DOCUMENT RESUME
--ED 240 033 SO 015 406
AUTHOR Adler, Susan; Goodman, JesseTITLE What Is Social Studies? Student Teacher
Perspectives.PUB DATE 83NOTE 33p.; CUFA Presentation to the National Council for
the Social Studies (San Francisco, CA, November,1983).
PUB TYPE Reports 7 Research/Technical (143) --Speeches/Conference Papers (190)
EDRS PRICE MF01/PCO2 Plus Postage.DESCRIPTORS Definitions; Educational Needs; Educational
Objectives; *Educational Practices; EducationalResearch; Elementary Education; Middle Schools;*Social. Studies; *Student Teachers; *TeacherAttitudes
ABSTRACTThe purpose of this study was to gain insight into
the way students' beliefs and actions toward social studiesinteracted and the impact of this interaction upon their socialstudies, student teaching in elementary and middle schools. Twoseparate and distinctive samples were used Sample A consisted of 12randomly chosen students from the .teacher education program at alarge southeastern state university. Sample B were four studentsselected on the basis of specific criteria from the teacher educationprogram at a large midwestern state university. The two main methodsof data collection were observations and interviews. Six majorperspectives were expressed through the students' beliefs andactions. These were: social studies as a nonsubject; as a means ofteaching human relations or citizenship; as "school knowledge; as the"great connection," or core of the curriculum; and as a stimulus tosocial action. These findings showed that the official conceptions ofsocial studies have little to do with students' beliefs and actionsin the classroom. While it is important to have clear conceptions ofand goals for social studies education, it is also necessary to focuson how these goals and ideals can be manifested. (RM)
*************, *** ****Reproductions supplied by EDRS are the best that can be made
from the original document.*
WHAT IS SOCIAL STUDIES?STUDENT TEACHER PERSPECTIVES
Susan AdlerRockhurst CollegeKansas City, MO
Jesse GoodmanWashburn University
Topeka, KS
U.S. DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATIONNATIONAL INSTITUTE OF EDUCATION
EDUCATIONAL RESOURCES INFORMATIONCENTER (ERIC)
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WHAT IS SOCIAL STUDIES?STUDENT TEACHER PERSPECTIVES
Throughout the 20th century, educators have sought to create an overarch-
ing statement of the definition and purposes of social studies education. Such
statements, abstracted from classroom practice, comprise the conceptions of
social studies held by scholars. Despite differences among educators in their
views of what social studies is or ought to be, several conceptions persist.
The most dominant one is social studies as citizenship education. The 1916
report of the Committee on Social Studies of the Commission of Secondary Edu-
cation of the National Education Association described social studies as the
subject which serves the function of developing in young people the skills and
attitudes necessary to good citizenship (Clementi at al., 1966, p. 6). Citii-
zenship, in this definition, meant Active parti-ipation in community and
national decision-making. This conception of social studies has remained
important. In the 1981 statement on the "Essentials of the Social Studies,"
the National Council for the Social Studies wrote:
Citizenship participation in public life is essential to the health of
our democratic system. Effective social studies programs help prepare
young people who can identify, understand, and work to solve the prob-
lems that face our increasingly diverse nation and interdependent
world (p. 2).
Other conceptions of social studies are often portrayed as supporting this
overall goal. An example of such a conception is social studies as reflective
inquiry or decision-making (see for example: Engle, 1960: Massialas and Cox,
1966; Clements, Fielder and Tabachnick, 1966: Kaltsounis, 1966; Pagano, 1978
Hennings, Hennings and Banich, 1980). Here the emphasis is on the processes
of inquiry to formulate and salve social problems. Another conception is
Page 2
having students learn the facts, concepts and processes of the social science
disciplines (Barr et al., 1977, p. 62). Pupils would for example, learn the
"structure" of anthropology by participating in anthropological inquiry to
"discover" anthropological concepts. Still another conception places emphasis
"on how most people particinate in .. society" (Superka and Hawkes, 1980,
p. 574). In this view, the content of social studies should deal with the major
roles people will play in their lives and with learning to understand, value,
and function creatively in these roles.
But how are these conceptions of social studies played out (or not played
out) in classroom practice? There seems to be much evidence that, although
teachers may use the terminology found in the literature, these conceptions
have little bearing on actual practice (e.g., Shaver, et al., 1977). How then
do practitioners, rather than scholars, give meaning and purpose to social
studies? But meanings, the context of classroom teaching, are not abstract
conceptions removed from the act of teaching. Rather, meaning is what Beard
(1934) referred to as the "frame of reference" upon which thought and action are
consciously or unconsciously based.. The concept _ teacher perspectives is a
useful one for capturing this notion of meaning.
Teacher Perspectives
A concept of teacher perspectives as it has come to be used in the liter-
ature, captures the ideas, behaviors, and contexts of particular teaching acts
(Becker. 1961; Cornhleth, 1982; Grace, 1978; Hammersley, 1977; Janesick, 1978;
Sharp and Green, 1975). Perspectives are the meanings and interpretations which
teachers give to their work and their work situation. Unlike more abstract
statements, perspectives are set in the concrete world of actual situations
and have reference to particular behaviors. Teacher perspectives take into
Page 3
account how the situation of the school and classroom is cxperienced, how this
situation is interpre.ed given the teacher's background of experiences, beliefs,
and assumptions and how this interpretation is manifested in behaviors.
This concept of perspectives allows the complexity of the teaching act to
reveal itself. As an interrelated set of ideas and action, the concept takes
into account how teachers interpret and create their situations, and how they
act and react in their environment. By studying the perspectives of
teachers, we can begin t_ get at the contradictions and problematic nature of
classroom teaching. Teaching is a dynamic event in which the teacher strives
to make sense of and make decisions about classroom situations. We ask, then,
what assumptions, commitments, and understandings guide those interpretations
and decisions. We argue that to ask such questions helps us to better under-
stand what it means to be a social studies teacher.
Since perspectives are dynamic and complex, it is important to avoid easy
theoretical categorization. Such categorization generally assumes perspectives
to be dichotomous. One might view perspectives as traditional vs. progressive
or conservative vs. liberal or reconstructionist vs. transformative. Rather
than use standard labels, this research sought to capture the live quality of
perspectives through the use of students'1 own intellectual and behavioral con-
structs. It was these constructs, rather than dichotomous categories. which
served as the basis of analysis. As will be demonstrated, what emerged are
"grounded" categories (Glaser and Strauss, 1967), or categories based upon the
language and action of students themselves.
The Pre-service Teacher
Several studies (- .g. Becker, 1961: Lortie, 1975) found that perspectives
Pane 4
armed early in one's career. It follows then, that a crucial period
the development of teacher perspectives is during the teacher's
education. Accordingly, the study reported here inquired into the
as of student teachers toward social studies education. In general,
In. 'tare on field experiences and student teaching has not been very Mullin-
1tj7t:7,. It tells us little about how students incorporate, or fail to incorporate
L thinking about social studies into actual practice. We know little about
'uow students interpret and define their teaching situations vis-a-vis their
student teaching.
Our purpose was to gain insight into the way students' beliefs and actions
toward social studies interacted, and the impact of this interaction upon social
studies teaching in elementary and/or middle schools. After a discussion of the
methodology used, we will describe the perspectives which emerged from our obser-
vations and interviews. This section will not include an attempt to quantify
the numbers or percentages of student tztchers who held each perspective. Rather,
it serves to provide a beginning base for understanding the kinds of perspectives
students hold. Furthermore, while each of our informants would fit in one of the
categories developed, many did not remain exclusively in one category; that is,
they sometimes showed evidence of holding a perspective other than their dominant
one. Hence the next section will be a portrayal of one individual, thus repre-
senting the complexity of students' perspectives. Finally, this paper will con-
clude with a discussion of the implication of this research for educators.
Methodology
The rationale behind choosing one methodology over another is connected
to the nature of the subject being studied, and the underlying goal(s) of the
research. Weber's (1977) notion of "Verstehen" was panicularly helpful in
6
Page 5
outlining our purpose. Through empathic understanding and direct experience of
the social world, one is able to gain insight into a given social phenomenon.
Since this study explored the complex interconnection between people's beliefs
and actions, and the effect of this connection on the social studies education
found in classrooms, we felt it was necessary to use a methodology that incor-
porated the existential experience of the participants, themselves (i.e. their
act on thoughts, feelings, and perceptions), as a mayor focus for investiga-
Urn and interpretation. Therefore, the methods used were those associated
with ethnographic field studies (e.g., Glaser and Strauss, 1975; Bruyn, 1966).
As Blumer (1969) points out, this methodology permits the researcher to meet
all of the basic requirements of an empirical science: to directly confront
the social world beingstudied; to raise abstract questions regarding this
world; to discover relations between categories of data: to formulate proposi-
tions regarding these relations; to organize these propositions into an ana-
lytical scheme that others can understand; and then to test the questions,
data, relations, propositions, and analysis through renewed examination of
the social world.
Methods and Sample Selection
This study is perhaps somewhat unique in that it contains two separate and
distinctive samples. While the methods used to collect data were similar, they
were not identical. In both cases, observations and interviews (both formal
and informal) were the two main methods of data collection. Other sources of
data collection such as questionnaires, student logs, completed student assign-
ments, course syllabi, and official program literature were used as part of our
final analysis. Data were recorded in field notes during two university quar-
ters Sample A and one full semester for Sample B.2
Sample A was located in an elementary teacher education program at a large,
Page 6
southeastern state university. Twelve randomly chosen students were observed
as they participated in university courses, seminar meetings, and practicum
experiences. Ten students were placed in early field experiences while they
attended university classes, and two were student teaching full time. Field
placements ranged from first through sixth grades. All of these students
attended the same weekly seminar meetings. Each student was observed in his/
her practicum site one to four times, and each observation lasted between two
hours and the entire school day. Approximately 40% of their university class
sessions were observed during the fall and spring quarters, and each of their
seminar meetings were observed during this time.
Sample B was located in a large midwesturn state university. During the
semester before the field work began, the researcher informally observed the
university social studies methods courses. Out of these classes, four repre-
sentative students were chosen as the focal point of study. The selection of
these four students was based upon: 1) their student teaching placement in
upper elementary grades, 2) their scores on the "Conceptions of Social Studies
Inventory" test given to all students prior to their student teaching, and
3) recommendations by their social studies methods professors ,3 Earip of these
students was extensively observed at least five times during their student
teaching semester.
The purpose of these observations was to discover what actually happened
in the field placements, university .ourses. and/or seminar meetings. Rather
than predetermining specific items to look for, a number of general questions
were used to initially guide these observations: HOW is each setting organized?
What type of interpersonal dynamics exist? How do the students, cooperating
teachers, faculty members, and/or pupils act? What activities occur in each
setting? What topics are discussed, and what information, opinions, and/or
Page
beliefs are exchanged between the narticipants7 More specific observation
questions, particularly concerning the teaching of social studies, were devel-
oped from reviewing notes as the field work continued. These observations
only illuminated what happened in each setting, but they also were used as the
focus for in-depth interviews concerning the nature and meaning of the parti-
cipants' actions.
Systematically scheduled interviews were conducted with each student from
both samples on a weekly or bi-weekly basis. Each social studies methods fac-
ulty member and each cooperating teacher was also interviewed. In addition,
other students not in the sample group were informally interviewed. Students
were interviewed before and after each field placement observation, and students
and/or faculty members were often interviewed immediately following a given
class session.
Much of this interviewing was conducted using Glaser and Strauss (1975)
notions of "theore tical sampling" and "constant comparative method" of analysis.
Interviews were not organized into specific predetermined questions. Instead,
interviews were structured around various areas of concern such as the purpose
of teaching a given lesson; perceptions of what happens in a given situation;
individual responses to the organization, people, activities, and tonics ad-
dressed in a given situation; and perceptions of rite relationship between be-
liefs and actions. After reviewing field notes, more specific questions emerged
and were then asked during interviews to gain deeper insight into situations and
to clarify misconceptions and ambiguities. Responses from students within the
sample groups were cross checked with additional students enrolled in these
programs. The purpose of interviewing was not just to listen to the words, but
also to derive meanings, motivations, and conflicts (often hidden by surface
conversation) that lay behind behavior. Interviews were designed to discover
9
Page 8
the wayr in which individuals interpreted the social world around them/ and the
way thP-ftse interpretations were used as the basis their actions.
Analvslas
Asms a result of these observations and interviews, the analysis examined
the stucmdents' perspectives of social studies education. Throughout the field-
work, 12_nterview and observation notes were reviewed daily. Incidents and bits
of info=prmation were at first coded into tentative conceptual categories.
these c.---tagories emerged, questions arose that were used to guide further
investi_gation into the field. The findings from these investigations
then c pared to the initial categories. Special attention was given to data
that se -erred to challenge original conceptualizations. Through this e0115tillt
compari_son of data, theoretical categories crystalized. For example, initially
it seemrmed that there were five major persnectives that students had toward
social studies education. However, upon further investigation, it becaMe
that s- me data did not easily fit into these existing categories. Althoug
there w-mr.asn't an abundance of data to support the development of an additional
category, we felt that the data that did exist wa of significant importan e,
and a sixth category emerged. This return to the data source, followed
by mod i fication and/or new generation of ideas, continued until the findings
could b-e presented in some detail. As suggested by Glaser and Strauss (1975),
the ana_lysis presented in this paper takes a narrative form, using examples from
the dot. a to clarify concepts and to demonstrate the interrelationship between
analysi s and social reality. From this perspective, analysis is not a static
product Instead, it is viewed as "...an ever-developing entity" (Glaser and
Strauss , 1975, p. 32). rts analysis should be open to modification by the
origin as well as other scholars. The data presented in'this paper is not
designeed to "prove" the infallibility of the analysis generated. Rather, the
10
Page 9
goal is to illu --ate concepts and thus provide a basis for further discussion
and debate. Pre e ting the analysis in narrative form reflects its "ever-
developing" nature Finally, the participants were given the opportunity to
respond to the stuc=3y's findings before a report of the study was written.
Perspectives of Social Studies Education
As described Min the introduction of this paper, this study examined student
perspectives towar social studies education. The findings suggested that six
major perspectives were expressed through these students' beliefs and actions.
It is important to note that these perspectives were not static or mutually
exclusive. Altheupmth individual students held a dominant perspective, upon
careful obse atior= it was noted that each student also expressed qualities of
other perspectives as they student taught. In addition, a number of individual
students altered thmaeir perspectives during their field experiences. In describ-
ing these six perspmmectives have temporarily frozen life, and the reader
should not forget t==he dynamic character of peoples' beliefs and actions.
Social Studies as anm Non- Subject
Unlike the othnmer perspectives described in this paper, this perspective
was limited to the students within Sample A.4 For many of these students,
social studies was net considered a major subject within the curriculum. Social
studies content wa rarely observed being taught in most of Sample A's practicum
sites. Reading ani math clearly dominated the curriculum in most classrooms.
Students often said_ that they had taught nothing but these two subjects in their
early field experie_-L ces. In grades 1 - 3, social studies was not even given an
official time slot - during the day. Fourth grade classrooms taught social studies
for half the year aid science the other half. However, these lessons were often
only taught if therm me was enough time at the end of a given day. There seemed to
Page 10
be little continuity, organization,or thought put into these lessons. Debbie, who
was placed in a fourth grade classroom, summarized the experien6e of a number of
students.
Well, in the afternoon, if we have some me to kill, we might show a
film strip or movie on some social studies topic. We're suppose to
teach it more often, but there are too many other things to do (inter-
view with Debbie).
Many students stated that their cooperating teachers were under pressure to raise
the nationally standardized reading scores of their pupils, and as a result,
little time could be devoted to other educational goals. For many of these stu-
dents, social studies simply did not exist as part of the curriculum. Although
social studies was taught in the middle level grades, compared to other subjects
such as reading, it was not considered very important.
What is perhaps most surprising is that both students and many faculty mem-
bers in Sample A seemed to take the dominance of reading over other possible
elementary subjects for granted. This rather crucial issue was never discussed
in any of the university class periods observed. When students were asked if
they felt this dominance was educationally sound, whatever their answers, they
all said it was the first time anyone had directly asked them that question.
Social Studies as Human Relations
Similar to the above perspective, a number of students did not view social
studies as a field of knowledge, but saw it as teaching children techniques of
human relations. Rather than using history, anthropology, sociology, political
science, or some other social science to explore the nature of human beings and
the world around them, this perspective emphasized teaching children about them-
selves and how to cooperate with the other children in their class.
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Page 11
I think social studies should help children become more aware of
themselves and how to get along with others_ (She was asked how
these goals should be accomplished.) I think the best way is to
have them do things that make them more aare of their feelings
and values. We use T.A. (Transactional Analysis) for Kids a lot.
It's a great book for improving children's self imau, and help-
ing them communicate better (interview with Jeannie).
Students with this perspective did not plan and implement units of study around
a given body of knowledge, but Instead taught interpersonal communication, prob-
lem solving, and/or self-concept lessons.
Jill had her third grade class 'eke "Me Mobiles." Each had to
paint faces that reflected feelings they often felt. After the
period was over, Jill and her cooperating teacher collected the
plates and later m le mobiles out of them and hung them up
around the room. When asked to explain the meaning of this
activity, Jill responded, "We have them do this kind of stuff
every Tuesday and Thursday. Each time we pick out a different
activity from one of these books (She pointed to three books
on teaching children about human relationships.) that helps
them get In touch with themselves or other kids in the class.
Personally, I think this stuff is a lot more meaningful than
the traditional social studies I had as a kid" (observation
of and interview with Jill).
The predominant characteristic of this perspective is that all these activities
were conducted under the general heading of "human relations." There was no
real content to be explored, nor was there a context into which these activities
were placed. For example, the above activity was not part of a unit on what it
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Page 12
means to be a human being or even a unit on human emotions, but was simply one
of many activities that the children participated In twice each week. Similar
to seeing social studies as a non-subject, this perspective portrayed social
studies as devoid of any substantive content.
Social Studies as Citizenship
This perspective saw social studies as the means to teach children :he
value of being a "good" citizen. Unlike the conception of social studies d
scribed in the introduction of this pager, the term "good" to these students
did not imply thoughtful, involved, and socially active individuals. Instead,
it meant an uncritical loyalty to the economic and political institutions and
customs of our society. For example, Barb taught her first grade class to
memorize the "Pledge of Allegiance" as one of her social studies activities.
In these lessons there was no attempt to help the pupils understand what it
means to pledge one's allegiance or what the flag might possibly symbolize to
different individuals (obse nation of an interview with Barb). A few students
expressed the view that setting up classroom rules was social studies in that
it helped pupils become better citizens.
Sooner or later kids have to learn that they can't do everything
they want. Learning to obey rules and how to get along in society
is just part of growing up, and it's important for teachers to
teach these things to kids. So in this way I teach some social
studies indirectly (interview with Tim).
In teaching subject matter, children were encouraged to emulate individuals
who exemplified this unque4tioning loyalty.
Pupils were giving their oral reports on "Famous Americans in History."
While there were numerous reports on presidents, military heros, and
sports figures, there were virtually no reports on controversial
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Page 13
individuals or outspoken critics of American society. The only social
activist mentioned was Martin Luther King, and the emphasis of this
report was on Dr_ King's peaceful, non-violent intentions and his
loyiity to America. The fact that individuals in the civil rights
movement openly defied state and federal laws, spoke against the
injustices within our society, and often spent time in jail was
r }ever really explored in this report. Neither Andy or his cooper-
ating teacher raised these points at any time during or after the
pupils' presentations (observation of Andy).
When Andy, who was placed in a 6th grade classroom, was asked why there weren't
more social critics among the reports, he responded.
This is a pretty conservative community, and that kind of stuff
I don't chink would go over real big here. (He was asked if he
agreed with this point of view.) Yes, I guess so. There's no
better place to live in the world today, and I think we should
teach these kids how lucky they are instead of always focusing
oil the negative (interview with Andy).
This perspective also promcted the notion that to be an American citizen was
intrinsically best. When compared to other cultures, for example, there was
often a subtle but consistent message that our governmental institutions, pro-
duction of consumer goods, written laws, wealth, size of our cities, and/or
scientific discoveries meant that our society was "more advanced" than other
nations of the world. These messages were often evident in lessons of history,
political science, sociology, as well as anthropology.
Social Studies as School knowledge_
In this perspective, social studies was seen, essentially, as textbook
knowledge; a major concern of students who held this perspective was the need
Page 14
'cover the material." These students depended unon textbooks and textbook-
like materials ( mimeographed handouts) cheir teaching. Learning was
defined as the passive acquisition of information, with little time given to
questioning, challenging.or critically analyzing this school knowledge.
Whether inf ation was the names of state capitals, the causes of the Civil
War or the effects of the Industrial Revolution, pupils were expected to memorize
specific information for a specified time period. Proof of learning was limited
to successful scores on tests of recall and comprehension.
Students with this perspective often became dependent upon the textbooks
and rarely questioned the information found in them.
Ann was verbally quizzing the children in preparation for their test
chapter six in their textbook which compared "democracy" to "com-
munism." She asked various questions about the characteristics
of each system and if a child missed the question the pupil had to
look up the answer in the text (observation of Ann).
Ann was later asked if she thought the comparison between communism and democracy
was an accurate approach to take since one reflects a political system and the
other an economic system (i.e., apples and oranges). Her response was typical
of students with this perspective.
Maybe that kind of questioning is appropriate for college, but
don't think these kids (sixth graders) can handle it. Besides,
if I spend a lot of time discussing every little point, we won't
finish the chapter in time (interview with Ann).
When asked why they were teaching what they re teaching, students who held
this perspective commonly gave one or more of the following answers: the
cooperating teacher told me what to teach, the lesson was next in line in the
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Page 15
textbook, 3) this curriculum was required by the principal. the school board,
the state, or 4) this is what the teachers in the next grade would expect pupils
to know. These students had a d ere at itufe toward currtculum experts,
textbook authors, and /or professors. "They" know wEiat teach,_ and i the
job of teachers to follow the plan accordingly. Social studies was limited to
the official knowledge found in professionally developed curriculum materials.
The effects of "covering the material" were dramatic. Instead of "inst
tion" being an activity in which teachers and pupils explore and share knowledge,
st ulate interest, and work together toward a commonly arrived at intellectual
goal, "teaching" became an activity or problem of management.
When I look back at my field experiences, the thing that strikes me
most °mss just how little actual teaching went on. (She was asked for
clarification.) You know, where you sit down with the kids and
teach them hing (content). Mostly, you just organized the
day make sure everyone was doing what they were supposed to
do, passed out worksheets, and graded tests. No one seemed to
teach much, we just set things up for kids to work (observation
of Susie's final conference with her university supervisor).
The most important managerial concern for these students was discipline. Stu-
dents were observed experimenting with various techniques such as turning lights
on and off, counting down from ten, putting names on the blackboard, etc. These
techniques were used to keep the pupils on task, maintain order and "...ensure
that work is being done and that learning is taking place" (interview with David).
Social Studies as the Great Connection
Social studies as the "great connection" or core of the curriculum was the
dominant theme in the perspectives of a few of our informants. Students who
held this hers
Page 16
ectivc emphasized the integration of knowledge: they did not
teach as if there were hard boundaries be- en school subjects. An observer
in the clas_ooa might not be sure what "subject" as scheduled for a partic-
ular time_ For example, during of Peter's teaching, a math
lesson on measurement included measuring map distances to various national
parks and was tied to a social studies unit on John Muir.
Students who held this perspective were not dependent upon textbooks.
Not only did they see knowledge as integrated, but they also viewed knowledge
as coming many different sources, both inside and outside the school.
The most interesting thing T. did was plan a unit on ecology. I did
lot f my research on the topic. =Instead of having the kids
read only textbooks and fill out worksheets, I had them make an art
display illut ing the balance between all things, they saw a
Movie about the habitats of wild animals and how they are being
destroyed, I brought in a guest spe from a local environmental
group and from the local utility company, and I had the kids read
newspaper articles and children's books that dealt with endangered
species and man's relationship to the earth. I ended the unit by
having the students...write poema about this tlpic. It was neat
deciding what to teach and how to teach it (interview with Judy).
These students e not merely managers of p- deteAned curriculum. In inter-
views they expressed the importance of teachers developing curriculum based upon
their own and/or their pupils' interests. They believed that they could best
promote inquiry and reflection among their pupils if they could exercise more
control over the curriculum in their classrooms. They suggested that by inte-
grating subjects, they were able to get their students more involved in learnin
Page 17
Social Studies as 1 Action
This last perspective is similar in some ways to the preceding one. Like
the "great connection, the two students who held thi -cti developed
their own curriculum and promoted reflective inquiiy among their pupils. How-
ever, this perspective emphasized a more critical stance toward textbooks, the
role of the teacher, knowledge, and the social/political contexts within which
schools exist. As part of their case histories, both Kate and Peter mentioned
being influenced by the civil rights and anti-war movements of the sixties and
seventies. They saw the relationship between the dominant political, social,
and economic forces within the United States, and the role schools play in per-
petuating the existing order. =Each expressed a desire to, in some small way,
help change our society through their teaching. They wanted their pupils to
become more critical and question many of our social norms.
What I'd like to be doing in social studies does definitely reflect
what I think people, as thinking members of society, need to be able
to do - that is, question things they read and the prevailing tides
(political/social ideologies) of the country (interview with Peter).
As a result of these beliefs, Peter and Kate chose topics of study that would in-
crease their pupils' social/political awareness, and would stimulate them to be-
come more socially active citizens.
The textbook covered the aging process and generally, it did a
pretty good job of pointing out some of the problems old people
face in our country. However, we (Kate and her cooperating
teacher) felt that it (the textbook) lacked a sense of real life.
So we had the kids visit a nursing home down the block from the
school. The kids got really involved. They started to'"adont"
grandparents from the home, and we took numerous field trips
18
there. When they died, the kids wrote letters to their relatives
and in some cases even went to the funerals. So we started talk-
ing about death with the kids. But then we realized that we ,ore
focusing only on the problems of the elderly. So we started talk-
about how some elderly people regain their childhood in their
last years. Some travel and develop hobbies: some learn how to
really enjoy life. This is something the textbook totally ignored.
We discovered that a big factor in enjoying one's later years was
health and having enough money. So we ended the unit by writing
President, local congress people, and (Representative)
Pepper to find out what the government does or does not do to in-
sure proper care for the elderly (interview with Kate).
From this perspective, social studies was a means to increase pupils' sense of
social responsibility, and as a result, promote a more humane society. Although
this perspective was dominant in only two students, its effect in the classrooms
observed was clearly noticeable.
Portrayal of Sally
The six perspectives described capture and freeze for a moment the beliefs
and actions of two groups of student teachers. But, in fact, these perspectives
were not as static or clear cut as the preceding descriptions might imply. Each
student observed was involved in the dynamic life of the classroom; each was
faced with processing, consciously or unconsciously, classroom activities, events
and people: each had to confront the nature of his or her own role as a teacher.
Thus, although each student manifested a generally consistent pattern of social
studies teaching which is captured by one of the six perspectives described,
each, at least occasionally, taught in apparently inconsistent or contradictory
20
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ways; that is, each occasionally displayed some characteristics of holding, or
being attracted toward other Perspectives. In some cases, the researchers
actually observed suderits move from one dominant perspective to another. Thus,
the following portrayal is intended to capture some of this dynamic quality by
describing the evolving perspectives of one student teacher, Sally.
Sally was, in some Ways. typical, She began her student teaching feeling
nervous about taking charge of a class, worried about how she would manage fifth
grade students, and unsure of her role as a teacher. Social studies was, how-
ever, an interest of hers and something she looked forward to teaching. Her
academic focus in history and her involvement in community politics may help
to explain why she showed little attraction toward the first three
She even did battle with the first perspective, Social Studies as Non-Subject.
Not enough time, she said, was being spent on social studies and she was indig-
nant that that was the subject dropped when room needed to be made in the school
day for extra activities.
Sally's dominant perspective, during the first part of the semester, was that
of Social Studies as School. Knowledge. She expressed concern about having enough
time to cover all the material and confided that she was reluctant to be too in-
novative in her teaching lest the pupils become disorderly and "waste time." She
taught from the textbook and seemed to depend upon "expert" knowledge as the basis
of her social studies curriculum. But even while she worried about covering the
material she began to express doubt about the meaningfulness of textbook learning.
To memorize facts is too easily forgotten. When you do things you
tend to remember them more. Especially if it's some exciting sort
of activities that the kids can be proud of and that they can learn
from ... I 7gn them to start thinking about and to stare doing
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Page 20
their own thing.
Furthermore, her conceptions of social studies even at the beginning of the
semester, expressed, albeit in a vague sense, a view of social studies as some-
thing more than covering the material. hen asked to define social studies,
Sally said:
To me there is no set definition because it involves so many things
and covers such a wide area. Practically any topic in the classroom
can fit under the heading social studies. Basically, I see social
studies as learning about ourselves and the world, very broad.
An observer watching Sally early in the semester teaching textbook lessons
and listening to her apparently contradictory talk about the Importance of hav-
ing pupils start thinking and getting actively involved, might have concluded
that her talk was mere empty _rhetoric, a rhetoric she picked up in a methods
class but was unwilling to put into practice. But one might also conclude
that her early perspective, characterized by a concern for order and covering
the material, was more a reflection of her overriding concerns about classroom
management than of a conception of social studies as the knowledge of experts
passed on to the younger generation.
Sally didn't find her solution to keeping order in the classroom a very
satisfactory one. She talked about wanting her students to enjoy social studies,
about the importance of getting them actively involved, about wanting them to
develop empathy for other people. Her cooperating teacher encouraged her to
"take chances try new activities and approaches.
I think I've given Sally the security to go ahead and try what she
wants. ...She didn't have to worry about what my reaction was
going to be because she knew I was supporting her (interview with
Sally's cooperating teacher).
22
Page 21
As the semester progressed, Sall-; began to incoroorate a variety of activ-
ides into he7 social studies lessons. She got her pupils involved in small
group research projects and began to help them analyze and evaluate the infor-
mation they were finding- "Check more than one book," she told one group,
"they don't always give you the same information."
I've learned that we never trust the textbook alone to do a good
job teaching- ...I like to provide kids with a lot of different
sources, to get them in the habit looking at more than one thing
and not just going by their books.
Sally began to apply her belief that providing structure to a lesson did
not necessarily mean all pupils had to do the same thing and that ways could
be found to give pupils choices. To Sally, structure came to mean that the
teacher should create an "orderly learning environment," providing experiences
which would stimulate and encourage pupil learning_ Her concern for establish-
ing and maintaining order was balanced by a concern for children's needs and
interests.
By the end of the semester, Sally had moved away from Social Studies as
School Knowledge and toward a view of Social Studies as the Great Connection.
Her lessons began to tap her pupils' personal experiences, to encourage their
creativity, to help children see connections between past and present. She
began to talk about how social studies should be "more a part of the class-
room" and wanted to try "integrating it with other courses." Finally, Sally
began to talk about social studies as social action.
I adamantly believe that toe many of us U.S. citizens don't care
about what's going on and because of that we're in a mess. I
think awareness is a really big thing and learning that'there
are ways to act on that.
23
Pz
It cannot be said that Sally's perspectives toward social studios at the
end of the semester were clearly characterized by Social Action. Although on
the level of abstract ideas, she was committed to he bring students learn to h
critically and then act on the stands they take; however, she wasn't sqre how to
go about teaching the skills necessary to do so. In fact, it hadn't even
occurred to her that there were social action skills involved in social studies
until the researcher raised the point in questions. However, slowly and unsystem-
atically she was beginning to teach her pupils skills of critical inquiry as she
enc raged them to seek out new sources, evaluate the data they uncovered, and
to draw their own conclusions based on the data.
the end of the semester, Sally had gained more confidence in herself
as a teacher, and in the process her perspectives toward social studies had
evolved away from a concern with school knowledge and strict order. Not sur-
prisingly her teaching was still marked by some uncertainty and her perspective
remained open and changing.
Conclusions and Implications for Practice
The findings of this study raise a number of concerns that deserve con-
sideration among social studies educators. As discussed in the introduction of
this paper, many of these educators have similar conceptions of social studies
education. Social studies should promote reflective inquiry, active partici-
pation in society, and an understanding of social science. Given these goals,
two important concerns emerge from the findings of this study.
First, the findings suggest that official conceptions of social studies
have little to do with students' beliefs and actions in the classroom. Even
when students' conceptions of social studies are similar to our more idealis-
tic notions, as in the ease with Sample B, their perspectives provide a more
24
Page
accurate portrayal of the work these students and the meaning they give to
this work. Rather than focusing on our own conceptions of what social studies
education "should be," perhaps we need to out more effort into understanding
the perspectives toward social studies education that students develop during
their professional preparation. It does little good to expose students to
innovative ideas if they view social studies as a non - subject.
If the above implication is correct, need more research that will
illuminate the perspectives students generate during their professional educa-
tion. Traditional analysis and categorization of students' beliefs and/or
actions into predetermined continuums such as conservative /liberal actually
tell us very little about the way in which the informants, themselves, give
meaning to and act upon the professional world they are about to enter. This
study, then, re- affirms the value of ethnographic methods of descriptive
analysis in helping us gain insights into the complex process of becoming a
social studies teacher. Are these persnectives common in other programs?
If so, why; if not why not? Perhaps additional research will uncover more
subtle perspectives missed in this study. If we are to improve the profes-
sional education of future social studies teacher- then we need research
that will help us understand students' perspectives toward this activity.
In addition to discovering what perspectives students have, we need re-
search that investigates the way in which their perspectives have developed.
As the description of Sally demonstrates, students' perspectives are complex
often interacting in unique ways under specific circumstances. The findings
of this study suggest that a number of factors contribute to the development
of student perspectives including conceptions of social studies education
growing out of childhood experiences, significant individualS (e.g., family
members, cooperating teachers, university faculty members), institutional
25
e '24
expectations found in the practicum sites, and social forces outside of the
classroom (e.g., the accountability movement, social demands for
scores).
In examining these forces, we also need to ask why some perspectives seem
ober eading
to dominate over others. For example, Ln our samples the first four perspect-
ives were much more common than the last o. A number of educators have illus-
trated that schools are a major force in perpetuating a technocratic, utilitar-
ian, and object-orientated national ideology Apple, 1982; Giroux, 1983).
They argue that this ideology lacks concern from human inquiry, values, and
needs. These individuals might suggest that the dominance of the first four
perspectives in our study reflects the influence that this ideology has on
those ihdivi4-- s going into the teaching profession as w 11 as the repro-
ductive force they will play in our schools upon entering the profession.
This literature also recognizes, however, that individuals are not merely shaped
into a uniform mold by this ideology. The presence of our last two perspectives
tends to support this notion. To various degrees students selectively chose
which beliefs and /or actions they thought were worthwhile. Some students acted
upon their practicum environment as well as conformed to it. It is clear that
these findings and theoretical notions are inconclusive. More research into
the external forces that influence students' perspectives, and the students'
response to these forces would give educators insights into the professional
socialization of future teachers.
The second concern that emerges from the findings of this study addresses
certain recommendations for social studies education courses. While it is
important to have clear conceptions of and goals for social studies education,
it is also necessary to focus on how these goals and ideals can be manifested.
26
Page 25
The jutapositinof the perspectives, social = tudies as "human relations" and
"school knowledc "against social studies as '11-le great connection" and "social
action" suggests that students need to 1 am mco-re than just how to teach out of
the textbook or for that matter even supplemen= The work of such students
as Peter, Kate, and Judy suggests that Dreparar ion courses should focus on the
skills of curriulum development and implementa_tion. Students need to learn
how to develop curriculum based upon their own .and/or their pupils' intellectual
interests. Preparation courses sl: aid teach seidents to choose worthwhile
topics of study; develop the themes, concepts, or areas of content that make up
this topic; research these themes to increase t heir own level of knowledge con-
cerning this to lc; discover resources that chi_ ldren can use to explore these
themes; develop activities that illuminate the themes of this topic and promote
creativity ancito rthoughtfulness among pupils; ..and organize these themes, re-
sources, and activities into a coherent unit of study. Developing curriculum
is similar to wr-icing a documentary or an artic le on a given topic. It requires
interest in the subject matter, motivation and skill to research relevant infor-
mation, energy discover new sources, and the ability to organize the findings
of this work int.ou form that other people can nder- tend and enjoy. Although
it seems that ma st students want to teach becatie they "want to work with
children" (e.g., huchma.nn, 1982; Tabachnick et 1979-80; Goodman, 1982),
the findings this study suggest that prepares rion courses must attempt to
stimulate students' curiosity toward the world f knowledge and the dynamics of
learning.
It is not emough, however, to teach students only how to develop their own
curriculum. Perpactives such as social studie as "a non-subject," "human
relations," and 'citizenship" suggest that preprat on courses need to examine
2
Page A
underlying purposes and princi-oles of social stl 'dies education. As part of
those courses, we need to exam ine the relations_ -rip between our students' beliefs
arlEa actions, explore the perspectives that stud=lts have and what forces
fiu=ence them, and discuss the --relative merits these various perspectives,
Irrt egrated into these courses should be questior7ns such as: What role should
soc=ial studios play in the elermentary/midile sciflool? Who should decide what
content is taught? What crite7ria should be usedE3 to determine worthwhile social
stu=dies content and /or activities? What type of_7F learning should be emphasized
dur=ing the teaching of Studies? What is the relationship between social
studies content found in the classroom and the social /political forces found
wit =hin the broader society? Al Beyer and Zeichgrier (1982) suggest, underlying
que :stions of practice do not hive to be limited to "foundation" courses. To
the contrary, the findings of phis study sugges= that this level of analysis
shor-uld be central to preparaticnn courses.
Finally, _ Stake and Easley (1978) point o ut, it takes more than good
int. entions and the existence ofF viable alterna L_-_-ves to change school practice,
The institutional demands fountl within the practlcum sites seem to have a strong
inf: luence on students' perspece=ives. resul._t, preparation courses need to
ask students to consider the importance of becoming change agents in the schools.
As kohl (1976) discusses, studemnts should be exp-osed to issues concerning the
"politics of teaching." Preparation courses should have students consider the
problems of initiating substant=ive change withou t needlessly alienating admin-
stm=rators, other staff, and/or parents. Planntrt_g for short-term and long -tern
chanmnge, creating freedom within constraints. dev-keloping a support system within
the school and the community, t,..r_citing proposals -tor curriculum change, and pm
sencoting ideas for curriculum detsipp and implemen- a ion at local and/or state
28
Peg
conferences are some of the strategies that can b examined within preparation
courses.
Becoming a social studies teacher is a compl.: human endeavor. It often
involves subtle, and at times, contradictory heliE=fs and actions. Incur
attempts to best educate these future teachers, ir= is mandatory that we begin
to penetrate this complexity of human life. hbilem developing innovathecon-
ceptions of social studies education is important (after all, if we don't dream
will stagnate) it is equally important tommine how our ideals can be
concretely manifested. Preparation courses are tr a panacea for the problems
that face social studies education; however,haeEl upon careful research
can develop useful and substantive strategies for these future teachers,
Page 28
NOTES
1. To enhance the reading of this paper, the following word guide is provided:
Educator - one who teaches in a university teacher preparation program and/or
conducts research into social studies education, Student - one who is enrolled
in a college level teacher education program, Pupil - a child enrolled in an
elementary or middle school.
2. For a complete discussion of the rationale, theoretical principles, and
methods used to collect and analyze the data see Goodman (1982) and Adler (1982).
3. This selection procedure was used to find students who, at least on the
surface, appeared to hold conceptions of social studies education deemed
"desirable" in the social studies, literature the importance of teaching
social studies orientation toward critical thinking, integrated curriculum,
social interaction, and involvement). For a more detailed discussion of the
selection criteria and process see Adler (1982).
4. Due to the selection process (see p. 6 and footnote 3), each student in
Sample B believed social studies was an important subject to be taught, and
they were given more opportunities to teach it. Since there was a special effort
to do so, the researcher observed more social studies lessons being taught.
Page 29
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