseball has a wavelength of about 10-32 m when moving 30 m/s. Too small to measure.
An electron at the same speed has a
wavelength of 10-3 cm Big enough to measure.
Schrödinger Equation Treats electrons as waves and particles. Solution of equation determine the
probable energy of the electron (energy level)
Solutions come in form of set of quantum numbers. Each set determines an orbital.
Orbital: the 90% probability space for finding a given electron.
Atomic Orbitals Wave function corresponding to a
particular set of three quantum numbers (n, l, and ml)
Within each energy level the complex math of Schrödinger's equation describes several shapes.
Regions where there is a high probability of finding an electron.
The Wave Mechanical Model of the Atom
The atom has two parts: A dense nucleus in which most of the mass is
concentrated Energy levels that contain orbitals in which
electrons are placed Each electron is described by four quantum
numbers: (n, l, m, s) The quantum numbers (n, l, m) are solutions of
Schrödinger equation The quantum number (s) added for the spin of
the electron.
Solutions of the Schrödinger Equation
The solution of Schrödinger equation yields three quantum numbers:
N, principal quantum number l, orbital quantum number ml, magnetic quantum number
Quantum Numbers: the Principal Quantum Number n
n, Principal quantum number
n values = 1, 2, 3,.. whole numbers Designates the radial distance of the
electron cloud and the probability where the electron can be found.
In plain language: it is the size of the electron cloud.
Orbital Quantum Number, l Orbital quantum number designated with letter l Also called sublevel Indicates the shape of the electron cloud Can have values of l = 0, 1, 2,….(n-1); When l = 0, called s-sublevel; l = 1, p-sublevel;
l=2, d-sublevel; l=3, f-sublevel Example: n=3, l = 0, 1, 2;
n = 2, l = 0 or 1; n=3, l can be 0 and 1 Each sublevel has different energy. Arranged by order of energy: least to most
Magnetic Quantum Number, ml
Designated with the letter ml
Determines the direction in space of the particular orbital.
Example: px, py, pz; orbitals line along the x, y, and z axis respectively
Values: ml = -l,…0…+l The orbitals are located in different parts of
the sublevel. Example: l=2; then ml = -2, -1, 0, +1, +2
1 s orbital for every energy level
Spherical shaped
Each s orbital can hold 2 electrons Called the 1s, 2s, 3s, etc.. orbitals.
S orbitals
P orbitals Start at the second energy level 3 different directions 3 different shapes Each can hold 2 electrons
Quantum Spin Number
Designated also by letter s. (Can be confusing)
Values +1/2 or -1/2 Each electron can spin clockwise and
counterclockwise.
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