Effects of UNICEF’s CASD Literacy Program on
Learners’ Income Generating Activities
-A Case Study of Bamboo Ware-Making
in A Rural Village in Takeo Province, Cambodia-
IDO Ayako
Doctoral Student (D1)
Graduate School of International Development,
Nagoya University
1 Introduction
1.1 Background
The eradication of illiteracy of women has been of international concern of critical
importance for quite some time. One of the six major worldwide goals set by the 1990
World Conference on Education for All (WCEFA) in Jomtien, Thailand was the
reduction of the adult illiteracy rate, especially for women. However, in 1998 there
were still 880 million illiterate adults (aged 15 years and over) in the world, two-thirds
of which were women (International Consultative Forum on Education for All, 2000).
Based on the Education for All Year 2000 Assessment, in the Dakar World Education
Forum in April 2000, a more concrete commitment “achieving a 50 % improvement in
levels of adult literacy by 2015, especially for women, and equitable access to basic and
continuing education for all adults” was reaffirmed by participants from 164 countries
(World Education Forum, 2000). The Millennium Development Goals adopted in
September 2000 at the United Nations Millennium Summit reinforced these two
previous international agreements by emphasizing “achievement of universal primary
education” and “elimination of gender disparity in primary and secondary education”
(United Nations, 2000). International trends that put more emphasis on poverty
alleviation since late 1990s prompted the eradication of illiteracy, particularly of women
in developing countries.
In Cambodia, gender disparities on literacy rates and educational attainment are great
and the situation is particularly acute among women in rural areas where 85% of the
population lives at present. In order to improve the situation, the Royal Government of
Cambodia (RGC) formulated a policy on literacy to increase literacy rate by 20% within
15 years from 2001 to 2015. This aims to ensure that non-formal education (NFE)
programs will contribute to poverty alleviation through the increase of functional
literacy and life skills among the disadvantaged group that forms 36% of the total
population (ACCU, 2003). This manifested that RGC intended to tackle problems of
illiteracy in order to respond to pressure from international community on poverty
reduction and EFA efforts. In Cambodia, except for Phnom Penh, Capital City, major
source of income is agriculture in which women assume a major role. However, in
recent years, growing numbers of people go to Phnom Penh to earn more stable and
higher income. Young women with literacy skills have higher chances to be employed
at garment factories in Phnom Penh where higher and more stable salaries can be
expected. Women living in rural areas support their living by engaging in craft making
or sales activities of agricultural products or food at markets nearby to supplement their
income from agriculture, whose amount is easily influenced by the weather. How does
literacy education lead to improvements in the lives of rural women?
Literacy education, which was initiated by the United Nations Children’s Fund
(UNICEF) under its five-year (1996-2000) community-based development program
called the Community Action for Social Development (CASD), was implemented in
Takeo province from 1998 till 2000 (Ky, Dorina, Sovannarith & McAndrew, 1999).
The CASD, which was composed of six inter-related components1, was operated in
eight provinces in Cambodia in cooperation with the Cambodian government (ibid.).
After the withdrawal of the UNICEF from Takeo, the Ministry of Education, Youth and
Sports (MoEYS) and Provincial Office of Education (POE) requested the Graduate
School of International Development (GSID) of Nagoya University to carry out baseline
surveys as well as literacy tests in 50 out of 103 CASD villages in Takeo. Apart from
group work of conducting baseline surveys and literacy tests, participants (graduate
students) of the survey were given individual assignment to do individual fieldwork and
write a report on one particular activity of interest that women of villages engage in after
they complete the CASD literacy program.
As part of an individual assignment, this paper attempts to explore effects of the
UNICEF’s CASD literacy program on a learners’ income generating activity with a
special focus on the case of bamboo ware-making, which is one of the most popular
income generating activities among rural Cambodian women in Seimar village in Takeo
province, Cambodia.
The remainder of this section provides a definition of literacy and methodology of this
research. Section 2 discusses the present conditions of Cambodian women regarding
education and income sources as a background for my field research. In Section 3, the
case study of bamboo ware-making as an income generating activity of rural Cambodian
women will be analysed, to examine the effects of CASD literacy program on a
learners’ income generating activity. Section 4 summarizes findings from this research
1 The six components of CASD were: 1)capacity building focused on women and youth, 2)communityeducation and child care, 3)food, water and environment, 4)health, hygiene and caring practices,5)protection and care of vulnerable children and women, and 6)credit, employment and income (Ky,Dorina, Sovannarith & McAndrew, 1999).
and includes some recommendations for future literacy programs which are linked with
income generating activities.
1.2 Definitions of Words
“Illiterate” and “literate” are used in this paper following the definitions provided by the
UNESCO/United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) (2000).
Illiterate: An illiterate is a person who cannot, with understanding, both read
and write a short, simple statement on his everyday life. A functional
illiterate is a person who cannot engage in all those activities in which literacy
is required for effective functioning of his group and community; and also for
enabling him to continue to use reading, writing and calculation for his own
and the community’s development.
Literate: A literate person can, with understanding both read and write, a short,
simple statement about everyday life. Functional literacy is a matter of
growing concern in a world where technological progress demands ever higher
levels of skills. Special measures are required to deal with this problem
which also depends on skills learned outside the school-informal education.
(UNESCO/UNDP, 2000: PP. 17-18)
1.3 Methodology
Both quantitative and qualitative data are utilized in this paper. Primary and secondary
data were collected from various sources. The quantitative data were collected by our
survey team from questionnaire surveys and literacy tests conducted under the
Nagoya–Takeo Rural Education Program (NT-REP). In addition, group interviews
carried out with female literacy learners in Seimar village in Takeo Province in
Cambodia and personal observations of the village were also used as primary sources
for this paper. Details of the field research in Seimar village for a case study are
summarized in Section 3.1. Official papers published by United Nations Educational,
Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO), UNDP, UNICEF, and Ministry of
Planning (MoP) of Cambodia were used to supplement the information on education
and income sources of Cambodian people. Based on the results of questionnaire
surveys and literacy tests, group interviews and observations, the effects of the
UNICEF’s CASD program on a learners’ income generating activity, particularly
bamboo ware-making in Seimar village were identified and presented.
2 Background Facts: Education and Income Sources of Cambodian
Women
This section provides brief background facts regarding education and income sources of
Cambodians with a particular focus on gender disparities for the analyses of effects of
UNICEF’s CASD literacy program on a learners’ income generating activity.
2.1 Education
2.1.1 Adult Literacy Rate
There are wide gender disparities in literacy rate in Cambodia. According to 1998
Census conducted by Cambodian government, the national adult literacy rate for those
aged 15 and over resulted low of 67.3% as shown in Table 1, being the second lowest
among seven neighbouring countries2. At the national level, female adult literacy rate
was extremely low of 57.0% while that of males was 79.5%. The situation became
worse in rural areas where adult literacy rate dropped to 54.3% for females and 77.6%
for males. The gender gap is smaller in urban areas with a difference of 17.5%
compared with that in rural areas with 23.3%, while the average difference between men
and women existing at 22.5%. These figures clearly show that the low female adult
literacy rate in rural areas is a critical problem in Cambodia.
2 The seven countries include Indonesia, Lao People’s Democratic Republic (PDR), Malaysia, Myanmar,Thailand, Viet Nam and Cambodia. Lao PDR had the lowest adult literacy rate among these sevencountries in 1995 (MoP, 2000a).
Table 1: Adult Literacy Rate for Population Aged 15 and over by Sex and
Residence (1998)
(%)Residence Both sexes Male Female Difference
Cambodia 67.3 79.5 57.0 22.5
Urban 79.1 88.3 70.8 17.5
Rural 64.9 77.6 54.3 23.3
Source: Final Census Results, National Institute of Statistics, 1999 cited in GeneralPopulation Census of Cambodia 1998-Analysis of Census Results Report 7-Literacy andEducation, Ministry of Planning, 2000a, P.7.
2.1.2 Educational Attainment
Educational attainment is also low in Cambodia. According to the Cambodia Socio-
Economic Survey 1999, nationally, 1.547 million persons (34.6%) aged 25 years and
over had not attended school as shown in Table 2 (MoP, 2000b). 1.128 million
persons, which amounts to 73% of the population that had no schooling, were females.
While in Phnom Penh, the proportion of persons with no schooling was lower at 16.5%,
rising to 36.9% in rural areas. At a national level, the proportion that had only a
primary education accounted for 40.9%. Though in Phnom Penh 50.6% of the
population had a secondary education, this figure remains less than 20% in the rural
areas.
Girls are under-represented at all levels of formal education in Cambodia as shown in
Table 3. School attendance for girls is lower than that of boys across every age group
regardless of urban or rural areas.
Table 2: Population Aged 25 Years and Over by Education Level and Stratum,
Cambodia 1999
Educational Attainment Cambodia PhnomPenh
OtherUrban
Rural
Both SexesNo Schooling (%) 34.6 16.5 34.0 36.9Primary Education/Grades 1-6 (%) 40.9 32.1 36.1 42.6Secondary Education and higher (%) 23.4 50.6 28.5 19.5Others (%) 1.0 0.7 1.4 1.0Total (%) 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0Population 25 years & above(persons)
4,470,573 433,514 469,160 3,567,898
MaleNo Schooling (%) 20.7 7.1 20.4 22.5Primary Education/Grades 1-6 (%) 43.4 26.9 37.5 46.3Secondary Education and higher (%) 34.1 65.1 40.3 29.4Others (%) 1.7 0.9 1.8 1.8Total (%) 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0Population 25 years & above(persons)
2,024,274 200,813 211,945 1,611,517
FemaleNo Schooling (%) 46.1 24.6 45.3 48.7Primary Education/Grades 1-6 (%) 14.6 38.2 18.6 11.3Secondary Education and higher (%) 38.9 36.6 35.0 39.6Others (%) 0.5 0.6 1.1 0.4Total (%) 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0Population 25 years & above(persons)
2,446,299 232,701 257,216 1,956,381
Source: Report on the Cambodia Socio-Economic Survey 1999, Ministry of Planning, 2000b,P.16.
Table 3: Percentage of Population Aged 7 and over Attending
School/Educational Institution by Sex, Age, and Residence
Percentage of Population Attending School/Educational Institution
Cambodia Urban RuralAge Group
Both Male Female Both Male Female Both Male Female
Ages 7+ 26.0 30.3 22.1 30.4 34.4 26.8 25.1 29.5 21.2
7-14 64.3 66.3 62.3 75.3 76.8 73.7 62.4 64.5 60.3
15-19 40.6 51.4 30.0 54.6 64.8 45.0 37.6 48.7 26.8
20-24 8.3 11.6 5.3 16.1 22.4 10.1 6.7 9.2 4.4
25+ 1.4 1.7 1.1 2.3 2.9 1.7 1.2 1.5 1.0
Sources: Final Census Results, National Institute of Statistics, 1999 cited in General PopulationCensus of Cambodia 1998-Analysis of Census Results Report 7-Literacy and Education,Ministry of Planning, 2000a, P29.
Such low rates of adult literacy and educational attainment can be attributed to unique
features of Cambodian history. Cambodia has experienced tragic violent conflict for
more than the past twenty-five years. During the years of the Khmer Rouge from
1975-79 Cambodia experienced not only genocide but state-sponsored destruction of its
economic, social, and human capital. People with higher levels of education were
targeted for execution and school systems were abolished during this time. Armed
conflicts and the aftermath also disrupted the education of many Cambodians,
particularly in the rural areas, so that a large number of Cambodians are illiterate and
have not received sufficient formal schooling.
2.2 Income Sources
2.2.1 Main Income Sources
According to the occupational distribution of the Cambodian labor force (for primary
occupation) by the Cambodia Socio-Economic Survey in 1999, it became evident that at
the national level, 74.0% of employed Cambodians were engaged in agriculture or
fishing, and the share of people in these occupations increased further in rural areas
where 82.0% of employed population worked in the fields (80.6% for males and 83.3%
for females).
Income sources and their importance in the CASD and World Food Programme (WFP)
villages were well documented in the report of the 1998 Joint UNICEF-WFP Baseline
Survey of CASD projects and WFP target areas which covered 124 villages in 13
provinces interviewing more than 1,200 households. The survey confirmed that rice
farming was the most important primary source of income (74%) followed by small
business (7%) and short time work (5%) in CASD villages as shown in Table 4. Craft
making, which will be examined in the case study in this paper, is also an important
primary source of income in CASD villages with same importance as animal raising,
fishing, and skilled labor. In summarizing, income sources of rural Cambodians are
diverse and complex having both secondary and tertiary sources, but rice farming is the
most important income source in the surveyed CASD villages.
Table 4: Income Sources by Importance
Primary source Secondary source Tertiary sourceCASD WFP CASD WFP CASD WFP
Farming 74% 71% 6% 12% 3% 4%Small business 7% 6% 20% 16% 13% 14%Short time work 5% 6% 13% 13% 9% 9%Salaried work 3% 3% 7% 3% 4% 3%Animal raising 2% 2% 12% 13% 31% 34%Fishing 2% 2% 8% 9% 9% 11%Crafts 2% 2% 5% 5% 3% 5%Skilled labor 2% 3% 4% 3% 2% 2%Log cutting 1% 3% 10% 14% 3% 6%Chamkar 1% 1% 6% 3% 10% 5%Sugar palm 1% 2% 4% 7% 2% 3%Charcoal 1% 0 1% 0 1% 0Hunting 0 0 1% 1% 1% 0Borrowing 0 1% 3% 0 11% 4%
Note: The order of importance of income sources by activities are ranked by primary incomesource prevalence.Source: Report on the Cambodian 1998 Joint UNICEF-WFP Baseline Survey of CASD Projectand WFP Target Areas, UNICEF, WFP & MoP, 1998, P.62.
2.2.2 Income Generating Activities and Gender
The results of the 1998 Joint UNICEF-WFP Baseline Survey show that the division of
labor between male and female regarding income generating activities in the CASD
villages as summarized in Table 5. The survey results revealed gender specific
activities; for example, hunting is done by men only. Activities such as fishing, log
cutting, skilled labor, salaried work, sugar palm tend to be assumed by men, whereas
women are likely to engage in small business, animal raising and craft making. The
results suggest that women tend to be involved in the activities which can be done
without travelling far from home as they have other responsibilities at home such as
doing housework and taking care of their children.
Table 5: Income Generating Activities and Division of Labor (CASD Villages)
Both sexes Men Women
Activity % onlyconducted
by both
% totalboth
activity
% onlyconducted
by men
% totalmale
activity
% onlyconducted
bywomen
% totalfemaleactivity
Hunting 0 0 100 2 0 0Fishing 6 1 90 15 5 2Log cutting 8 1 90 13 1 <1Skilled labor 5 <1 90 7 5 1Salaried work 10 1 86 12 4 1Sugar palm 16 1 81 5 3 <1Short time work 15 3 79 21 7 3Charcoal 31 1 62 2 8 <1Small business 17 5 29 11 54 39Chamkar 68 7 28 4 4 1Crafts 46 3 25 2 29 5Animal raising 46 11 6 2 49 33Borrowing 68 5 4 <1 28 6Farming 92 63 3 3 5 9
Source: Report on the Cambodian 1998 Joint UNICEF-WFP Baseline Survey of CASD Projectand WFP Target Areas, UNICEF, WFP & MoP, 1998, P.65.
3 A Case Study: Effects of UNICEF’s CASD Literacy Program onLearners’ Bamboo Ware-Making in Seimar Village, Takeo Province,Cambodia
3.1 Methodology of Field Research
3.1.1 Village Selection
Out of 103 villages covered by UNICEF’s CASD program in Takeo Province, 50
villages in seven communes in two districts (Tramkak and Daunkeo) were covered by
the questionnaire surveys and literacy tests carried out by GSID, Nagoya University
together with its academic partners at the Royal University of Phnom Penh (RUPP) for
NT-REP from July 21 to August 10, 2001. The survey team was composed of
professors, graduate students of GSID and RUPP, and representatives from Takeo’s
POE. They were divided into five groups with each group (3-4 persons) visiting ten
villages in total. Apart from conducting the questionnaire surveys and literacy tests as
a group work, participants (graduate student) were given an individual assignment to
write a report on one particular activity of interest in the CASD villages visited that
women engage in after they complete the literacy program. Among the ten villages
surveyed, one village called, Seimar, attracted personal attention for a case study
because there were many women to be found making bamboo goods everywhere.
While walking around in the village, I learned that this was a self-organized income-
generating activity of the village women in which all learners of CASD program were
involved. Thus, I became interested to understand the effects of the UNICEF’s literacy
program on learners involved in bamboo ware-making.
3.1.2 Data Collection
Questionnaire surveys and literacy tests in 50 UNICEF’s CASD villages, as well as
group interviews with literacy learners and personal observations in the Seimar village
were primary sources for the information presented in this paper. Three different types
of questionnaire surveys were conducted with literacy learners, literacy teacher and
village head/Village Development Committee (VDC) in these 50 villages. In addition,
a 20-question literacy tests developed by UNESCO/UNDP was utilized in the present
survey. For my individual assignment, in the Seimar village group interviews were
carried out twice for about one hour each on different days during the survey period.
Due to time constraints, Seimar village was visited only twice. However, personal
experiences with field research in rural villages in southern Cambodia, including the
Takeo province amounting to six months in total from 2000 to 2002 as a development
consultant and a graduate student, provided precious knowledge in understanding
Cambodians as well as the villagers’ lives in the rural areas, supplemented this
limitation to some extent. Data from 49 villages (including Seimar village) that
included 662 respondents (582 females and 80 males) for the learners’ questionnaire
surveys and literacy tests and 49 respondents each for teachers’ and village head/VDCs’
questionnaire surveys were available for final analysis.
3.2 The Profile of the Research Site3
Seimar village of Tram Kak District is situated in the eastern part of Takeo Province.
The total population of the village was 668 with 316 males and 352 females when the
survey was conducted. The total number of households in the village was 128.
Although the number of illiterates was 35 persons (30 females) when the CASD literacy
program started in the village in 1998, it was reduced to 15 persons (14 females) within
three years.
The main source of income for the villagers was rice farming. Women were engaged
in rice farming and for earning additional income in making bamboo ware. There were
20 seasonal migrants to work in Phnom Penh, which is 75 km from the village.
Except for VDC, there were no other village organizations in the village.
3.3 General Characteristics of the Respondents
Literacy classes under UNICEF’s CASD program have been offered three terms so far
in Seimar village. Each term with ten registered learners, lasted seven months, six
months, and one month by the time our survey team visited the village. A
questionnaire survey and literacy tests for learners were carried out with ten learners of
the third term. All learners but one were female. The average age of learners was
3 A personal interview with village head and other villagers in Seimar village in July, 2001.
27.3 years old ranging from 19 to 44 years old. Four of the learners were married and
the rest were single. Except for two housewives, the rest were all farmers. All
literacy learners, except one male learner, were engaged in bamboo ware-making.
Regarding group interviews, I interviewed approximately ten previous learners from the
first two terms and the nine learners from the third term.
The literacy teacher in the Seimar village was a 52 year-old male deputy village chief.
According to the literacy teacher, he was assigned as a literacy teacher as he had more
education than the others. He had received a 30-days pre-service training which was
provided by the CASD program, but he did not have any additional teaching
experiences elsewhere.
3.4 Results of Literacy Tests and Questionnaire Survey for Learners in
Seimar Village
3.4.1 Results of Literacy Tests
As shown in Table 6, the mean score of literacy test in the Seimar village was not so
high, ranking 29th among 49 surveyed villages, though the mean scores in each four
skill areas (reading, writing, numeracy, and life skills) of the learners in Seimar village
all exceeded those of 49 villages. Furthermore, if the mean scores for each four skill
areas of the Seimar village are examined in detail, it became clear that they ranked quite
high among the 49 villages: ranking 8th in reading, 7th in writing, 12th in numeracy,
and 15th in life skills.
Table 6: Literacy Test Results of Learners in 49 CASD Villages in Takeo
Province (2001)
Literacy Test Scores in Four Skill AreasNo. Village Code Village Name Total
Reading skill Writing skill Numeracy Life skills1 2401 Angk Neareay 77.0 13.3 5.5 15.0 31.32 2304 Ang Korkir 74.7 11.7 4.3 10.7 21.93 2504 Prey Ta Lei 74.6 11.3 5.0 9.9 21.44 2305 Kngok Pong 71.9 10.0 5.8 11.7 15.75 2407 Trapaing Kur 71.5 13.9 5.4 12.5 25.26 2203 Samraong 68.1 7.9 6.1 11.5 14.57 2201 Trapaing Ta Saum 67.6 8.2 3.6 8.8 13.08 2206 Prey Rumdoul 65.7 11.1 5.1 9.4 18.79 1101 Trapaing Leak 65.1 10.5 5.5 13.5 24.510 2410 Thnung Roling 63.0 6.8 2.0 3.0 3.011 2302 Champul 62.8 7.4 3.8 11.5 18.412 2103 Toul Tbeng 62.5 8.5 6.6 4.3 25.213 2408 Boeng 61.0 10.4 4.3 12.3 21.614 2107 Moeung Char 60.8 8.9 5.8 12.9 28.715 2101 Sre Kruo 57.3 7.5 5.2 9.9 28.016 2301 Prey Chuo 57.2 13.4 7.9 14.0 27.117 1105 Thun Mun Tboung 57.1 10.6 4.5 11.2 24.418 1202 Prohut 54.0 11.1 4.3 10.4 15.019 2406 Ampil 53.3 8.0 3.6 7.9 19.120 2104 Ta Toem 50.8 8.6 6.6 14.0 31.521 2102 Totueng Thngai 50.6 10.7 4.0 10.6 24.222 2108 Typat 49.5 13.5 6.6 14.0 33.523 1206 Tom 48.6 5.0 5.4 7.1 11.024 1102 Svay Chrum 48.5 12.8 7.1 12.4 35.925 2405 Sla 48.5 7.1 3.3 9.6 16.126 1103 Chroy Brorkhor 47.6 9.5 3.8 12.2 21.827 2205 Prey Kdai 47.4 10.1 6.1 14.7 34.628 2404 Ang Ta Nu 46.1 10.3 6.8 13.5 26.629 2403 Seimar 45.0 13.5 7.6 13.9 27.830 1205 Sochan 44.6 8.8 3.4 8.4 19.831 1201 Thmey 44.3 15.2 7.8 18.5 33.132 1104 Svay Rusei 43.2 16.2 7.0 11.4 37.333 2411 Ang Korkir 41.7 8.0 3.4 7.8 12.234 1204 Prech 41.2 14.3 8.1 17.2 37.435 2502 Pour Dos 40.9 6.6 3.9 8.6 8.636 2105 Toul Rokar 40.8 11.3 4.4 8.6 20.837 2303 Trapaing Kok 40.4 9.3 4.2 10.6 22.038 1106 Chroy Samroang 40.0 9.5 3.9 12.9 22.239 2106 Ang Kralanh 38.5 12.6 5.1 13.2 22.540 2204 Trapaing Koh 36.2 13.9 7.9 14.8 34.841 2412 Prey Theat 34.4 11.3 5.6 15.7 28.442 1107 Khan Khav 33.6 5.6 3.7 7.4 15.043 2409 Trapaing Ping 31.8 11.1 7.7 14.5 29.844 2306 Trapaing Pring 31.4 9.1 3.5 10.2 18.945 2202 Trapaing Thnaut 28.5 7.4 4.9 11.1 10.946 2402 Kach Trak 27.6 4.9 2.0 4.3 3.847 2503 Prey Sbart 17.6 8.6 4.4 11.1 16.848 2501 Peak Bang Aung 15.1 3.9 2.4 2.1 9.149 1203 Ben Mao 14.8 15.2 8.2 20.3 30.9
Mean Score 48.8 10.1 5.2 11.2 22.3
Note: N=662Source: Literacy tests carried out by Nagoya University and Royal University of Phnom Penh inJuly-August, 2001.
3.4.2 Results of Questionnaire Survey: Effects of Literacy Education and
Useful Vocational Skills
(1) Skills/knowledge Learned from CASD Literacy Class
According to the questionnaire survey carried out with the ten most recent literacy
learners in Seimar village, the skills/knowledge most learned included topics as: how to
prevent diseases (9/10 persons), reading, writing and numeracy (8/10 persons), and
animal raising (8/10 persons) as shown in Figure 1.
Skills/knowledge learned from CASD Literacy Class
84
79
7 84
24
7
0
5
10
Readin
g,writ
ing an
d num
eracy
Impo
rtanc
e of w
orkin
g in t
he gr
oup
Nutriti
on
How to
prev
ent d
iseas
es
Hygien
ic liv
ing
Animal
raisin
g
Fishing
Fertili
zer u
sing
Parenti
ng
House
hold
manag
emen
t
Skills/knowledge
Number of persons
Source: A questionnaire survey carried out by Nagoya University and Royal University ofPhnom Penh in July-August, 2001.
Figure 1: Skills/knowledge Learned from CASD Literacy Class
(2) Changes Brought About for Learners by Participating in a CASD Literacy
Class
Positive effects of literacy classes were observed among learners who participated in
them. Village head mentioned in his interview that after acquiring literacy skills, more
women started to find jobs as garment factory workers, or to be engaged in bamboo
ware-making or other small business such as water jar making. Furthermore, the
literacy teacher pointed out changes in the learners’ attitude. They started to listen to
what other people say more carefully and their abilities to express their opinions
improved so that conflicts with other family members or neighbours lessened. In
addition, the village head felt that more active participation was expected from literacy
learners than before in communal meetings and activities.
(3) Useful Vocational Skills
The questionnaire survey revealed useful vocational skills that learners in Seimar village
wanted to acquire. Starting a business was mentioned by nine out of ten learners,
though detailed skills necessary for starting a business were not mentioned. Villagers
appeared to believe they could make more money by starting their own business
followed by: Raising animals (8/10 persons), handcrafting (7/10 persons), weaving
skills (7/10 persons), cooking (7/10 persons), and foreign language (7/10 persons).
The results suggest that to meet the demands of literacy learners, knowledge and skills
related to such income generating activities as animal raising, handcrafting and weaving
should be incorporated in the curriculum of literacy classes.
What kind of vocational skills do you want to learn?
5 5 6
1
8
1 1 2
79
7 75
1
7
0
5
10
Farming(paddy)
Farming(grain)
Farming vegetables/fruits
Fishing
Raising animals
Forestry
Others
Fixing machine
Handcrafting
Starting business
Weaving skills
Cooking
Sewing
Accountancy
Foreign language
Vocational skills
Num
ber of persons
Source: A questionnaire survey carried out by Nagoya University and Royal University ofPhnom Penh in July-August, 2001.
Figure 2: Vocational skills learners want to learn
3.5 Bamboo Ware-Making as an Income Generating Activity by Women
A main income generating activity of women in Seimar village is bamboo ware-making.
According to the group interviews with female literacy learners, almost all women in the
village (including the nine present and all former learners of CASD literacy classes),
who are old enough to make bamboo ware and have extra time are engaged in bamboo
ware-making. The details of bamboo ware-making of women in Seimar village are
summarized below.
3.5.1 Procurement of Raw Materials
Women in Seimar village purchase bamboo rods from a seller who comes to sell them in
the village. Each woman purchases 20 to 30 bamboo rods every month. The rods are
approximately four meters long with a diameter of three centimeters on average. Each
rod costs 300 to 800 Riels4 depending on the length and the thickness.
3.5.2 Bamboo Ware-Making
(1) Product Development
Every year, five to six new products such as vases, fruit baskets, ornaments are designed
in the Seimar village. They vary in size, shape, and purpose of usage. There are no
systematic product development methods in this village. For designing new products,
televisions often play an important role in giving the women hints for new ideas.
When women find good designs of crafts or anything useful in their daily lives on
television, they make new products imitating the ones they saw on television. Since
they are living far away from Phnom Penh, televisions are a vital source of information
to develop ideas for new product development.
4 1 US$=3,835 Riels (July, 2001)
In total, there were about 30 different designs of bamboo products being made in the
entire village during the visit of the survey team. Each woman makes about five
designed products. It normally takes about two hours to make one big vase (8cm x
20cm), and about 30 minutes for a small vase (5cm x 10cm). Normally, each person
produces about six to seven products per day, with approximately 20 bamboo goods
being produced out of one bamboo rod.
Prices of the products vary. They range from 500 to 1,000 Riels depending on the size
and the intricate nature of the work.
(2) Number of Bamboo Ware Producers
All women who are old enough to make bamboo goods, and who have extra time, are
engaged in bamboo ware-making in Seimar village. This represented at least one
woman from every household, for total of more than 100 women, who were involved in
bamboo ware-making in this village. The 15 previous learners of CASD literacy
classes and the 9 learners in the class at the time of this research were found to be
producers of bamboo ware.
(3) Average Hours of Working
According to the group interviews with female literacy learners, the average hours
worked depend on the season and are as follows:
• Rainy season: 5 hours/day• Dry season: 7 to 8 hours/day
Female producers try to find time to make bamboo products between 7:00 A.M. and 12
A.M. Although they appeared very busy doing housework, taking care of their
children, and making bamboo ware, it was very impressive to see women manage their
time efficiently to generate additional income.
(4) Skill Transfer
Bamboo ware-making skills were handed down from generation to generation (e.g. from
mothers to their daughters) and were transferred among village women, and those skills
were not brought into the village by aid projects of external agencies. There were no
villages that were producing bamboo products nearby.
When someone develops a new design, it will be introduced to other women. Thus, a
new design and skills are disseminated among the village women by themselves. In
this regard, CASD literacy classes are conducive to strengthening such social capital as
networks, personal relationships, and polite attitudes. As the village head and the
literacy teacher of Seimar village commented, friendships between learners had
developed and learners’ attitude towards others became more polite through CASD
literacy classes, which are the bases for expanding networks not only among learners
but also with other village women who are engaged in bamboo ware-making.
3.5.3 Selling the Finished Products
There is a simple distribution system of the finished products in Seimar village. When
a certain volume of bamboo ware is completed by each female producer, she will bring
them to one of ten sales persons in the village. The people handling sales are also all
women, but producers and sales persons are different persons. Some literacy learners
are sales persons.
These ten sales persons go to Phnom Penh three to four times a month by bus to sell
bamboo ware they received from female producers in Seimar village. They visit every
market and shop in Phnom Penh to sell those products, normally staying in Phnom Penh
for two to three days.
The transportation cost for going to Phnom Penh amounts to 10,000 Riel (about US$2.6)
per person for a round trip. In addition, sales persons need to pay accommodation fees
in Phnom Penh.
Although sales persons did not want to reveal the exact profit they received from sales
as it was a secret among themselves, some women implied that it would be about 10%
of the total sales amount.
Literacy learners commented that numeracy they acquired from a literacy class was
extremely useful when sales persons sold the finished products in markets and shops in
Phnom Penh and when profits were shared among producers and sales persons.
Besides, some sales persons mentioned that after they acquired numeracy, they felt more
confident in negotiating with customers on price of their products. Not only numeracy,
but other effects were brought about by literacy classes as well. One woman pointed
out that her decisiveness had been enhanced as she obtained more knowledge and
information about her society and everyday life by attending literacy classes, which
formed the bases for her judgement.
3.5.4 Income Generation
Average monthly income from bamboo ware-making was 30,000 to 40,000 Riels
(US$7.82-US$10.43) per producer, which is relatively a good additional income for
female producers. In comparison, a monthly salary of a public school teacher is
approximately US$20.00 in Cambodia.
4 Conclusions
4.1 Summary of Findings
The present survey revealed that literacy skills learners acquired through CASD literacy
program were bringing about positive effects to learners. Two issues can be
highlighted as having significant effects from the UNICEF’s CASD literacy program on
a learners’ income generating activity through a case study of bamboo ware-making in
the Seimar village.
First, as the Seimar village case demonstrated, literacy, and numeracy in particular, was
conducive to women’s bamboo ware-making. Numeracy is indispensable not only
when selling finished products in the markets and shops in Phnom Penh and buying raw
materials from bamboo rods sellers, but also in sharing profits gained from selling the
finished products among women involved with bamboo ware-making within the village.
In addition, decisiveness can be enhanced by attending literacy classes since learners
can obtain more knowledge and information about their society and daily lives, which
formed the bases for judgement.
Second, acquiring literacy leads to women’s empowerment. Women who acquired
literacy and were engaged in bamboo ware making and selling felt that their positions in
their families had been enhanced by getting additional income to their families.
Furthermore, while sales persons commented that they thought they were more capable
to negotiate the price of products with customers, the producers said they were happy to
learn about their capabilities to earn money in exchange with their labor they enjoy,
which helped them build their self-confidence. Almost all women interviewed replied
that they enjoyed making bamboo products in collaboration with other female friends.
Close collaboration among women must be one of the reasons for the success of their
income generating activity. It can be said that CASD literacy classes are conducive to
strengthening such social capital as networks, personal relationships, and polite
attitudes. The Seimar village case illustrated that through CASD literacy classes,
learners not only acquired literacy, but also improved their communication skills by
acquiring polite attitudes towards other people and developed friendships between
learners, which are the bases for expanding networks among literacy learners as well as
with other village women.
Bamboo ware-making in Seimar village has been a self-sustainable activity, which has
succeeded from generation to generation without intervention by external aid agencies.
The CASD literacy program assumes a role to provide illiterates with a chance to
acquire literacy and to be empowered building self-confidence and forming social
capital in order to fully participate in their income generating activity.
4.2 Recommendations
1) Results of the present survey identified vocational skills learners in Seimar village
wished to acquire. The most popular skills learners listed were: starting business,
animal raising, handcraft making, and weaving, while the top three skills/knowledge
learners actually learned from literacy classes were: how to prevent diseases, reading,
writing and numeracy, and animal raising. It is recommended that more vocation-
related knowledge and skills are incorporated in the course curriculum of literacy
classes to meet the specific needs of the learners. In addition, in-service training of
literacy teachers needs to be provided in order to further strengthen the capabilities of
those teaching literacy to meet demands of learners. Such in-service training will
provide good opportunities for literacy teachers to exchange information regarding
teaching methods and best practices in other villages.
2) In order to promote income generating activities, product development ability and
marketing need to be strengthened. More systematic mechanism for developing new
products is indispensable since producers develop new products if they come across
attractive product designs by chance on television at present. It is suggested that not
only sales person, but also several producers go to Phnom Penh regularly to check what
kind of products are in demand as references for developing new products. Since
women in Seimar village can allocate five to eight hours per day for bamboo ware-
making, if they find some products that they can make and that can be sold with higher
price, they can earn more additional income. Furthermore, distribution channels of
products need to be established. Sales persons of the Seimar village visit every market
and shop in Phnom Penh to sell their products now. Working more closely with the
shops which buy their products either on a regular basis or with contracts, and also
provisions of market information by those shops to producers, will stabilize their sales
amount and expand their income generating activity.
References
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Ministry of Planning (MoP). 2000a. General Population Census of Cambodia 1998-Analysis of Census Results Report 7-Literacy and Education. Cambodia:Ministry of Planning.
Ministry of Planning (MoP). 2000b. Report on the Cambodia Socio-Economic Survey1999. Cambodia: Ministry of Planning.
The Asia/Pacific Cultural Centre for UNESCO (ACCU). 2003. National LiteracyPolicies-Cambodia. The Asia/Pacific Cultural Centre for UNESCO.Retrieved on December 5, 2003 fromhttp://www.accu.or.jp/litdbase/policy/khm/index.htm
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World Education Forum. 2000. The Dakar Framework for Action-Education for All:Meeting our Collective Commitments. April 28, 2000. Dakar, Senegal.
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