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1.2 Network standards
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Organization that set the standards for network:-
a. American National Standards Institute (ANSI)
b. Electronic Industries Alliance (EIA) andTelecommunications Industry Association (TIA)
c. Institute of Electrical and Electronic Engineers (IEEE)
d. International Organization for Standardization (ISO)e. International Telecommunication Union (ITU)
f. Internet Society (ISOC)
g. Internet Assigned Numbers Authority (IANA) andInternet Corporation for Assigned Names andNumbers (ICANN)
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Networking Standards Organizations
Standards are documented agreements containing
technical specifications
ANSI(American National Standards Institute) is anorganization composed of more than a thousandrepresentatives from industry and government who
together determine standards for the electronics industry
and other fields, such as chemical and nuclear
engineering, health and safety, and construction
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Networking Standards Organizations
(continued)
ANSIalso represents the United States in settinginternational standards
EIA (Electronic Industries Alliance) is a trade organizationcomposed of representatives from electronics
manufacturing firms across the United States
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Networking Standards Organizations
(continued)
TIA (Telecommunications Industry Association) Focuseson standards for information technology, wireless,satellite, fiber optics, and telephone equipment
TIA/EIA alliance are its guidelines for how network cable
should be installed in commercial buildings, known as the
TIA/EIA 568-B Series.
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IEEE(Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers), orI-triple-E, is an international society composed of
engineering professionals
IEEEgoals are to promote development and education in
the electrical engineering and computer science fields
Networking Standards Organizations
(continued)
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ISO (International Organization for Standardization),
headquartered in Geneva, Switzerland, is a collection of
standards and organizations representing 148 countries
ISOs goal is to establish international technological
standards to facilitate global exchange of information and
barrier-free trade
Networking Standards Organizations
(continued)
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The ITU(International Telecommunication Union) is aspecialized United Nations agency that regulatesinternational telecommunications, including radio and TVfrequencies, satellite and telephony specifications,
networking infrastructure, and tariffs applied to globalcommunications
Networking Standards Organizations
(continued)
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Networking Standards Organizations
(continued)
IAB (Internet Architecture Board) is a technical advisorygroup of researchers and technical professionals
interested in overseeing the Internets design and
management
IETF(Internet Engineering Task Force), the organizationthat sets standards for how systems communicate over
the Internetin particular, how protocols operate andinteract
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Networking Standards Organizations
(continued) IANA and ICANN
Every computer / host on a network must have a unique
address
Internet Assigned Numbers Authority (IANA) kept records of
available and reserved IP addresses and determined howaddresses were issued out
Internet Corporation for Assigned Names and Numbers(ICANN), a private, nonprofit corporation and is now
ultimately responsible for IP addressing and domain name
management
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1.3 Principles ofcommunication in
networking
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Principles of communication in
networking Source
Channel
Destinations
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SOURCE, CHANNEL & DESTINATION
Source - Sources are objects which encode message/data and transmit the information, via a channel, toone or more receiver. (adalah objek yang encode mesej / data dan menyampaikanmaklumat tersebut, melalui saluran, untuk satu atau lebih penerima)
Channel - refers either to a physical transmission
medium such as a wire, or to a logical connectionover a multiplexed medium such as a radio channel.
Destination - the receiving end of a communicationchannel. It receives decoded messages/informationfrom the sender, who first encoded them. (penerima terakhirdari sebuah saluran komunikasi. Ia menerima decode mesej / maklumat dari penghantar)
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SOURCE, CHANNEL & DESTINATIONCont
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Rules of communication
a. Establish a link
b. Issue a command and command qualifierc. Acknowledgment of command
d. Dissection messagese. Error detection and correction
f. Termination of transmission
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RULES of COMMUNICATION
For two computer-based devices to communicate with oneanother, even at the lowest level, a number of rule must be
satisfied.
A Point to Point Link
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(I) Establish a link
Device 1 checks to see if Device 2 is present on thelink by sending a specific "enquiry" message.
If the link is active and device 2 is active then itshould respond by sending back an"acknowledgement" message. (Jika link tersebut aktif dan peranti 2 jugaaktif maka ia akan memberi maklum balas dengan menghantar mesej ACK)
Device 1 must track the time that device 2 takes torespond. (peranti 1 perlu menjejaki masa yang diperlukan untuk peranti 2 memberi maklumbalas)
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(I) Establish a link
If device 2 does not respond within a time interval(defined by the protocol) then device 1 assumes that
the link is not active. This is called a transmission"time-out" error. (Jika peranti 2 tidak memberi maklumbalas dalam selang waktu(ditentukan oleh protokol), maka peranti 1 menganggap bahawa link sudah tidak aktif. Ini disebuttransmisi "time-out" error.)
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(II) Issues a command and command qualifier
Device 1 sends device 2 a message, in a predefinedformat, which tells device 2 that a file is to be
transferred. (peranti 1 akan menghantar mesej ke peranti 2 mengikut format dimana ia akanmemberitahu peranti 2 bahawa fail akan dihantar)
device 1 tells device 2 what to do with the file. For
example, device 1 may tell device 2 to place theincoming file onto disk storage, with the file-name"FRED". (peranti 1 akan memberitahu peranti 2 apa yang harus dilakukan dengan fail tersebut.Sebagai contoh, peranti 1 akan memberitahu peranti 2 untuk menyimpan file yang dihantar ke dalam
cakera simpanan, dengan nama-fail "FRED".)
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(III) Acknowledgment of command
If device 2 has correctly received the command andqualifier from device 1, and is capable of carrying out
the command, then it sends device 1 anacknowledgement message. (Jika peranti 2 telah menerima perintah dari
peranti 1, dan mampu melaksanakan perintah tersebut, maka akan ia akan menghantar ACK)
The acknowledgement message tells device 1 that itcan now proceed with further action needed to fulfillthe command. (ACK memberitahu peranti 1 bahawa sekarang ia boleh meneruskantindakan yang selanjutnya bagi memenuhi perintah)
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Acknowledgment of commandCont
If device 2 is unable to act upon the command fromdevice 1, then it must respond with an error
message. (Jika peranti 2 tidak boleh bertindak atas arahan dari peranti 1, maka ia harusmemberi maklumbalas dengan mesej ralat(negarif acknowledgment))
An error could occur on the receiver, for example,
the disk on which the incoming file is to be stored, isalready full. The error response message would telldevice 1 that it should not proceed with its proposed
course of action.(Kesalahan biasa terjadi pada penerima, contohnya, cakera tempat fail
yang akan disimpan, sudah penuh. Mesej kesalahan tersebut akan memberitahu peranti 1 agar tidakmeneruskan tindakan/proses)
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(IV) Dissection messages
All messages, command and otherwise, must bebroken down into packets of manageable size for
transmission. (Semua mesej, perintah dan sebaliknya, perlu dipecah menjadi pakej-pakej saizyang mudah untuk dikendalikan bagi penghantaran)
Thus if an error should occur in a packet, then only
that packet needs to be re-transmitted (and not theentire message). (jika berlaku ralat, hanya paket itu sahaja yang perlu dihantar semula)
Therefore, when device 1 wishes to transfer a largefile to device 2, the file is broken up into packets and
transmitted packet by packet. (Oleh kerana itu, apabila peranti 1 inginmemindahkan fail besar ke peranti 2, fail dipecah menjadi paket-paket dan di hantar paket demi paket)
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(V) Error detection and Correction
When device 1 sends a message packet to device 2, itperforms a mathematical calculation (manipulation)
on every unit of data transmitted. (Apabila peranti 1 menghantar paketmesej ke peranti 2, ia melakukan pengiraan matematik (manipulasi) pada setiap unit data yang dihantar)
This calculation is transmitted to device 2
immediately after the message. (Pengiraan ini akan dihantar ke peranti 2selepas mesej)
Device 2 performs exactly the same mathematical
calculation on its incoming data as device 1. (peranti 2melakukan pengiraan matematik pada data yang masuk sama seperti yang dilakukan oleh peranti 1 padadata tersebut)
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(V) Error detection and Correction
Device 2 also reads in the calculation sent by device 1and compares it with the local calculation. (peranti 2 jugamembaca pengiraan yang dihantar oleh peranti 1 dan membandingkannya dengan pengiraan yang telahdibuat)
If the two calculations provide an identical result,then it is assumed that the incoming message wasnot corrupted on the link. (Jika dua pengiraan memberikan hasil yang sama,maka diandaikan bahawa mesej yang masuk tidak rosak pada link)
Device 2 can then issue a positive acknowledgement
to device 1 to indicate that it is ready for the nextmessage. (peranti 2 kemudiannya boleh mengeluarkan pengakuan positif(ACK) kepada peranti 1untuk menunjukkan bahawa ia bersedia untuk menerima mesej seterusnya)
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Error detection and CorrectionCont
If the two calculations are inconsistent, then itis assumed that incoming data has beencorrupted, and device 2 issues a "negativeacknowledgement" message to device 1,which indicates that the previous datamessage must be re-transmitted. (Jika dua pengiraan yangtidak konsisten, maka dianggap bahawa data yang masuk telah rosak, dan peranti 2 akan mengeluarkan
pengakuan "negatif" ke peranti 1, yang menunjukkan bahawa mesej data tersebut perlu dihantar semula)
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(VI) Termination of transmission
Device 1 transmits a file, piece-wise, ensuring thateach packet is correctly received by device 2, using
the technique described in (v). (peranti 1 akan menghantar file dalampecahan paket dan memastikan paket2 tersebut diterima oleh peranti 2 dengan betul denganmenggunakan kaedah (V))
After the last piece of the file is transmitted to device2 and positively acknowledged, then device 1 mustterminate the transmission. (Setelah bahagian terakhir dari fail telah dihantarke peranti 2 dan ACK positif diakui, maka peranti 1 harus berhenti penghantaran)
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(VI) Termination of transmission
Device 1 sends an "end of transmission message to
device 2. (peranti 1 menghantar penamatan penghantaran" mesej ke peranti 2)
This allows device 2 to close the stored file andreturn to other duties. (ini membolehkan peranti 2 untuk memberhentikan proses
penyimpanan data dan meneruskan dengan tugas yang lain)
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File Transfer Sequence under Typical Protocol
Terminologies in Relation to
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Terminologies in Relation to
Communication in Networking:
a. Message Encoding
b. Message Formatting
c. Message Size
d. Message Timing
e. Message Patterns
TERMINOLOGIES
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TERMINOLOGIES
There are several terminologies in relation to
communication in networking:
(I) M E di
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(I) Message Encoding
INTRODUCTION TO NETWORKINTRODUCTION TO NETWORKINTRODUCTION TO NETWORKINTRODUCTION TO NETWORK
Encoding occurs in computer communication. Encoding
between hosts must be in an appropriate form for the
medium.(Encoding terjadi dalam komunikasi komputer. Encoding antara host
perlu dalam bentuk yang tepat/sesuai untuk medium)
Messages sent across the network are first converted
into bits by the sending host. Each bit is encoded into apattern of sounds, light waves, or electrical impulses
depending on the network media over which the bits
are transmitted. (Mesej yang dihantar di seluruh rangkaian terlebih dahuluditukarkan kepada bit oleh penghantar. Setiap bit akan dikodekan menjadi pola suara,gelombang cahaya, atau impuls elektrik bergantung pada media rangkaian di mana bit
dihantar)
M E di C t
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Message EncodingCont
INTRODUCTION TO NETWORKINTRODUCTION TO NETWORKINTRODUCTION TO NETWORKINTRODUCTION TO NETWORK
The destination host receives and decodes the signals in order to interpret the
message. (penerima akan menerima dan menterjemah isyarat-isyarat untuk menginterpretasikanmesej)
(II) Message Formatting
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(II) Message Formatting
When a message is sent from source to destination,
it must use a specific format or structure. (Ketika mesejdihantar dari sumber ke destinasi, ia harus menggunakan format atau struktur yang tertentu)
Message formats depend on the type of message
and the channel that is used to deliver the message.(format Mesej bergantung pada jenis mesej dan saluran yang digunakan untuk menyampaikan mesej)
The process of placing one message format (the
letter) inside another message format (the
envelope) is called encapsulation. (Proses menempatkan satu formatmesej (huruf) ke dalam format yang lain (sampul surat) disebut encapsulation)
Message Formatting Cont
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Message FormattingCont
De-encapsulation occurs when the process is
reversed by the recipient and the letter is removed
from the envelope. (De-encapsulation berlaku apabila proses dibatalkan olehpenerima dan surat akan dikeluarkan dari sampul surat)
Each computer message is encapsulated in a specific
format, called a frame, before it is sent over thenetwork. (Setiap mesej komputer dirumuskan dalam format khusus, yang disebut rangka,sebelum dihantar melalui rangkaian)
A frame acts like an envelope; it provides theaddress of the intended destination and the address
of the source host. (Sebuah rangka bertindak seperti sampul surat, ia mempunyai
alamat destinasi dan alamat sumber)
Message Formatting Cont
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Message FormattingCont
(III) Message Size
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(III) Message Size
when a long message is sent from one host to
another over a network, it is necessary to break the
message into smaller pieces. (apabila mesej yang panjang dihantar dari satuhost ke host yang lain melalui rangkaian, ia perlu untuk dipecahkan kepada beberapa bahagian)
The rules that govern the size of the pieces, or
frames, communicated across the network are verystrict. They can also be different, depending on the
channel used. Frames that are too long or too short
are not delivered. (Peraturan-peraturan yang menetapkan saiz potongan, atau rangka,dihubungkan di seluruh rangkaian sangat ketat. Ia juga berbeza, bergantung pada saluran yang
digunakan. Bingkai yang terlalu panjang atau terlalu pendek tidak akan dihantar)
Message Size Cont
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Message SizeCont
(IV) Message Timing
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(IV) Message Timing
Timing effects how much information can be sent
and the speed that it can be delivered. (Timing memberi kesankepada berapa banyak maklumat yang boleh dihantar dan kelajuan penghantaran)
In network communication, a sending host can
transmit messages at a faster rate than the
destination host can receive and process. (penghantar bolehmenghantar mesej lebih laju berbanding keupayaan destinasi menerima dan memproses mesej)
Source and destination hosts use flow control to
negotiate correct timing for successfulcommunication. (sumber dan destinasi akan menggunakan flow control untuk berundingtempoh yang betul bagi memastikan komunikasi berjaya)
Message Timing Cont
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Message TimingCont
Hosts on the network have rules that specify how
long to wait for responses and what action to take if
a response timeout occurs. (Host di jaringan mempunyai peraturan yangmenentukan berapa lama untuk menunggu maklumbalas dan tindakan yang harus diambil jika tamat
waktu maklumbalas berlaku)
(V) Message Patterns
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(V) Message Patterns
There are the standard message patterns in relation to human
communication
Unicast
Multicast
Broadcast
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Message PatternsCont
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Message PatternsCont
If all hosts on the network need to receive the
message at the same time, a broadcast is used.
Broadcasting represents a one-to-all messagepattern. (Jika semua host dalam rangkaian perlu menerima mesej pada masa yang sama,broadcast akan digunakan. Broadcast merupakan pola mesej satu-untuk-semua)
Additionally, hosts have requirements foracknowledged versus unacknowledged messages.
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Identify if a communication problem,
in a given scenario, deals with message
format, timing, message pattern, or
message size.
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