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DeadlyDifferences:Ioniza'onvsPhotoelectricSmokeAlarms
SkipWalker
ASHIInspec'onWorld,January24,2017 1Course:9649
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Disclaimer:TheOpinionsExpressedAreThoseofthePresenter.
Thispresentationisintendedforinformationalpurposes
onlyandisnotintendedtoexpandtoscope
ofageneralpropertyinspectionortheASHIStandardofPractice.
ASHIInspec'onWorld,January24,2017SkipWalker,ACIMCI 2
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An In-Depth Look at US Fire Death Rate Statistics and the
Performance of Photoelectric and Ionization Smoke Alarms in Residential Fatal Fires
DeadlyDifferencesIoniza'onvsPhotoelectricSmokeAlarms
ASHIInspec'onWorld,January24,2017SkipWalker,ACIMCI 3
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ASHIInspec'onWorld,January24,2017SkipWalker,ACIMCI
Skip Walker:
ACI, ASHI Certified Inspector MCI, CREIA Master Inspector ICC Certified Residential Combination Inspector ICC Certified California Residential Building & Plumbing Inspector F.I.R.E. Service Certified Inspector Published Numerous Articles on Smoke Alarms, CO Issues and General Inspection Topics CodeCheck, Co-Author
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ASHIInspec'onWorld,January24,2017SkipWalker,ACIMCI
What if…….
Your Car Airbags Deployed Every Time You Hit A Pot-Hole?
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ASHIInspec'onWorld,January24,2017SkipWalker,ACIMCI
But Failed to Deploy in Real Accidents.....
55% of the Time?
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ASHIInspec'onWorld,January24,2017SkipWalker,ACIMCI
“A smoke detector that sounds approximately nineteen minutes after smoke reached its sensing
chamber is like an airbag that does not deploy until nineteen minutes after a car accident.”
-Judge David E. Schoenthaler, Mercer v. Pitway/BRK Brands (First Alert)
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ASHIInspec'onWorld,January24,2017SkipWalker,ACIMCI
There Are Very REAL Differences in How Different Smoke Alarms Types Perform in Real World Fatal Fires
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ASHIInspec'onWorld,January24,2017SkipWalker,ACIMCI
This is a Very REAL Problem.
This Issue Directly Contributes to at Least 1,000 Fire Deaths Per Year –
Probably Many More
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ASHIInspec'onWorld,January24,2017SkipWalker,ACIMCI
This is an Old Problem.
We Have Known That Ionization Alarms Were Not Providing Adequate
Warning Since the Late 1970's.
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ASHIInspec'onWorld,January24,2017SkipWalker,ACIMCI
As Professional Property Inspectors, We Are Uniquely Positioned to Have a
Very Significant Impact on Public Awareness and Safety.
We Can Make a Difference!
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ASHIInspec'onWorld,January24,2017SkipWalker,ACIMCI
“This issue has more impact on the life safety of your clients than just about anything.
Actually, make that just plain anything.”
Douglas Hansen, September 2010
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ASHIInspec'onWorld,January24,2017SkipWalker,ACIMCI
What We Will Talk About Today: • US Residential Fire Death and Injury Statistics 1960-2015 • Statistical Data, Trends and How to Interpret the Data • A Brief History of Smoke Alarms • The Types of Smoke Alarms Found In Residential Use • Contrast the Performance of the Different Alarm
Technologies in Residential Fatal Fires
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ASHIInspec'onWorld,January24,2017SkipWalker,ACIMCI
Important: All the Data Used Comes From Reputable Sources All Data Is Published & Verifiable NIST National Institute for Standards and Testing NFPA National Fire Protection Association CPSC Consumer Product Safety Commission FEMA Federal Emergency Management Agency UL Underwriters Laboratory Texas A&M University NFA National Fire Administration NCHS National Center for Health Statistics NIFRS National Fire Incident Reporting System
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ASHIInspec'onWorld,January24,2017SkipWalker,ACIMCI
Now Let's Look At Death/Injury Statistics and Sources: • NFPA, Fire Loss Surveys and Various Studies
l Survey of 27,763 Fire Departments Nationally – Many Larger
• NFIRS, National Fire Incident Reporting System l Web Input System with Coding For Data Input l Voluntary Participation – Currently About 23,000 Fire
Departments l Participation Varies By State
• NCHS, US Death Statistics Report l National Records of Death Certificates l Cause of Death Classifications Limited
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ASHIInspec'onWorld,January24,2017SkipWalker,ACIMCI
None of the Data is Perfect
Estimates Only
• There Are No Absolutes • The Numbers Vary Between Each Source Year to Year • Sometimes Significantly
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ASHIInspec'onWorld,January24,2017SkipWalker,ACIMCI 17
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NFIRS Versus NFPA Reported US Fire Deaths Source: Fire in the US, 17th Edition, US Fire Administration
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ASHIInspec'onWorld,January24,2017SkipWalker,ACIMCI 18
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Studies and Reports: • Fire Report Data: Most NFPA 2015 Fire Loss Report
• Most Current Available • Some Older Reports Used
• Some Info Not Available in Newer Reports • Studies: Mix of Older and Newer • The Technology Hasn’t Changed, So Results Are Still Valid
• In General – Some Conditions Changed • Some Older Reports Used to Demonstrate that There Was Knowledge
• I’m Not Cherry-Picking Reports!
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l From a Fire Perspective, the US is a Third World Country l The NYC Fire Department responds to more calls per year
than all fire departments in Japan l US Fire Death Rate per Million Population = 12.3* l Swiss Fire Death Rate per Million Population = 2.0*
l Singapore Fire Death Rate per Million Population = 2.3* * Source: FEMA International Death Rate Trends 1979-2007 (This is the most current version of this data)
ASHIInspec'onWorld,January24,2017SkipWalker,ACIMCI 19
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ASHIInspec'onWorld,January24,2017SkipWalker,ACIMCI
Source: FEMA International Fire Trends 1979-2007
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ASHIInspec'onWorld,January24,2017SkipWalker,ACIMCI 21
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Source: International Fire Trends , 2016: SP Technical Research Institute of Sweden
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ASHIInspec'onWorld,January24,2017SkipWalker,ACIMCI 22
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Source: International Fire Trends , 2016: SP Technical Research Institute of Sweden
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ASHIInspec'onWorld,January24,2017SkipWalker,ACIMCI
Number of Households in The Us:
1960: 52 Million 1975: 72 Million 2015: 135 Million
Source: US Census Bureau, 2015
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ASHIInspec'onWorld,January24,2017SkipWalker,ACIMCI
Number of Households in The Us with Smoke Alarms:
1960: Almost Zero 1977: 18 Million/22% 2010: 112 Million/96% Source: NFPA, Smoke Alarms in US Fires 2015
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ASHIInspec'onWorld,January24,2017SkipWalker,ACIMCI
Number of Households in The Us with Ionization Smoke Alarms:
Approximately 90%-95% 101-106 Million Homes
Source: Industry Sales Figures/Research Report Estimates
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ASHIInspec'onWorld,January24,2017SkipWalker,ACIMCI
….. the home smoke alarm is credited as the greatest success story in fire safety in the last part of the 20th
century, because it alone represented a highly effective fire safety technology with leverage on most of the fire death
problem that went from only token usage to nearly universal usage in a remarkably short time.
Performance of Home Smoke Alarms
NIST Technical Note 1455-1 February 2008 Revision
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ASHIInspec'onWorld,January24,2017SkipWalker,ACIMCI
TheOriginalSmokeAlarmTes=ngStandardsWereDesignedAroundProvidingAdequateEgressTimein
50%ofFires
ThatMeansALife-SafetyDeviceDesignedtoGiveOccupantsa5/50ChanceofSurvival
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ASHIInspec'onWorld,January24,2017SkipWalker,ACIMCI
“Nationally, the percentage of people dying when the smoke detector works, but
works too late, is approximately 40 percent,”
-Jay Fleming, Boston Deputy Fire Chief, CBS Boston Interview, 2007
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ASHIInspec'onWorld,January24,2017SkipWalker,ACIMCI
Let's Look Closer at Residential Fires,
Where They Start When They Start How They Start
And The Consequences
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Source: Fire Trends , 2016: NFPA
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l Most US Fire Deaths Occur at Home = 76.5%* l Most US Fire Injuries Occur at Home = 78%* l Most of Fire Prevention Budget Is Spent on
Commercial
Commercial = 99% (Estimate) Residential = 1% (Estimate)
* Source: NFIRS Fire in US 17th edition, 2004-2013
ASHIInspec'onWorld,January24,2017SkipWalker,ACIMCI 31
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ASHIInspec'onWorld,January24,2017SkipWalker,ACIMCI 32
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Source: Where Fires Occur, US Fire Administration/FEMA, 2016
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ASHIInspec'onWorld,January24,2017SkipWalker,ACIMCI
Source: NFPA Fire Loss 2011
US Home Fire Deaths and Rate Per 1,000 33
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• 1977-2015 Fire deaths decreased from 5,865 to 2,560 a decrease of 56%
• 1977-2015 The number of home fire incidents decreased of 49% There is a decline death rate per 1,000 home fire of
16% for same period from 8.1 to 7.0 “…even though the number of home fires and home fire deaths declined similarly during the period, the
death rate did not”
ASHIInspec'onWorld,January24,2017SkipWalker,ACIMCI
Source: NFPA Fire Loss 2011
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Source: NFPA Fire Loss, 2015
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Between 1977 and 2011 Hundreds of Millions of
Residential Smoke Alarms Were Installed in the US.
In 1977, Around 22% of Homes Had At Least One Alarm
By 2011 Around 96% of Homes Have At Least One
Alarm
ASHIInspec'onWorld,January24,2017SkipWalker,ACIMCI
Source: NFPA Fire Loss 2011/US Home Fires 2011
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l 1977: Fires: 5,865 / Deaths / 1,000: 8.1 l 2015: Fires: 2,5600 / Deaths / 1,000: 7.0 l Variance in Deaths, Per 1,000 Over 1977-2015
High Approx. 9.7 Low Approx. 6.5
ASHIInspec'onWorld,January24,2017SkipWalker,ACIMCI
Source: NFPA Fire Loss 2011
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• For Every One Residential Fire Death Approximately Five People Are Injured
l Many Injured Are Maimed/Scarred, Have Permanent Respiratory Damage, Etc.
l Injuries In Apartment Fires Are Higher – Roughly Nine to Ten Injuries Per Death
ASHIInspec'onWorld,January24,2017SkipWalker,ACIMCI
Source: NFPA Fire Loss 2009
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ASHIInspec'onWorld,January24,2017SkipWalker,ACIMCI
Source: NFPA Fire Loss Study
Cooking Fires Estimated At 8.9% Smoking Estimated at 12.8% Electrical 11.0% Other 31.2% Unknown/Under Investigation 12.0%
Fatal Fires By Source from US Fire Administration 2014
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ASHIInspec'onWorld,January24,2017SkipWalker,ACIMCI
Source: NFPA Fire Loss Study
Cooking/Open Flame Fires Estimated At 37.2% Open Flame Estimated at 8.4% Heating & Other Heat includes Space Heaters At 7.0 % All Other 32.0%
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Injury Fires By Source from US Fire Administration 2014
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Note: Pie Charts Divided Differently in Same Report
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ASHIInspec'onWorld,January24,2017SkipWalker,ACIMCI
Source: NFPA Home Structure Fires 2009
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Source: Home Structure Fires, NFPA 2016
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ASHIInspec'onWorld,January24,2017SkipWalker,ACIMCI
Source: NFPA Home Structure Fires 2009
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Source: Home Structure Fires, NFPA 2016
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ASHIInspec'onWorld,January24,2017SkipWalker,ACIMCI
Source: NFPA Home Structure Fires 2009
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Source: Home Structure Fires, NFPA 2016
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l Cooking Fires Generally Open Flame/Fast Flame Fires l Account For Largest Portion of Injuries but a Smaller
Portion of Deaths l Injured Person Is Generally “Intimate” With Fire
- Intimate = Present l Injuries Often Related to Suppressing Fire or Grease Etc. l Some Argue That Smoke Alarms Offer No Protection Since
You Don't Need It To Tell You That Your Stove Is On Fire When You Are Cooking
ASHIInspec'onWorld,January24,2017SkipWalker,ACIMCI 43
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l Smoking/Heater/Electrical Related Fires = Smoldering Fires
l Accounts For Largest Portion of Deaths and Smaller Portion of Injuries
l Injured Person Is Generally Unaware of Fire l Injuries Related to Slow Exit, Smoke Inhalation, Return/
Heroics, Etc.
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l Kitchen Fires Account For:
- 43% of Fires - 16% of Deaths - 39% of Injuries
ASHIInspec'onWorld,January24,2017SkipWalker,ACIMCI 45
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l Living Room/Family Room/Den/Bedroom Fires Account For:
- 11% of Fires - 48% of Deaths - 30% of Injuries
ASHIInspec'onWorld,January24,2017SkipWalker,ACIMCI 46
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Roughly 1 Out of Every 5 Deadly Fires Started in Upholstered
Furniture
These Are Almost ALL Smoldering Fires
ASHIInspec'onWorld,January24,2017SkipWalker,ACIMCI 47
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• Other Deadly Fire Criteria • Smoking is Still a Leading Cause in Fatal Fire • Time of Day Matters • Age Plays a Strong Role • Location – Death Rates Vary Significantly By
State
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ASHIInspec'onWorld,January24,2017SkipWalker,ACIMCI
Source: NFPA Home Structure Fires 2011
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Source: Home Structure Fires, NFPA 2016
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Time of Day Matters! l 37% of Fires Occur Between 8 PM & 8 AM l 65% of Fire Deaths Occur Between 8 PM & 8 AM
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ASHIInspec'onWorld,January24,2017SkipWalker,ACIMCI
Source: NCHS/US Census Bureau
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Those 85 and Older 3.3 times More Likely To Be Injured or Die in a Fire Source: Home Structure Fires, NFPA 2016
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ASHIInspec'onWorld,January24,2017SkipWalker,ACIMCI
Source: NFPA Home Structure Fires 2011
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Relative Fire Death & Injury Risk By Age Source: Home Structure Fires, NFPA 2015
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Age Impacts Survival Rate
• National Average Death Rate = 8.0/Million • “Older” Folks = 65+ Highest Risk
• 2.3 Times National Average • 85+ Highest Risk = 3.3 Times Higher Than
National Average
ASHIInspec'onWorld,January24,2017SkipWalker,ACIMCI 53
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ASHIInspec'onWorld,January24,2017SkipWalker,ACIMCI
Source: NFPA Home Structure Fires 2011
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Fire Death Rate is Generally Higher in Rural Areas Than Urban Source: Fire Loss, NFPA 2015
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ASHIInspec'onWorld,January24,2017SkipWalker,ACIMCI
Utah = .4 Relative Risk California = .5 Relative Risk Massachusetts = .6 Relative Risk New Mexico, Maryland, Virginia, Ohio, Nebraska = 1.0 Relative Risk National Average = 1.0 Relative Risk Beware: West Virginia = 2.2 Relative Risk District of Columbia = 2.8 Relative Risk Source: Fire in the US 17th Edition, 2003-2014, US Fire Administration
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ASHIInspec'onWorld,January24,2017SkipWalker,ACIMCISource: NFPA Fire Loss 2015
Residential Fires and Fire Deaths 1977-2015
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ASHIInspec'onWorld,January24,2017SkipWalker,ACIMCISource: NFPA Fire Loss 2015
Residential Fires and Fire Deaths 1977-2015
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ASHIInspec'onWorld,January24,2017SkipWalker,ACIMCISource: National Safety Council
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ASHIInspec'onWorld,January24,2017SkipWalker,ACIMCI
FiresInvolvingPeopleThatSmoke:
• SmokingRelatedFireVic=msAre3xMoreLikelytoBeIn=matewithFire
• ProximitytoFireMeansLessLikelytoBeSavedBySmokeAlarms,Etc.
• MostSmokingFiresand2/3'sofDeathsInvolveTrash,MaWresses,Bedding,UpholsteredFurniture
Sources:USFireAdmin.“BehavioralMiPgaPonofSmokingRelatedFires”FA-302Feb2006
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ASHIInspec'onWorld,January24,2017SkipWalker,ACIMCI
FiresInvolvingPeopleThatSmoke:
• InSmokingFires–25%ofVic=msWereNotTheSmoker
• 34%ofOtherVic=msWereChildren
• 25%WereNeighbors(FromAdjacentUnits)orFriends
• 14%WereSpousesSources:USFireAdmin.“BehavioralMiPgaPonofSmokingRelatedFires”FA-302Feb2006
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ASHIInspec'onWorld,January24,2017SkipWalker,ACIMCI
Sources:USFireAdmin.“ResidenPalBuildingFireTrends,2005-2014
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Overall,SmokingistheSecondLeadingCauseofFatalFires
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ASHIInspec'onWorld,January24,2017SkipWalker,ACIMCI
FireRetardantsAddedtoMaOresses,Furniture.Etc.:
• RetardantUseControversial• BerkeleyProfessor
• Long-TermImpactFireRetardantsSeeninRisingNumberofFiresBeginningwithIgni=onOtherthanUpholsteredFurniture,MaWresses,orBedding
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ASHIInspec'onWorld,January24,2017SkipWalker,ACIMCI
FireRetardantsAddedtoMaOresses,Furniture.Etc.:
FatalSmokingFiresNOTStar=nginUpholsteredFurniture,MaWresses,orBedding:
• 15%ofTotalin1980• 20%ofTotalin1990• 29%ofTotalin2000
Sources:USFireAdmin.“BehavioralMiPgaPonofSmokingRelatedFires”FA-302Feb2006
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ASHIInspec'onWorld,January24,2017SkipWalker,ACIMCI 64
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Source:HomeStructureFires,NFPA2015
Note:DataOmiZedfor1999-2002DuetoTransiPontoNFIRS5.0
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ASHIInspec'onWorld,January24,2017SkipWalker,ACIMCI
Improved Building Codes and Inspections:
l Additional Requirements for Fire-Blocking, Draft-Stopping l Separation Requirements Between Heavy Fire Load Areas and Living Spaces l Generally More Sophisticated Inspectors
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ASHIInspec'onWorld,January24,2017SkipWalker,ACIMCI
Improvements in Electrical Wiring & Fire Related Construction:
l 90% of Electrical Fires Occur in Homes That Are 10 Years Old or Older (NFPA 73)
l Better Understanding of Fire Progression
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ASHIInspec'onWorld,January24,2017SkipWalker,ACIMCI
Home-heating deaths have decreased by over 60%:
l Safer Gas and Electric Heat Appliances l Safety Devices on Portable Electric Heaters, etc. l Still a Leading Cause of Residential Fires and Fatalities
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ASHIInspec'onWorld,January24,2017SkipWalker,ACIMCI 68
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Source:HomeFiresInvolvingHeaPngEquipment,NFPA2016
Note:DataOmiZedfor1999-2002DuetoTransiPontoNFIRS5.0
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ASHIInspec'onWorld,January24,2017SkipWalker,ACIMCI
Dramatic Increase in Full Spectrum Burn Centers:
1975: 12 Full Spectrum Burn Care Units in US
1999: 100 Burn Care Units with 25 Full Spectrum Burn Care Units “On a yearly basis, deaths, once the victim has been placed into the burn care system, have decreased from around 4,000 to 1,000” Source:FEMA:AmericaBurning:Recommissioned,May2000
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ASHIInspec'onWorld,January24,2017SkipWalker,ACIMCI
Firefighters Use of SCBA: “It has been my personal experience that Fire
Fighters SCBA has made a significant contribution to victims survival rate.”
*SCBA = Self Contained Breathing ApparatusSource:Photoelectric&Ioniza=onSmokeAlarmsRe-Visited
JayFleming,DeputyFireChief,BostonMA,Dec2010
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So, What Is The Point? • There Are Many Reasons For The Drop In The Fire Death Rate
• The Drop In The Number Of Smokers Tracks Closest To The Drop In Fires and Fatalities
• The Installation Of Smoke Alarms Seems To Have Had Relatively Little Influence
• All Fires Do Not Carry The Same Risk!
ASHIInspec'onWorld,January24,2017SkipWalker,ACIMCI 71
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ASHIInspec'onWorld,January24,2017SkipWalker,ACIMCI
Let's Look At Smoke Alarms
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ASHIInspec'onWorld,January24,2017SkipWalker,ACIMCI
BriefHistoryofSmokeAlarms:*1929:WalterKiddeObtainsFirstULLis=ngforShipboardSmokeDetector
1955:FirstFireAlarms–UsesHeatCue
1960's-1970's:StudiesDetermineThatSmokeSensorsMoreEffec=veThanHeat
1965:FirstSingle-Sta=onSmokeAlarm–120VACPhotoelectric
1967:NFPAFounded
1970:First9VoltPoweredSingleSta=onAlarmInvented–Ioniza=onType
Mid-1970's:SmokeAlarmSalesAccelerate
1976:NFPA101–LifeSafetyCodeRequiresSmokeAlarmsinSingleFamilyHomes
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ASHIInspec'onWorld,January24,2017SkipWalker,ACIMCI
BriefHistoryofSmokeAlarms:*1973-1979:ModelCodesRequireSmokeAlarmsin1&2UnitDwellings
Mid-1970's:FHA/VARequireSmokeAlarmstoQualifyforFunding
1976:UL217SmokeAlarmTestDeveloped
1977:IndianaDunesSmokeAlarmTestsConducted
1978:NFPA74RequiresEveryLevelCoverage
1980:HalfofUSHomesHaveatLeastOneSmokeAlarm
1982:Two-ThirdsofUSHomesHaveatLeastOneSmokeAlarm
1984:Three-QuartersofUSHomesHaveatLeastOneSmokeAlarm
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ASHIInspec'onWorld,January24,2017SkipWalker,ACIMCI
BriefHistoryofSmokeAlarms:*1984:ModelCodesRequireOneAlarmPerLevel
1985:UL217SensiEvityLevelLoweredtoReduceNuisanceTripping
1988:ModelCodesCallForSmokeAlarmsinBedroomsandInterconnectedinNewConstruc=on
1989:NFPA74RequiresSmokeAlarmstoBeInterconnectedinNewConstruc=on
1993:NFPA72RequiresSmokeAlarmsinBedroomsinNewConstruc=on
1995:10YearLithiumBaWerySmokeAlarmIntroduced
1999:NFPA72RequiresReplacementofSmokeAlarmsAker10Years
2009:HomeswithatLeastOneSmokeAlarm-Approximately95%*PrimarySource:WhitePaper,Private/PublicFireSafetyCouncil,April2006
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ASHIInspec'onWorld,January24,2017SkipWalker,ACIMCI
SmokeAlarms/DetectorsinResiden'alConstruc'on
SmokeDetector:
SensorOnly,ConnectedtoaCentralSystemwithSeparateAnnunciator/Horn
SmokeAlarm:
SingleStaPon,SensorandAnnunciator/HorninSinglePackage
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ASHIInspec'onWorld,January24,2017SkipWalker,ACIMCI
SmokeAlarms/DetectorsinResiden'alConstruc'on
InResidenPalConstrucPon,TheTwoSmokeAlarmSensorTechnologyTypesMostCommonlyFoundAre:
IonizaEonPhotoelectric
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DeadlyDifferencesIoniza'onvsPhotoelectricSmokeAlarms
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ASHIInspec'onWorld,January24,2017SkipWalker,ACIMCI
Residen'alSmokeAlarms/Detectors
• Alarms:Smoke/FireResponseTest:UL217
• Detectors:Smoke/FireResponseTest:UL268
• CanadianStandardsDifferent• GenerallyMoreStrict
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ASHIInspec'onWorld,January24,2017SkipWalker,ACIMCI
IonizaEonAlarms:• MostPrevalentAlarmSensorTypeinUSMarket
• Approximately95%ofSingleSta=onAlarmInstalla=ons
• UsesaSmallAmountofRadioac=veMaterialtoChargeAir,Par=clesinAirDisruptCurrentFlowandSetOffAlarm
• DetectsSmallPar=cleSizesWell,.3MicronandLess
79
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ASHIInspec'onWorld,January24,2017SkipWalker,ACIMCI
DifferencesBetweenAlarmSensorTypes:
Ioniza'on:• DetectsSmall,FastMovingPar=clesBest
• PooratDetec=ngLarge,SlowMovingPar=cles
• ColorandDensity–Rela=velyInsensi=ve• NuisanceTripping:High
80
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ASHIInspec'onWorld,January24,2017SkipWalker,ACIMCI
PhotoelectricSmokeAlarms:
• InUSMarket,LowButGrowingMarketShare
• Historically,5%(Es=mate)ofSingleSta=onAlarms
• IncreasinglyManufacturesMovingResiden=alAlarmstoPhotoelectricOnlyProducts
• BostonHasPhotoTechnologyOrdinance–70%ofSales
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ASHIInspec'onWorld,January24,2017SkipWalker,ACIMCI
PhotoelectricSmokeAlarms:
• UsesanLEDLightSourceandSensor• SmokePar=clesinAirScaWerLightontoSensorandSetOffAlarm
• DetectsLargerPar=clesBest,.5MicronandUp
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ASHIInspec'onWorld,January24,2017SkipWalker,ACIMCI
DifferencesBetweenAlarmSensorTypes:
Photoelectric:• DetectsMedium/LargePar=clesBest
• LessSensi=vetoSmallFastMovingPar=cles
• ColorandDensity–Insensi=vetoColorless,LowSensi=vitytoBlackPar=cles,DetectsSmokeDensityWell
NuisanceTripping:Low83
DeadlyDifferencesIoniza'onvsPhotoelectricSmokeAlarms
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ASHIInspec'onWorld,January24,2017SkipWalker,ACIMCI
FireTypes:
FastFlameFires:
• FlamesVisible,ShortDura=on
• FoundinCookingFires,AccelerantBasedFires,LastStageSmolderingFires
• GeneratesSmallFastMovingPar=cles84
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ASHIInspec'onWorld,January24,2017SkipWalker,ACIMCI
FireTypes:
SmolderingFires:• NoFlamesVisible,LongDura=on• FoundinSmokingFires,ElectricalFires,Hea=ngFires,
UpholsteredFurniture• GeneratesMedium/LargeSlowMovingPar=cles• Smoke“Aging”/Aglomera=on
85
DeadlyDifferencesIoniza'onvsPhotoelectricSmokeAlarms
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ASHIInspec'onWorld,January24,2017SkipWalker,ACIMCI
UL 217 Standard for Single Station Smoke Alarms: • TheTheoryIsGreat• PerformanceBasedStandard• TechnologyIndependent• TheProblemIsTheWorldIsn’tPerfect• ManufacturersDon’tWanttoVoteforaStandardThat
TheirProductCan’tMeet• SotheStandardGetsSoWateredDownThatAnything
CanMeetIt……
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ASHIInspec'onWorld,January24,2017SkipWalker,ACIMCI
UL STP 217: ULStandardsTechnicalPanel:
• 43Members,Including3Non-Vo'ng• ResponsibleforDevelopingtheSmokeAlarmTes'ng
Standard• Composedof13Producers/Manufacturers,7AHJ’s,6
Tes'ng/Standard’sincludingUL,3Consumer,11General-Academic/Fire/Etc.• SomeGeneralMayBeManufacturersorIndustryConsultants
87
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ASHIInspec'onWorld,January24,2017SkipWalker,ACIMCI
UL STP 217: ULStandardsTechnicalPanel:
• Requires2/3’sVotetoChangeStandard• ManufacturesHaveMoreThan1/3ofVotes
• AllowsProducersToEffec'velyBlockAnyChangeTheyDon’tWant
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ASHIInspec'onWorld,January24,2017SkipWalker,ACIMCI
InaNutshell…….
TheFoxIsWatchingTheHenHouseAndtheGuessWhoAretheHens.
89
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ASHIInspec'onWorld,January24,2017SkipWalker,ACIMCI
HowDoWeTestSmokeAlarmResponseToday?CurrentUL217Test:
• FlamingTest
• UsesHepthane(ThinkKerosene)• SmolderingTest
• DouglasFironaHotPlate
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ASHIInspec'onWorld,January24,2017SkipWalker,ACIMCI
HowDoWeTestSmokeAlarmResponseToday?CurrentUL217Test:
• TestIncludesaSensi=vityTestBox
• LiterallyaWoodBoxwithaHotPlateandaFan• InducedAirFlowAcrossAlarmat32/fpm–Why?• MaterialsandCondiPonsNotRepresentaPveofReal
WorldCondiPons• AndReallyNeverWere
91
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ASHIInspec'onWorld,January24,2017SkipWalker,ACIMCI
HowDoWeTestSmokeAlarmResponseToday?UL217TestBox:
92
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ASHIInspec'onWorld,January24,2017SkipWalker,ACIMCI
HowDoWeTestSmokeAlarmResponseToday?UL217Test:
IsItReallySurprisingThatWeHaveAlarmPerformanceIssues?
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ASHIInspec'onWorld,January24,2017SkipWalker,ACIMCI
HowDoWeTestSmokeAlarmResponseToday?CurrentUL217FlamingTest:
• AlarmMustTriggerat.5%-10.0%/kO.D.
• AlarmMustTriggerWithin240sec
• OpenFlameTestUsingHepthane(thinkKerosene,etc.)Note:O.D.=OpPcalDensity
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ASHIInspec'onWorld,January24,2017SkipWalker,ACIMCI
HowDoWeTestAlarmResponseToday?CurrentUL217Non-FlamingTest:
• AlarmMustTriggerat.5%-10.0%*/kO.D.
• UsesDouglasFironaHotPlate• WithAFanBlowingSmokeatSmokeAlarm
• “Direc=onalityTest”–Why?*EsPmatedMax.O.D.forUL217Non-FlamingTest
Note:O.D.=OpPcalDensity95
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Smoke Optical Density/OD To Trigger
0% 20%
ASHIInspec'onWorld,January24,2017SkipWalker,ACIMCI
High Nuisance Tripping Low
High Tenability Low
More Sensitive = More Nuisance Trips/Earlier Warning
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DeadlyDifferencesIoniza'onvsPhotoelectricSmokeAlarms
UL 217 .5-10 (Est)
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Smoke Optical Density/OD To Trigger
0% 20%
ASHIInspec'onWorld,January24,2017SkipWalker,ACIMCI
High Nuisance Tripping Low
High Tenability Low
97
DeadlyDifferencesIoniza'onvsPhotoelectricSmokeAlarms
Less Sensitive = Less Nuisance Trips/Delayed Warning
UL 217 .5-10 (Est)
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Factory Alarm 4%-7%/M OD (NIST Dual Alarm 2009
0% 20%
ASHIInspec'onWorld,January24,2017SkipWalker,ACIMCI
High Nuisance Tripping Low
High Tenability Low
UL 217 .5-10 (Est)
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ASHIInspec'onWorld,January24,2017SkipWalker,ACIMCI
CPSCReasonsforDisablingAlarms:1992Studyof1000Households
HalfofIntenEonalDisconnectsDuetoNuisanceTrips
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ASHIInspec'onWorld,January24,2017SkipWalker,ACIMCI
PendingUL217Modifica'on:• ItTook19YearstoGetThisThroughthe217CommiUee
• EliminatesOldFlamingandSmolderTests
• AddsPolyurethaneFoamFlamingandSmolderingTest
• RemovesLowerTripLimitof.5%O.D.
• AddsNuisanceAlarmTest
• Finally!!!100
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ASHIInspec'onWorld,January24,2017SkipWalker,ACIMCI
PendingUL217Modifica'on:• ApprovedinOct.2015• TwoYearsBeforeItBecomesEffecEve–Oct.2107
• AssumingItIsn’tModfiedInMeanPme
• ManufacturersAllowedtoSellInventoryinSupplyChain
• ItCouldTakeSeveralMoreYearsBeforeOldAlarmsAre“Flushed”FromSystem
101
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ASHIInspec'onWorld,January24,2017SkipWalker,ACIMCI
PendingUL217Modifica'on:• ProposedFlamingPUTest:
• PUIgnitedtoCreateOpenFlame• Maximum5%O.D.• MaximumMICPerTable• PUFoam–NoColorants/FireRetardants(NotRealWorld)• ValidTestFallsInsideULTestProfile–SeeNextSlide• ControlledAmbientTemperature,MaterialMoistureContentand
Composi=on102
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ASHIInspec'onWorld,January24,2017SkipWalker,ACIMCI 103
DeadlyDifferencesIoniza'onvsPhotoelectricSmokeAlarms
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ASHIInspec'onWorld,January24,2017SkipWalker,ACIMCI
PendingUL217Modifica'on:• ProposedNon-FlamingPUTest:
• PUInducedtoSmolderWithoutTransi=oningtoanOpenFlame–SeveralMethodsAllowed
• O.D.CannotExceed12%-HigherThanCurrent• MaximumMICPerTable• PUFoam–NoColorants/FireRetardants(NotRealWorld)• ValidTestFallsInsideULTestProfile–SeeNextSlide• ControlledAmbientTemperature,MaterialMoistureContentand
Composi=on 104
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ASHIInspec'onWorld,January24,2017SkipWalker,ACIMCI 105
DeadlyDifferencesIoniza'onvsPhotoelectricSmokeAlarms
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ASHIInspec'onWorld,January24,2017SkipWalker,ACIMCI
PendingUL217Modifica'on:• ProposedNuisanceTest:
• UsesBroiledHamburgers• AlarmCannotTripatLessThan1.5%O.D.• MaximumMICPerTable• MaximumCOBasedonTime• AlarmsPlaced10k.fromCookingSource• ValidTestFallsInsideULTestProfile–SeeNextSlide• ControlledAmbientTemperature,HamburgerComposi=on
106
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ASHIInspec'onWorld,January24,2017SkipWalker,ACIMCI 107
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ASHIInspec'onWorld,January24,2017SkipWalker,ACIMCI
PendingUL217Modifica'on:• OnOct7,2016ProposedChangeMadetoPendingTest:
• AddsPlacementofCOMonitor• Implica=onsAsToImplementa=onDateUncertain• OneProducerIsLobbyingForCertainAlarmstoBe
ExemptedfromNuisanceTest
108
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ASHIInspec'onWorld,January24,2017SkipWalker,ACIMCI
PendingUL217Modifica'on:• SomeInsidersThinkIoniza'onAlarmsWillNotBeAbleto
PassNuisanceTest• IfThisHappens–ItShouldBeTheEndForStand-AloneIon
Alarms• ThatMeansYouCanRecommendUpgradingOldAlarms
JustLikeRecommendingUpgradestoGFCI• ThisWillNotHappenOvernight
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ASHIInspec'onWorld,January24,2017SkipWalker,ACIMCI
WhatAboutCombina=onAlarms?
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ASHIInspec'onWorld,January24,2017SkipWalker,ACIMCI
Defini=onofCombina=onAlarmNFPA72/2013
A.3.3.66.4Combina'onDetector.ThesedetectorsdonotuPlizeamathemaPcalevaluaPonprincipleofsignalprocessingmorethanasimple“OR”func=on.Normally,thesedetectorsprovideasingleresponseresulPngfromeithersensingmethod,eachofwhichoperatesindependentoftheother.Thesedevicescanprovideaseparateanddis=nctresponseresul=ngfromeithersensingmethod,eachofwhichisprocessedindependentoftheother.
111
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ASHIInspec'onWorld,January24,2017SkipWalker,ACIMCI
Combina'onAlarms• TwoorMoreSensingDevices,Ion,Photo,CO,etc.
• SharedPowerSource/HornInOneCase
• “OR”Logic:FirstSensortoTriggerMakesNoise• SmokeAlarmPerformanceShouldBeIdenPcalToSeparate
IonandPhotoAlarms–AllOtherThingsBeingEqual112
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ASHIInspec'onWorld,January24,2017SkipWalker,ACIMCI
NIST: Performance of Dual Photoelectric/Ionization Smoke Alarms in Full-Scale Fire Tests / 2009 ...Examines data from two full-scale smoke alarm fire tests to provide someinsightintotheperformanceofdualphotoelectric/ioniza=onalarmsascomparedto individualphotoelectricor ioniza=onalarms.ThetwotestseriesaretheNISThomesmokealarmtestsandtheNa=onalResearchCouncil(NRC)
Theanalysispresentedbelow focusesonasingleaspect of alarmperformance:the'metoalarmduringexposuretovariousfiresmokes
Noconsidera=onwasmadetoaccountfortenabilitycondi=onsanywhereinthehomes, nor any egress scenarios. Furthermore, nuisance alarm suscep=bili=esthat may factor into the overall alarm performance were not considered.
NISTSupDet/Cleary2009113
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ASHIInspec'onWorld,January24,2017SkipWalker,ACIMCI
CombinaEonIon/PhotoAlarms:
NIST:Thealarmlogicisan{OR}-typesuchthatthealarmisac=vatedifeitherthephotoelectricsensororioniza=onsensoralarmthresholdismet.Theindividualsensorsensi'vi'esarenottestedseparately.Therefore,manufacturershavethefreedomtoseteachsensor’ssensi=vityseparately.Sinceanindividualsensorcanbesettomeetallcurrentsensi'vitystandards,itisnotobviouswhatoverallbenefitisachievedfromadualalarmwithanaddi=onalsensortechnologythatcouldbemoreorlesssensi=vethanwhatwouldbefoundinastandaloneunitemployingsuchasensor.
DeadlyDifferencesIoniza'onvsPhotoelectricSmokeAlarms
NISTSupDet/Cleary2009114
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ASHIInspec'onWorld,January24,2017SkipWalker,ACIMCI
NISTDualAlarmStudy:
PhotoelectricSensi=vityEs=matedat6.6%l SensorCalibra=onandVariabilityNotMeasured
Ioniza=onSensi=vitySetManuallyto2.6%,4.3%,5.9%l AllIon'SensorsModified–2.6IsLowerThanManf.Sesngsl SensorVariabilityMeasured–SensorAccuracyAppears
toVaryBetween+-1.5%to5%NISTSupDet/Cleary2009
115
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ASHIInspec'onWorld,January24,2017SkipWalker,ACIMCI
NISTDualAlarmStudy:
These sta=s=cs (Canadian) lead to the conclusion that the dual photoelectric sensorand thephotoelectric alarmhadnominally the samealarm sensi=vity sesngs, andconversely, the ioniza'on sensor in the dual alarm was more sensi've than theioniza'onalarmsensor.Also,onecanconcludethatsomeofthebenefitofthedualalarm used in this study can be aOributed to amore sensi've ioniza'on sensor,comparedtothestand-aloneioniza=onalarm.
Results of Three Flaming Tests
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ASHIInspec'onWorld,January24,2017SkipWalker,ACIMCI
NISTDualAlarmStudy:
Photoelectric/Flaming – 6.6% Dual/Flaming – Low Sen/5.9%
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ASHIInspec'onWorld,January24,2017SkipWalker,ACIMCI
NISTDualAlarmStudy:Table 4 gives the mean, median and standard devia=on of the alarm=mes for ini=ally smoldering fires with the bedroom door opened.Figures 10-13 show histograms of the alarm =mes of the middlesensi=vity ioniza=on alarm, photoelectric alarm, dual 1 alarmconfigura=on,anddual3alarmconfigura=onforthissetoftests.Thedual alarm configura'ons yieldedmuch faster average alarm'mesthantheioniza'onalarmsandaveragealarm'mesnearlyequivalenttothephotoelectricalarm.
118
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ASHIInspec'onWorld,January24,2017SkipWalker,ACIMCI
NISTDualAlarmStudy:
119
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ASHIInspec'onWorld,January24,2017SkipWalker,ACIMCI
NISTDualAlarmStudy:
Photoelectric/Smoldering – 6.6% Ion/Smoldering Dual/Smoldering - Low Sen/5.9%
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ASHIInspec'onWorld,January24,2017SkipWalker,ACIMCI
NISTDualAlarmStudy:ReportConclusions:3) Over the sensi=vity range examined in theNIST study,dual alarms exhibitedalmost no average decrease in alarm 'me compared to photoelectric alarmsduring ini'ally smoldering fire scenarios, irrespec=ve of the ioniza=on sensorsensi=vity(4sto3sfromhightolowsensi=vitysesngs).Dualalarmsexhibitedapronouncedaveragedecreaseinalarm'mescomparedtophotoelectricalarmsfor ini'ally flaming fire scenarios (38 s to 29 s from high to low sensi=vitysesngs).For thekitchenfires, theaveragedecrease inalarm=mewasastrongfunc=onofioniza=onsensorsensi=vity(197sto18sfromhightolowsensi=vitysesngs).For the fireswith the bedroomdoor closed, dual alarms exhibited asustained average decrease in alarm 'me compared to photoelectric alarms(103sto94sfromhightolowsensi=vitysesngs).
121
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ASHIInspec'onWorld,January24,2017SkipWalker,ACIMCI
DualAlarmStudyPointstoConsider:The report illustrates that when a dual alarm responds faster in asmolderingfire– it isbecausethephotoelectricpor=onissettoamoresensi=vesesngthatastandalonephotoelectricalarm
When a dual alarm responds faster in a flaming fire – it is because theioniza=on por=on is set to a more sensi=ve sesng that a standaloneioniza=onalarm
Thetestssetioniza=onalarmstosesngsthataremoresensi=vethanthoseavailableincommerciallyavailablealarms
Thetestsdidnotconsidertheimpactofsensi=vityonnuisancetrippingandconsequently–inten=onaldisconnects
Thereportdidnotcorrelateresponse=mestorequiresafeegress=mes
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ASHIInspec'onWorld,January24,2017SkipWalker,ACIMCI
MoreSimplyPut:IfYouTakeSomethingThatWorksand
CombineItWithSomethingThatDoesn't,
HowCanTheCombinedDeviceBeBeZer?
123
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ASHIInspec'onWorld,January24,2017SkipWalker,ACIMCI
TenabilityCriteria:Tenability,AnEs=mateofWhentheEnvironmentBecomesTooHazardoustoSafelyAllowEgress
NISTSmokeAlarmTestsUsedtheFollowingCriteriaforTenability:
Temperature: GreaterThan88oC/190oF
COGasConcentra=on: Range:.02%-.03%
SmokeObscura=on: O.D.*LessThan/Equalto.25%/M*O.D.=OpPcalDensity
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ASHIInspec'onWorld,January24,2017SkipWalker,ACIMCI
SomeTerms/AcronymsUsedinTestResults:
ASET=AvailableSafeEgressTime
RSET=RequiredSafeEgressTime
Untenable=Condi=onWillNotSupportLifeWithoutSpecialEquipment
Flashover=SimultaneousIgni=onofCombus=bleMaterialsInanEnclosedArea
125
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ASHIInspec'onWorld,January24,2017SkipWalker,ACIMCI
ImportantFactstoKeepinMind:Cooking/FastFlameFiresAccountfor:
43%ofFires,39%ofInjuriesand16%ofDeathsSmolderingFiresAccountfor:
23%ofFires,30%ofInjuriesand61%ofDeaths
126
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ASHIInspec'onWorld,January24,2017SkipWalker,ACIMCI
ImportantFactstoKeepinMind:NearlyTwo-ThirdsofAllResidenPalFataliPesOccurInHomesWithEitherNoAlarmorNon-FuncPonalAlarms
USHomeswithNoSmokeAlarmInstalled–About4%
Roughly96%of“NoFuncPonalAlarm”FireDeathsOccurinHomeswithSmokeAlarmsThatAreNotFuncPonal
127
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ASHIInspec'onWorld,January24,2017SkipWalker,ACIMCI
NowLet'sTakeLookatANumberofNIST/NFPA/UL/University/Canadian/UK/
NorwegianTestsandResultsComparingthePerformanceofIonizaPonandPhotoelectric
AlarmsUnderVariousFireCondiPons
ThisisWheretheRubberHitstheRoad.....
128
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ASHIInspec'onWorld,January24,2017SkipWalker,ACIMCI
Studies/Tests/Ar=clesovera30yearperiod
AllPublishedandAvailableforReview
AllReputableSources
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ASHIInspec'onWorld,January24,2017SkipWalker,ACIMCI
Test/Study:
Agency: FactoryMutualStudy(Heskestad)
Year: 1974
UsedSynthePcMaterial: Yes
DuraPonofSmolderingTest: >30Mins
Comments: IonGoodforFlaming/BadforSmoldering PhotoGoodforSmoldering/BadforFlaming
IonFlawsInherent/NotFixablePhotoFlawFixablebyCorrecPngSmokeEntryIssues–WasFixedinEarly80's
130
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ASHIInspec'onWorld,January24,2017SkipWalker,ACIMCI
Test/Study:
Agency: IndianaDunesTest
Year: 1976
UsedSynthePcMaterial: No
DuraPonofSmolderingTest: >30Mins
Comments: SmokeDetectorsBeZerThanHeatDetectors,OnePerLevelDesirable
Note:DunesTestWasActuallyThreeSeparateTests131
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ASHIInspec'onWorld,January24,2017SkipWalker,ACIMCI
Test/Study:
Agency: MassachuseZsAnalysisofDunesTest
Year: 1976
UsedSynthePcMaterial: N/A
DuraPonofSmolderingTest: N/A
Comments:AnalysisofDunesDataOnly-ADetectorPerLevelWillProvide3MinEscapeTime89%ofTime
132
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ASHIInspec'onWorld,January24,2017SkipWalker,ACIMCI
Test/Study:
Agency: EdmontonFireDeptTest
Year: 1976
UsedSynthePcMaterial: Unknown
DuraPonofSmolderingTest: >60Mins
Comments:BothIonandPhotoimprovelifesafety/survivalratesInsmolderingfires,Ion'smaygoofftoolate
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ASHIInspec'onWorld,January24,2017SkipWalker,ACIMCI
Test/Study:
Agency: MinneapolisFireDeptTest
Year: 1978
UsedSynthePcMaterial: Yes
DuraPonofSmolderingTest: <10Mins
Comments: BothIonandPhoto'sgavegoodearlywarningifsmokecouldreachdetector
134
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ASHIInspec'onWorld,January24,2017SkipWalker,ACIMCI
Test/Study:
Agency: CalChiefs/LAFireDeptTest
Year: 1978
UsedSynthePcMaterial: Yes–ModernFurnitureUsed
DuraPonofSmolderingTest: >30Mins
Comments: SmokeDetectorsMoreReliablethanHeatDetectors.NISTConcludedBothAdequate.LAFD&IAFCFavoredPhoto'sBasedonResults
Note:IAFC=InternaPonalAssociaPonofFireChiefs135
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ASHIInspec'onWorld,January24,2017SkipWalker,ACIMCI
Test/Study:
Agency: UKFireResStaEonTest
Year: 1978
UsedSynthePcMaterial: Yes
DuraPonofSmolderingTest: >30Mins
Comments: BothIon&PhotoSmokeDetectorsRespondRapidlytoFlamingFires.Ion'sWereNotAdequateinSmolderingFires
136
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ASHIInspec'onWorld,January24,2017SkipWalker,ACIMCI
Test/Study:
Agency: AustralianSmolderingTest–PubinFireTechMag
Year: 1986
UsedSynthePcMaterial: Yes
DuraPonofSmolderingTest: <10Mins
Comments: Photo'sProvideAdequateEscapeTimesinMostFires.Ion'sGenerallyInadequateEscapeTimes
137
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ASHIInspec'onWorld,January24,2017SkipWalker,ACIMCI
Test/Study:
Agency: NorwegianFireResearchLabStudy
Year: 1993
UsedSynthePcMaterial: Yes
DuraPonofSmolderingTest: >30Mins
Comments: Ion'sAreInadequateforSmolderingFires.Ion'sOnly15-20SecBeZerThanPhoto'sinFlamingFires.AdvantageOnlyBeneficialinExtraordinaryCircumstances
138
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ASHIInspec'onWorld,January24,2017SkipWalker,ACIMCI
Test/Study:
Agency: TexasA&MRiskAnalysisofResFire DetectorPerformance
Year: 1995
UsedSynthePcMaterial: N/A–AnalysisofPriorData
Comments: TookPreviousMajorStudiesplusTexasA&M21/2YearFireSimulaPonStudy.BuiltaRiskModeltoEsPmateFailuretoAlarmRatesBasedonFireIncidentReports/TypesandSmokeAlarmTypes
139
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ASHIInspec'onWorld,January24,2017SkipWalker,ACIMCI
TexasA&MRiskAnalysisofResidenEalFireDetectorPerformance
FinalTexasA&MReportConclusions:IonizaEonAlarmSmolderingFailureRates: 55.80%
PhotoelectricAlarmSmolderingFailureRates: 4.06%
MeaningIonizaEonAlarmsWorkAbout45%ofTime
WhilePhotoelectricAlarmsWork96%ofTime140
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ASHIInspec'onWorld,January24,2017SkipWalker,ACIMCI
TexasA&MRiskAnalysisofResidenEalFireDetectorPerformance
FinalTexasA&MReportConclusions:IonizaEonAlarmFlamingFailureRates: 19.80%
PhotoelectricAlarmFlamingFailureRates: 3.99%
MeaningIonizaEonAlarmsWorkAbout80.2%ofTime
WhilePhotoelectricAlarmsWorkAbout96%ofTime141
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ASHIInspec'onWorld,January24,2017SkipWalker,ACIMCI
TexasA&MReport• ResultsLargelyIgnoredByNIST,NFPA,CPSC,Etc.• NotReferencedinMaryland,CaliforniaorOhioSFMTaskforces
• Yet,ResultsCompareWelltoNewerStudies
142
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ASHIInspec'onWorld,January24,2017SkipWalker,ACIMCI
Test/Study:
Agency: UKSmokeAlarmsinTypDwelling–Partl
Year: 1997
UsedSynthePcMaterial: Yes
DuraPonofSmolderingTest: >30Mins
Comments:Ion'sCannotBeGuaranteedtoDetectSmolderingFires.Ion'sBeZerThanPhoto'sinFlamingFires.AdvantageCouldbeCriPcal
Note:FiresSmoldered>30Mins143
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ASHIInspec'onWorld,January24,2017SkipWalker,ACIMCI
Test/Study:
Agency: UKPracEcalComparisonofSmokeAlarms–Partll
Year: 1997
UsedSynthePcMaterial: Yes
DuraPonofSmolderingTest: <15Mins
Comments:BothIon'sandPhoto'Adequate.
Note:FiresSmoldered<15Mins.ThereWasanUnexplainedChangeinWayResearchersIgnitedFires
144
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ASHIInspec'onWorld,January24,2017SkipWalker,ACIMCI
Test/Study:
Agency: SimplexStudy
Year: 2001
UsedSynthePcMaterial: UL217Test
DuraPonofSmolderingTest: UL217Test
Comments:Ion'sSlightlyBeZerinFlamingFires.Photo'sProvideClearAdvantageinSmolderingFires.
145
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ASHIInspec'onWorld,January24,2017SkipWalker,ACIMCI
Test/Study:Agency: KermanoFireStudyYear: 2003UsedSynthePcMaterial: YesDuraPonofSmolderingTest: <15MinsComments:CombinaPonAlarmsWorkedBest.Ion'sBestforFlamingFires.Photo'sBestforSmolderingFires.AllGaveAdequateEvacuaPonTimes.
Note:AlarmsUsedWereUL-Canada–ULCStandardIsDifferentthanUSStandardi.e.MoreSensiPve
146
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ASHIInspec'onWorld,January24,2017SkipWalker,ACIMCI
Test/Study:Agency: NISTFireStudyYear: 2003UsedSynthePcMaterial: YesDuraPonofSmolderingTest: N/A–VarietyofScenariosComments:“BothcommonresidenPalsmokealarmtechnologies(ionizaPonandphotoelectric)providedposiPveescapePmesinmostfirescenarios”.
Note:IonAlarmsProvideda-43sec,-54secanda+16EscapeTimeinTwooftheDeadliestFireScenarios.PosiPveEscapeTimeDoesNotEqualEnoughTimetoEscape
147
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ASHIInspec'onWorld,January24,2017SkipWalker,ACIMCI
NIST2003:
Fig1:Test34SmolderingFireInLivingRoom
Note:Thisisoneofthedeadliestfirescenarios
148
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ASHIInspec'onWorld,January24,2017SkipWalker,ACIMCI
NIST2003:DataforPreviousSlide–NoteIonResponseFarExceedsULRequiredUpperResponseThresholdof10%O.D
149
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NIST2003:
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NIST2003:
151
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ASHIInspec'onWorld,January24,2017SkipWalker,ACIMCI
PublicTes'mony:Agency: NISTPublicStatementtoBostonCityCouncilYear: 2004However,ionizaEondetectorshavebeenshowntosomeEmesfailtoalarminasmolderingfireevenwhenvisibilityintheroomissignificantlydegradedbysmoke.Mostphotoelectricdetectorsalarmsubstan=allysoonerinthesesitua=ons.IntheNISTexperimentsthephotoelectricdetectorssensedsmolderingfiresonaverage30minutesearlierthantheioniza=ondetectors.Thesamestudydemonstratedthationiza=ondetectorsresponded,onaverage,50secondsearlierthanphotoelectricdetectorsduringflamingfireexperiments.TherelaEvemarginsofsafetyassociatedwitha30minuteearlierwarninginaslowgrowingsmolderingfirecomparedtoa50secondearlierwarningforafastgrowingflamingfireisdifficulttodetermine.
152
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ASHIInspec'onWorld,January24,2017SkipWalker,ACIMCI
Test/Study:Agency: NISTFireStudyYear: 2008UsedSynthePcMaterial:VarietyofMaterialsFlame/SmolderingComments:AllAlarmsRespondedinFlameTestswithinStds.WoodSmolderTest:PhotoelectricalarmsreachedthresholdsearlierandatmorelocaPonsthanionizaPonalarms
PolyurethaneFoamSmolderTest:Thepropensitywasforphotoelectricalarmstoreachthresholdvaluesduringsmoldering,andallalarmstoreachthresholdsaiertransiEontoflaming.
153
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ASHIInspec'onWorld,January24,2017SkipWalker,ACIMCI
Test/Study:Agency: FEMASmokeAlarmWhitePaperYear: 2006UsedSynthePcMaterial: N/A–LimitedFieldTestOnlyl Comments:24%ofUSHouseholdsSurveyedHadEitherNoAlarmorNon-FuncPonalAlarm–Accountsfor2/3'sofFireDeaths
l 50%ofHouseholdswithNon-Func=onalAlarmsCitedNuisanceTripsasReasonforDisablingAlsoLookedatAge,Race,IncomeLevelsvsRisk
l 97%ofNuisanceAlarmsWereIonizaPonAlarms(**NFPA/NIST/CPSC)154
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ASHIInspec'onWorld,January24,2017SkipWalker,ACIMCI
ULSmokeCharacteriza'onProject:
TheStudyCollectedDataonSmokeCharacteris=cssuchas:
Par=cleSize,Par=cleColor,HeatGenera=on,GasGenera=onUnderUL217TestCondi=ons
Table25SummarizestheResultsofResiden=alIoniza=onandPhotoelectricAlarmResponseTimestotheMaterialsTestedinNon-Flaming/SmolderingCondi=ons(UL217)
155
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ASHIInspec'onWorld,January24,2017SkipWalker,ACIMCI
ULSmokeCharacteriza'onProject:OtherSmolderingFireResults:SmolderingPonderosaPine,aUL217TestMaterial:In217Test-PhotoelectricAlarms-2.3%Faster(BasicallytheSameIoniza=onAlarmsDidNotRespondin1of5ULTestMaterialsA25%NoAlarmRateBread/Toaster:IonizaPonAlarms22%FasterResponse
InOther8SmolderingTestSynthe'cMaterialScenarios:Ioniza'onAlarmsDidNotRespondProperlyDuringtheTests
156
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Smoke Alarm Response to Non-Flaming Fires The photoelectric alarm activated first in the non-flaming tests with the exception of the higher energy bread/toaster test in which the ion alarm activated first. The UL 217 smoldering Ponderosa pine test triggered both the ionization and photoelectric smoke alarms. For many of the other materials, the ionization smoke alarm did not trigger. In each of these cases, the obscuration value was less than the 10 %/ft limit specified in UL 217. It was also found that there was settling of the smoke particles in the test room over time. Measurements from several non-flaming tests showed that the obscuration values at the ceiling dropped over time, and the maximum obscuration values were observed at the 2 feet measurement location below the ceiling.
ASHIInspec'onWorld,January24,2017SkipWalker,ACIMCI 158
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ASHIInspec'onWorld,January24,2017SkipWalker,ACIMCI
Ion Did Not Respond In 1 Out Of 5 UL 217 Tests – 20% Failure Rate
This Is The Test and Material Alarms Are Required to Pass to Be Sold in the US!
Ion Responded Average of 22% Faster to Burnt Toast
160
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Neither Alarm Responded
Per Table Notes Sample Size Too Small to Generate Enough Smoke
161
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ASHIInspec'onWorld,January24,2017SkipWalker,ACIMCI
DNT = Did NOT Trigger Ion's Did Not Trigger in 7 of 8 Tests Test 12261: Time = 5610 at 10.57% Obs / Tripped 43 Mins After Photo 162
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ASHIInspec'onWorld,January24,2017SkipWalker,ACIMCI
Test/Study:Agency: CPSCNuisanceTripStudyYear: 2010UsedSynthePcMaterial: N/A-CookinginRealHomesDuraPonofSmolderingTest: N/AComments:LimitedTest–9HomeTest8Homesfor30Days1Homefor60DaysCombinaPonIon/PhotoTwiceasLikelytoNuisanceTripat5FeetThanEitherIon/PhotoOnly
163
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ASHIInspec'onWorld,January24,2017SkipWalker,ACIMCI
Test/Study:Agency: NIST-TN1837Year: 2014UsedSynthePcMaterial: YesDuraPonofSmolderingTest: N/AComments:TestedmulPpleegressscenariosusingflamingandsmolderingfirestocalculaterequiredsateegressPmes.
164
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Source:NIST–1837,Table10
165
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NISTTN1837:
Remember,didnotfactorinalarmfuncPonalityduetonuisancealarms
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ASHIInspec'onWorld,January24,2017SkipWalker,ACIMCI
Letter From CPSC to UL STP 217 Regarding NIST TN1837, Nov. 18, 2014:
CPSC staff is concerned that the Standards Technical Panel failed to reach consensus on the first proposal (July 2014) through the voluntary standard process for the flaming and smoldering polyurethane foam tests. Consequently, CPSC staff is hopeful that the STP will reach consensus on the second attempt to adopt the flaming and smoldering polyurethane foam tests for smoke alarms and neither is rejected.
166
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Letter From CPSC to UL STP 217 Regarding NIST 1837, Nov. 18, 2014:
CPSC staff is aware of incidents where functional residential smoke alarms did not activate in sufficient amount of time for both flaming and smoldering fires to allow occupants to escape the home.
167
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ASHIInspec'onWorld,January24,2017SkipWalker,ACIMCI
Letter From CPSC to UL STP 217 Regarding NIST 1837, Nov. 18, 2014:
The present UL proposal is for an alarm threshold of 7%/ft obscuration for the flaming polyurethane test and a 12 %/ft obscuration limit for the smoldering polyurethane test. According to Table 10, this corresponds to between 60 to 72 percent average occupant successful escape rate and 93 percent average occupant successful escape rate, respectively.
168
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ASHIInspec'onWorld,January24,2017SkipWalker,ACIMCI
Letter From CPSC to UL STP 217 Regarding NIST 1837, Nov. 18, 2014:
This proposed test criterion would foster a marked performance improvement over today’s typical single sensor smoke alarms, which have a 45 to 49 percent average occupant successful escape rate for selected fires, more so for the smoldering fires than flaming fires.
169
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ASHIInspec'onWorld,January24,2017SkipWalker,ACIMCI
Letter From CPSC to UL STP 217 Regarding NIST 1837, Nov. 18, 2014:
The proposals should incorporate obscuration thresholds that improve the performance of smoke alarms for both flaming polyurethane and smoldering polyurethane fires, thus allowing occupants a successful escape rate of at least 80 percent.
170
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ASHIInspec'onWorld,January24,2017SkipWalker,ACIMCI
OtherIssuesImpacPngSafeEgress
Times
171
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ASHIInspec'onWorld,January24,2017SkipWalker,ACIMCI
TheUseofModernEngineeredWoodandSynthePcMaterialsHaveReducedEscapeTimes:
EngineeredWoodFramingBurnstoStructuralFailureSignificantlyFasterThanDimensional
Lumber
Source:FireEngineeringMagazine,Toomey,May2008
172
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Floor Collapse In as Little as 6 Minutes.
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ASHIInspec'onWorld,January24,2017SkipWalker,ACIMCI
TheUseofModernEngineeredWoodandSynthePcMaterialsHaveReducedEscapeTimes:
TheTimeFromIgniPontoFlashoverHasFallenSignificantlyDuePrimarilytoModernSynthePc
andCompositeWoodMaterials
174
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ASHIInspec'onWorld,January24,2017SkipWalker,ACIMCI
“BothroomswereignitedbyplacingalitsPckcandleontherightsideofthesofa.ThefireswereallowedtogrowunPlflashover.ThelegacyroomtransiPonedtoflashoverin29minutesand30secondswhereasthemodernroomtransiPoned
injust3minutesand30seconds.”Source:SmokeAlarmsandtheModernResidenceFire–UPMay2011
175
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ASHIInspec'onWorld,January24,2017SkipWalker,ACIMCI
“TheNaPonalInsPtuteofStandardsandTechnology(NIST)comparedescapePmesfromhousefiresbeforeandauertheincreaseof
synthePcmaterialsinhomefurnishings.ThestudyfoundthatescapePmein1975averaged17
minutes.By2003,thataveragehaddroppedtojustthreeminutes.”
Source:ICCResidenPalFireSprinklerSystemsbook176
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ASHIInspec'onWorld,January24,2017SkipWalker,ACIMCI
ExamplesofRealWordFires:
HiltonHotelFire,Houston1982
RoomFire,RoomHadIonAlarm
FirstAlarmtoOperatewasaPhotoelectricAlarm4FloorsAboveinaCorridor
177
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ASHIInspec'onWorld,January24,2017SkipWalker,ACIMCI
ExamplesofRealWordFires:PrudenPalBuildingFire,Boston1986
FireonFloor14of52
AlarmsWereIon'satEachElevatorLobby
MostAlarmsonUpperFloorsNeverAcPvatedDuring21/2HourEvent–EvenThoughSmokeReachedThemWithin4Minutes
178
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ASHIInspec'onWorld,January24,2017SkipWalker,ACIMCI
ExamplesofRealWordFires:AndreaDennis,KyleRaulin,AlSchlessman,ErinDeMarco,andChrisPneWilsonThesefivestudentsdiedatOhioStateUniversityonApril13,2003
179
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ASHIInspec'onWorld,January24,2017SkipWalker,ACIMCI
ExamplesofRealWordFires:JulieTurnbull,KateWelling&SteveSmithdiedinthishouseonApril10th,2005atMiamiUniversity
180
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ASHIInspec'onWorld,January24,2017SkipWalker,ACIMCI
ExamplesofRealWordFires:
BetweentheDennis,OhioStateandTurnbullMiamiUniversitytherewereanesEmated22smokealarmsinstalled.
AllWereIonizaPonAlarms.MostWereBelievedFuncPonal.SomeHadBeenDisabled.
OnlyAFewSounded,ButWentOffTooLate181
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ASHIInspec'onWorld,January24,2017SkipWalker,ACIMCI
DeanDennis:
182
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ASHIInspec'onWorld,January24,2017SkipWalker,ACIMCI
Boston…
183
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ASHIInspec'onWorld,January24,2017SkipWalker,ACIMCI
• Mid-1990’s, Maryland/Massachusetts Had Similar Fire Death Rates
• Both Slightly Above the National Average
• Fire Death Rate Twenty Years Later: • Maryland: At National Average • Massachusetts: 40% Below National Average
184
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ASHIInspec'onWorld,January24,2017SkipWalker,ACIMCI
Most Current Fire Death Rate Data: Maryland Fire Death Rate: 9.8 Massachusetts Fire Death Rate: 5.4
185
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ASHIInspec'onWorld,January24,2017SkipWalker,ACIMCI
• Boston Enacted Photoelectric Technology Ordinance In 1997
• Homes Built/Renovated After 1997 – Require Photo Alarms • Most FD Alarm Giveaway’s – Photo Only • It Is Estimated 70% of SA Sales Are Photo in Boston Area • Boston: One of the Lowest Fire Death Rate of a Major
Metro Area • When Residential Fire Fatalities Occur, About 90% Are In
ION ONLY Homes
186
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ASHIInspec'onWorld,January24,2017SkipWalker,ACIMCI 187
DeadlyDifferencesIoniza'onvsPhotoelectricSmokeAlarms
BostonFD2011-2015Study: IonFataliPes PhotoFataliPes IonPercent
2011 14 3 82%2012 17 1 94%2013 -2015 53 6 89%Source:BostonFireDepartment
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DeadlyDifferencesIoniza'onvsPhotoelectricSmokeAlarms
• MajorityofResidenPalAlarmsPhotoelectric• MostPhotoDeathsRelatedtoOtherFactors
• InPmate,Impaired,Etc.• ManyHardwiredIonAlarmsDisabled• NOPhotoelectricAlarmsDisabled
• RegardlessofBaZeryOnlyorHardwiredSource:BostonFireDepartment
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ASHIInspec'onWorld,January24,2017SkipWalker,ACIMCI
Maybe you still don't believe me, here is the NIST Statement for the Record at a Boston Public Safety Hearings in August 2007:
“However, ionization detectors have been shown to sometimes fail to alarm in a smoldering fire even when visibility in the room is significantly degraded by smoke. Most photoelectric detectors alarm substantially sooner in these situations.
In the NIST experiments the photoelectric detectors sensed smoldering fires on average 30 minutes earlier than the ionization detectors.”
191
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ASHIInspec'onWorld,January24,2017SkipWalker,ACIMCI
AdrianButlerisaFormerFireFighterHeStartedaSmokeAlarmManufacturing
CompanyAdrianNoPcedThatHeWasReceivinga
NumberofComplaintsAboutHisAlarmsNotGoingOffinFires...
SoHeStartedDigging192
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ASHIInspec'onWorld,January24,2017SkipWalker,ACIMCI
WhatHeFoundMadeHimGetOutofthe
SmokeAlarmBusinessand
Co-FoundtheWorldFireSafetyFoundaPon
193
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ASHIInspec'onWorld,January24,2017SkipWalker,ACIMCI
CanadianTelevision–Channel5ReportExcerptsIncluding
TexasA&MVideo
Note:CanadianUL(ULC)StandardsAreMoreStrictThanUSStandards
Canada=MaxOBLevel6%/US=MaxOBLevel10%194
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ASHIInspec'onWorld,January24,2017SkipWalker,ACIMCI 195
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ASHIInspec'onWorld,January24,2017SkipWalker,ACIMCI
ABCInterview:BRK/FirstAlertExecuPve
196
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ASHIInspec'onWorld,January24,2017SkipWalker,ACIMCI
BRK/FirstAlertLeZertoVermontFireDept's
197
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ASHIInspec'onWorld,January24,2017SkipWalker,ACIMCI
BRK/FirstAlertLeZertoVermontFireDept's
198
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WhatIsBeingDone?
199
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ASHIInspec'onWorld,January24,2017SkipWalker,ACIMCI
IntheUS,PhotoelectricTechnologyLawsInPlaceIn:MassachuseZs
VermontOhioMaine
RhodeIslandIowa
200
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ASHIInspec'onWorld,January24,2017SkipWalker,ACIMCI
• NYCityOrdinanceINT-56A• RequiresAtLeastOnePhotoPerResidenPalUnit• Has40SponsoringCouncilmembers–AlmostVeto
Proof• SupportedByFDNY• VoteIsBelievedImminent• ITesPfiedOnBehalfofASHI&CREIA
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ASHIInspec'onWorld,January24,2017SkipWalker,ACIMCI
Averyana'sLaw,NewYork
Aunt Valerie Rivett, Averyana Dale, Natalie her Godmother and sister Gia 202
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ASHIInspec'onWorld,January24,2017SkipWalker,ACIMCI
Averyana'sLawCurrently there are two types of smoke detectors available in the market place, Ionization and Photoelectric. Ionization detectors are present in about 95% of homes. Unfortunately these types of detectors have a high rate of failure when detecting smoldering fires. Photoelectric detectors on the other hand, are extremely successful at detecting smoldering fires.
Averyana Dale most likely lost her life because the ionization smoke detector that was present in the home she was in did not alert her to the fire until it was too late. If a photoelectric detector had been in the home, it is considerably more likely she would have been alerted to the smoke sooner and would have made it out safely.
This legislation is meant to provide an incentive for homeowners to purchase photoelectric detectors. These detectors will save lives by adding an extra layer of protection for anyone who may experience a fire.
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ASHIInspec'onWorld,January24,2017SkipWalker,ACIMCI
Averyana'sLaw,NewYork My niece, Averyana Dale was only two when she and her godmother died in a smoldering fire. At the time, I was confused because the apartment had smoke alarms. I wanted and needed answers. Like most, I thought a smoke alarm was a smoke alarm. I now know that is not the case. I am convinced that if Averyana and her godmother had been protected by photoelectric alarms, they would both be alive today. Unfortunately, every day 3 more people suffer the same fate .
I have been working with NY State Senator Nozzolio and Assemblyman Finch, Averyana's Law is currently pending in New York. There is nothing I can do to bring Averyana or her godmother back. But I can help make sure that these senseless deaths stop.
Tonight, 2-3 more people will die needlessly. The difference is that now you will know why. You and all the other ASHI Inspectors can make a difference. Help me make sure Averyana did not die in vain.
-Valerie Rivett 204
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ASHIInspec'onWorld,January24,2017SkipWalker,ACIMCI
IntheOhio,PhotoelectricTechnologyOrdinancesAreInPlaceIn:
CincinnaEShakerHeightsChagrinFalls
SeveralOtherCiPes 205
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ASHIInspec'onWorld,January24,2017SkipWalker,ACIMCI
Pro-Photo:NorthEasternOhioFireChief's
OrganizaPon“PhotoelectricSmokeAlarmsSaveLives”
Campaign
Seewww.PhotoeletricSaves.com
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ASHIInspec'onWorld,January24,2017SkipWalker,ACIMCI
www.PhotoeletricSaves.com
MeetEarlLeeWarning!207
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ASHIInspec'onWorld,January24,2017SkipWalker,ACIMCI
InternaEonalAssociaEonofFireFighters:
IAFFOfficialPosiPonCallingforPhotoelectricOnlyTechnology
SpecificallyStates,NoCombinaPonDetectors
UnionRepresentsAround300,000US&CanadianFireFighters208
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ASHIInspec'onWorld,January24,2017SkipWalker,ACIMCI
IntheCA,PhotoelectricTechnologyOrdinancesAreInPlaceIn:
PaloAltoCityofAlbanySebastopol
CityofOrange
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ASHIInspec'onWorld,January24,2017SkipWalker,ACIMCI
CaliforniaRealEstateInspecEonAssociaEon
OfficialPosiPonCallingforPhotoelectricOnlyTechnology
SpecificallyStates,NoCombinaPonDetectors
MirrorsIAFFPosiPon,FirstHIOrganizaPoninTheWorldtoTakeaStand
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ASHIInspec'onWorld,January24,2017SkipWalker,ACIMCI
AmericanSocietyofHomeInspectors
BoardAdoptedPosiPonPromoPngPhotoelectricTechnologyin2013
ASHIisFirstNaPonalHIOrganizaPoninTheWorldtoTakeaStand
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ASHIInspec'onWorld,January24,2017SkipWalker,ACIMCI
ASHIStandardsofPracPceStates:InspectorisNotRequiredtoDetermineTypeofAlarm
CREIAStandardsofPracPceStates:InspectorisNotRequiredtoDetermineTypeofAlarmCREIALegalCounselFeltNoAddiPonalLiabilitywithPosiPon
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ASHIInspec'onWorld,January24,2017SkipWalker,ACIMCI
Queensland,Australia• Sept.2016:PassesPhotoOnlyLaw• SmokeAlarmsinBedroomandHalls,OnePerLevel• PhotoelectricOnly,NoCombinaPon,NoIonSensors
Allowed• Jan1,2017:NewConstrucPon,SomeSF&Rentals,
AllReplacementAlarms• Jan1,2022:AllSold,LeasedandGovOwned• BeforeJan1,2027:AllExisPngRegardlessofAge
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ASHIInspec'onWorld,January24,2017SkipWalker,ACIMCI
WhatCanWeDoasInspectors?TellYourAgents...YourClients...
YourFamily...Neighbors...Friends,Etc!
WhatCanASHIDo?Asagroup,makepublicawarenessaPriority
SupportStateLocalIniPaPves
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ASHIInspec'onWorld,January24,2017SkipWalker,ACIMCI
WhatDoISayonInspecPons?
• AnyAlarmsInstalledMeetLegalRequirement• 95%ofHomesHaveIon's• TypeNOTVerified• ChangeAllAlarmstoPhoto/DoublesSurvivalRate• NotACostIssue
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ASHIInspec'onWorld,January24,2017SkipWalker,ACIMCI
RECOMMENDEDSAFETYUPGRADE:IrecommendedthatALLionizaPonalarms-regardlessofage-bereplacedwithphotoelectricsmokealarms.Extensiveresearchclearlyshowsthatphotoelectricsmokealarmsarefarmorereliableinmostreal-worldfirescenarios.Nearly95%ofthesmokealarmsinstalledinUSresidencesareIONIZATIONalarms.IonizaPonalarmsareapprovedsmokealarmsandDOcomplywiththelegalrequirementsfortransferinMOSTjurisdicPons.However,significantresearchshowsthationizaPonalarmsRESPONDTOOSLOWLYtothesmoldering/smokefiresresponsibleformostresidenPalfiredeaths.IonizaPonalarmsarealsonotoriousfornuisancetrippingfromcooking,showersteam,etc.IonizaPonalarmswillfailtoadequatelywarnoccupantsabout55%ofthePme.Withphotoelectricalarmstheoccupantswillreceivesufficientwarningabout96%ofthePme.IonizaPontechnologyalarmsposeasignificantlife-safetyrisk.CombinaPonalarmsarenotrecommended.ThetypeofalarminstalledwasnotverifiedaspartofthisinspecPon.InterestedparPesshouldconsultwithaqualifiedtradespecialistforservice.
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ASHIInspec'onWorld,January24,2017SkipWalker,ACIMCI
InClosing......• All Fires Do Not Carry The Same Risk Of Death • Two-Thirds of Fire Deaths Occur in Homes With No Functional Alarms • Half of Non-Functional Alarms Are Attributed to Nuisance Trips • Almost All Nuisance Trips are From Ionization Alarms • Of the Remaining One-Third – Only 15% Are Attributed to Flames • There Has Never Been A Wrongful Death Suit Involving Photoelectric
Alarms but Many with Ionization Alarms • Changing to Photoelectric Alarms Would Drop US Fire Death Rate 40%
Overnight
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ASHIInspec'onWorld,January24,2017SkipWalker,ACIMCI
QuesPons
AndComments!
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