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ContrastiveContrastive GrammarGrammarJosef SchmiedJosef Schmied
more in:more in:
nn HellingerHellinger, M. (1977)., M. (1977). KontrastiveKontrastiveGrammatik Deutsch/Grammatik Deutsch/EnglischEnglisch..TbingenTbingen: Niemeyer.: Niemeyer.
nn James, C. (1980).James, C. (1980). Contrastive analysis.Contrastive analysis. London: Longman.London: Longman.
nn Hawkins, John (1986).Hawkins, John (1986). A Comparative Typology of English andA Comparative Typology of English andGerman. Unifying the ContrastsGerman. Unifying the Contrasts. London:. London: CroomCroom Helm.Helm.
more on:more on:
http://www.tu-chemnitz.de/phil/english/chairshttp://www.tu-chemnitz.de/phil/english/chairs//linguist/independent/linguist/independent/kursmaterialienkursmaterialien//
congram/index.htmlcongram/index.html
IntroductionIntroduction t ot o contrastivecontrastive linguisticslinguistics
1.1.1.1. HistoricalHistorical developmentdevelopment
nn 1950s:1950s: basedbased onon structuralismstructuralism
nn ToTo makemake foreignforeign languagelanguage teachingteaching moremoreeffectiveeffective
nn BasedBased onon thethe assumptionsassumptions thatthat::nn ForeignForeign languagelanguage learninglearning isis basedbased onon thethe mothermother
tonguetongue
nn PositivePositive transfertransfer:: similaritiessimilarities facilitatefacilitate learninglearning
nn NegativeNegative transfertransfer//InterferenceInterference:: differencesdifferences causecauseproblemsproblems
nn ViaVia contrastivecontrastive analysisanalysis:: problemsproblems cancan bebe predictedpredictedandand consideredconsidered inin thethe curriculumcurriculum
nn CLCL seenseen as anas an appliedapplied branchbranch ofof linguisticslinguistics
nn ServingServing practicalpractical purposespurposes inin foreignforeign and secondand second
languagelanguage teachingteaching
nn ExpectationsExpectations werewere notnot metmet
nn InterestInterest in CLin CL declineddeclined ((especiallyespecially inin thethe US)US)
nn In Europe,In Europe, interestinterest continuedcontinued; large; large contrastivecontrastive projectsprojects
inin thethe 1970s1970s
nn sincesince 1990s1990s corpus-basedcorpus-based
nn ExpandingExpanding fieldfield;; theoreticaltheoretical andand methodologicalmethodological interestinterest
nn InternationalisationInternationalisation increasinglyincreasingly demandsdemands cross-culturalcross-cultural
competencecompetence,, translationtranslation,, foreignforeign languagelanguage teachingteaching etc.etc.
Language pedagogy
Translation theory
Language typology
Language description
Language universalsIntercultural
communication
1.2.1.2. MethodologicalMethodological stepssteps in CLin CL
nn 1.1. DescriptionDescription::
nn SelectionSelection ofof itemsitems toto bebe comparedcompared
nn CharacterisationCharacterisation ofof itemsitems inin termsterms ofof somesome languagelanguage
independentindependent theoreticaltheoretical modelmodel
nn 2.2. JuxtapositionJuxtaposition
nn SearchSearch forfor andand identificationidentification ofof cross-linguisticcross-linguisticequivalentsequivalents
nn 3.3. ComparisonComparison::
nn SpecificationSpecification ofof degreedegree andand typetype ofof correspondencecorrespondence
betweenbetween comparedcompared itemsitems
1.3. Problems1.3. Problems
nn TertiumTertiumComparationisComparationis::nn LgLg a anda and LgLg bb differdiffer inin structurestructure
nn translationtranslation equivalenceequivalence::meaningmeaning of of structurestructure a >a > structurestructure bb
nn meaningmeaning structurestructure a =a = meaningmeaning structurestructure b?b?nn Das gefllt mirDas gefllt mir
nn IIlikelikethisthis
nn CelaCelamemeplaitplait//JaimeJaimecelacela
gefallen = togefallen = tolikelike==plaireplaire==aimeraimer??
SimilarSimilar::PresentPresentPerfectPerfectvs. Perfekt vs. passvs. Perfekt vs. passcomposcompos
nn norm,norm, standardstandard ??
nn languagelanguage independentindependent modelmodel??
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nn PredictabilityPredictability
nn L1-basedL1-based errorserrors vs. non-L1-basedvs. non-L1-based errorserrors
nn ComplexityComplexityofoflanguagelanguagesystemssystems
nn Analysis ofAnalysis of subsystemssubsystems
nn DifferencesDifferencesvs.vs. similaritiessimilarities
nn ImportanceImportance ofof crosslinguisticscrosslinguistics similaritiessimilarities
nn Langue vs.Langue vs. paroleparole
nn StaticStatic viewview onon languagelanguage
nn ContextContext
nn Levels ofLevels of linguisticlinguistic descriptiondescription inin theorytheory andand
practicepractice
1.4. Levels of1.4. Levels of descriptiondescription
nn PhonologyPhonology
nn Morpho-Syntax / GrammarMorpho-Syntax / Grammar
nn LexisLexis
nn PragmaticsPragmatics
nn Text/Text/DiscourseDiscourse
nn CultureCulture
1.5.1.5. TerminologyTerminology
nn ContrastiveContrastive AnalysisAnalysis
nn Transfer: positive and negativeTransfer: positive and negative
nn InterferenceInterference
nn HypercorrectionHypercorrection
nn Error Analysis Error Analysis predictingpredicting errorserrors
2.2. TenseTense2.0.2.0. I ssuesI ssues
conglomerateconglomerate tensetense && aspectaspect && aktionsartaktionsart::
nn DifficultDifficult categoriescategories
nn TerminologicalTerminological andand conceptualconceptual confusionconfusion
nn Joan wasJoan wassingingsingingvs. Johnvs. Johnisissingingsinging::TENSETENSE
nn Joan wasJoan wassingingsingingvs. John sang: ASPECTvs. John sang: ASPECT
2.0.1. Time2.0.1. Time conceptsconcepts andand languagelanguage
nn ConceptualisationConceptualisation of timeof time
nn Culture-specificCulture-specific
nn TimeTime arrowarrow //straightstraight timetime lineline vs.vs. cyclecycle
nn Impact onImpact on oror relevancerelevance forfor grammaticalgrammatical
categoriescategories??
nn All humanAll human languageslanguages havehave waysways ofoflocatinglocating in timein time
RepresentationRepresentation of t imeof t ime
PAST FUTUREPRESENT
Present moment
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Contrastive Grammar Josef Schmied
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RepresentationsRepresentations ofof situationssituations
Situations: ProcessesEvents
States
A B C D
E
G
F
H
I
Cf. Comrie 1985: 6
Location of situations in relationto some other point or segment of
line
Internal temporal contour of a
situation: point on the line vs.
stretch of the time line
2.0.2.2.0.2. ExpressionsExpressions of t imeof t ime
nn ExpressionsExpressions cancan bebe divideddivided intointo threethree classesclasses::
nn LexicallyLexically compositecomposite expressionsexpressions
nn LargestLargest setset,, potentiallypotentially infiniteinfinite
nn LastLastyearyear,, fivefiveminutesminutesafterafterJ.J. leftleft
nn LexicalLexical itemsitems
nn FiniteFinite setset
nn NowNow,, todaytoday,, yesterdayyesterday, ,
nn GrammaticalGrammatical categoriescategories: TENSES: TENSES
nn FiniteFinite setset
nn PresentPresent,, pastpast, ,
2.0.3.2.0.3. GrammaticalisationGrammaticalisation vs.vs. lexicalisationlexicalisation
nn GrammaticalisationGrammaticalisation::nn IntegrationIntegration intointo thethe grammaticalgrammatical systemsystem of aof a languagelanguage
nn ObligatoryObligatory expressionexpressionnn MorphologicalMorphological boundnessboundness
nn JoanJoanrunsrunsvs. Joan ranvs. Joan ran
nn LexicalisationLexicalisation::nn IntegrationIntegration intointo thethe lexiconlexicon of aof a languagelanguage withoutwithout effecteffect onon thethe
grammaticalgrammatical structurestructure
nn Non-obligatoryNon-obligatory
nn FreeFree lexicallexical itemsitemsnn NowNow,, yesterdayyesterday
nn BorderlineBorderline casescases, , continuumcontinuum::nn Auxiliaries,Auxiliaries, preverbalpreverbal markersmarkers
nn DiachronicDiachronic developmentsdevelopments
2.1.2.1. ApproachesApproaches toto tensetense2.1.1.2.1.1. Definit ionsDefinit ions
nn TenseTense relatesrelates thethe time oftime of thethe situationsituation
referredreferred toto toto somesome otherother time,time, ususallyususally thethemomentmoment ofof speakingspeaking. (. (ComrieComrie))
nn GrammaticalisedGrammaticalised locationlocation in timein time
nn CommonestCommonest tensestenses cross-linguisticallycross-linguistically::nn
PresentPresent:: situationsituation describeddescribed isis locatedlocated temporallytemporally asassimultaneoussimultaneous withwith thethe momentmoment ofof speakingspeaking
nn PastPast:: situationsituation describeddescribed isis locatedlocated priorprior toto thethe
momentmoment ofof speakingspeaking
nn FutureFuture:: situationsituation describeddescribed isis locatedlocated subsequentsubsequent toto
thethe momentmoment ofof speakingspeaking
nn TenseTense isis almostalmost alwaysalways indicatedindicated onon thethe
verbverbnn VerbVerb morphologymorphology
nn GrammaticalGrammatical wordswords ((e.ge.g.. auxiliariesauxiliaries)) adjacentadjacent totothethe verbverb
nn TenseTense isis aa deicticdeictic systemsystem
nn DeicticDeictic centrecentre ((usuallyusually presentpresent momentmoment ofofspeakingspeaking butbut cfcf.. belowbelow forfor relativerelative tensestenses))
2.1.2. Absolute2.1.2. Absolute tensestenses vs. relativ evs. relativ e tensestenses
nn AbsoluteAbsolute tensestenses relaterelate thethe time oftime ofthethe situationsituation
describeddescribed toto thethe presentpresent momentmoment,, i.ei.e.. presentpresent
momentmoment == deicticdeictic centrecentre
nn E.gE.g.: Finite.: Finite verbverb formsforms in Englishin English
nn RelativeRelative tensestenses relaterelate thethe time of atime of a situationsituation toto thethe
time oftime ofsomesome otherother situationsituation
nn E.gE.g.:.: Non-finiteNon-finite verbverb formsforms in Englishin English
nn W henW hen walk ingwalk ing downdown thethe roadroad, ., .
nn I Ioftenoften meetmeet H arryH arry
nn I Ioftenoften metmetH arryH arry
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Contrastive Grammar Josef Schmied
4/7
4
2.2.2.2. PresentPresent tensetense
nn AbsoluteAbsolute tensetensenn BasicBasic meaningmeaning:: locationlocation of aof a situationsituation atat thethe presentpresent momentmoment
((cfcf.. diagramdiagram))nn 100%100% simultaneitysimultaneity rarerare
nn PerformativePerformative sentencessentences::nn IIpromisepromiseyouyou
nn IInamenamethisthisshipship
nn SimultaneousSimultaneous reportsreports
nn UsuallyUsually:: PresentPresent tensetense usedused toto referrefer toto situationssituations whichwhichoccupyoccupy aa muchmuch longerlonger periodperiod of timeof time thanthan thethe presentpresentmomentmoment,, butbut whichwhich includeinclude thethe presentpresent momentmomentnn TheTheEiffel TowerEiffel Towerstandsstandsin Parisin Paris
nn TheTheauthorauthorisisworkingworkingononchapterchaptertwotwo
nn ImplicatureImplicature:: whetherwhether aa situationsituation isis partpart of a largerof a larger situationsituationextendingextending toto thethe pastpast oror futurefuture isis anan implicatureimplicature thatthat isis workedworkedout onout on thethe basisbasis ofof thethe contextcontext,, structurestructure ofof thethe sentencesentenceand/and/oror onesones knowledgeknowledge ofof thethe worldworld
nn ManyMany languageslanguages useuse thethe presentpresent tensetense toto referrefer toto
habitualhabitual situationssituationsnn JoanJoangoesgoestotoworkworkatateighteightoclockoclock((everyeverydayday))
nn Johanna steht (jeden Tag) um sieben Uhr auf.Johanna steht (jeden Tag) um sieben Uhr auf.
nn ContradictionContradiction toto definitiondefinition ofof basicbasic meaningmeaning??
nn ReferenceReference to ato a habithabit andand notnot to ato a sequencesequence ofof situationssituations
nn TheThe habithabit doesdoes hold athold at thethe presentpresent momentmoment
nn Habituality alsoHabituality also aspectualaspectual ((seesee belowbelow))
nn PresentPresent tensetense = universal= universal tensetense??
nn CowsCowseateatgrassgrass
nn Interpretation of universalInterpretation of universal truthtruth onon thethe basisbasis ofof factorsfactorsbeyondbeyond thethe basicbasic meaningmeaning ofof presentpresent tensetense =>=>
implicatureimplicature
2.3.2.3. PastPast tensetense
nn AbsoluteAbsolute tensetensenn BasicBasic meaningmeaning:: locationlocation of aof a situationsituation in timein time priorprior
toto thethe presentpresent momentmomentnn SituationSituation maymay occupyoccupy
nn aa singlesingle pointpointnn AtAtsevensevenoclockoclockyesterdayyesterdayJ.J. promisedpromisedtotogivegivememetentenpoundspounds
nn anan extendedextended timetime periodperiod priorprior toto thethe presentpresent momentmomentnn J.J. livedlivedin Manchesterin Manchesterfromfrom1962 to 19821962 to 1982
nn oror thethe wholewhole periodperiod up toup to thethe presentpresent momentmoment
nn Up toUp tothisthismomentmomentthisthisdiseasediseasewaswasincurableincurable
nn BasicBasic meaningmeaning doesdoes notnot includeinclude anyany referencereference totowhetherwhether thethe situationsituation continuescontinues toto thethe presentpresent ororeveneven intointo thethe futurefuture!!
nn ConversationalConversational implicatureimplicature thatthat pastpast tensetense doesdoesnotnot continuecontinue toto oror beyondbeyond thethe presentpresent
2.4. Fut ure2.4. Fut ure tensetensenn AbsoluteAbsolute tensetensenn BasicBasic meaningmeaning:: locationlocation of aof a situationsituation at a timeat a time
subsequentsubsequent toto thethe presentpresent momentmomentnn TenseTense oror moodmood??
nn MoodMood: a: a grammaticalgrammatical categorycategory whichwhich expressesexpresses thethe degreedegree oror kindkindofof realityreality asas perceivedperceived byby thethe speakerspeaker
nn SpeculativeSpeculativenn PredictionPredictionnn RealisRealis vs.vs. irrealisirrealis
nn ManyMany languageslanguages havehave aa clearclear grammaticalgrammaticaldistinctiondistinction betweenbetween pastpast andand non-pastnon-past ((i.ei.e.. presentpresentandand futurefuture timetime referencereference))
nn DistinctionDistinction betweenbetween futurefuture andand non-futurenon-future isis lesslessdistinctdistinct; in; in particularparticular betweenbetween futurefuture andand presentpresent
nn InIn manymany languageslanguages,, presentpresent tensetense thethe normalnormal verbverb
formform usedused toto indicateindicate futurefuture (German,(German, FinnishFinnish):):nn German:German:
nn ich gehe morgen vs. ich werde morgen gehenich gehe morgen vs. ich werde morgen gehen
nn AlsoAlso possiblepossible in Englishin English forfor scheduledscheduled situationssituations::
nn TheThetraintrainleavesleavestomorrowtomorrow
nn **ItItrainsrainstomorrowtomorrow
nn BinaryBinary tensetense systemssystems
nn Future vs.Future vs. non-futurenon-future
nn PastPast vs.vs. non-pastnon-past
nn PresentPresent tensetense cancan alwaysalways bebe usedused withwith futurefuture timetime referencereference
((FinnishFinnish, German), German)
nn SevereSevere constraintsconstraints onon thethe useuse ofof presentpresent tensetense toto referrefer to timeto time
(English(English))
2.5.2.5. Absolute-relativeAbsolute-relative tensetense
nn SomeSome verbverb formsforms cancan combinecombine absolute timeabsolute timelocationlocation of aof a referencereference pointpoint withwith relative timerelative timelocationlocation of aof a situationsituation
nn AsAs withwith pure relativepure relative tensetense,, thethe referencereference pointpoint isisgivengiven byby thethe contextcontext
nn ExampleExample:: EnglishEnglishPluperfectPluperfect
nn MeaningMeaning:: therethere isis aa referencereference point inpoint in thethe pastpast((beforebefore thethe presentpresent momentmoment) and) and thethe situationsituationreferredreferred toto isis locatedlocated priorprior toto thatthat referencereference point;point;establishmentestablishment ofof thethe referencereference pointpoint isis donedone byby thethecontextcontext
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Contrastive Grammar Josef Schmied
5/7
5
John had already left when Mary emerged from t he cupboard
Reference pointSituation located prior to:
nn Interpretation as Interpretation as remoteremote pastpast isis anan
implicatureimplicaturenn TemporalTemporal locationlocation doesdoes notnot havehave toto bebe remoteremote
nn ThisThisparticleparticlehadhadbeenbeencreatedcreated22secondssecondsbeforebeforethisthisotherotherparticleparticlewaswascreatedcreated1 second1 secondagoago..
nn InterveningIntervening referencereference pointpoint isis alwaysalways necessarynecessary
nn **TheyTheyhadhadbuiltbuiltthetheGreat Wall of China.Great Wall of China.
nn SimilarSimilar:: FutureFutureperfectperfect
nn ReferenceReference pointpoint isis inin thethe futurefuture ((anterioranterior toto
presentpresent momentmoment))
Iwill have finished this term paper by the end of this week.
Reference pointSituation located prior to :
2.6.2.6. PerfectPerfect
nn FormalFormal similaritiessimilarities betweenbetween perfectperfect andand absolute-absolute-relativerelative tensestenses
nn LocationLocation in timein time priorprior to ato a referencereference pointpoint whichwhich ininthisthis casecase isis simultaneoussimultaneous withwith thethe presentpresent momentmoment
nn ThusThus:: locateslocates aa situationsituation priorprior toto thethe presentpresentmomentmoment == pastpast tensetense
nn PerfectPerfect differsdiffers fromfrom pastpast butbut notnot withwith regardregard toto
timetime locationlocationnn PerfectPerfect in Englishin English cannotcannot collocatecollocate withwith timetime
adverbialsadverbials whichwhich referrefer to ato a specificspecific pointpoint oror periodperiodinin thethe pastpast ((pastpast and and pluperfectpluperfect andand futurefutureperfectperfect))
nn ParticularityParticularity ofof thethe EnglishEnglish languagelanguage indicatesindicates thatthat
perfectperfect constitutesconstitutes aa categorycategory apartapart fromfrom pastpast andandfromfrom absolute-relativeabsolute-relative tensestenses
nn Also:Also: cross-linguisticallycross-linguistically somesome languageslanguages maymayhavehave aa distinctdistinct perfectperfect categorycategory whilewhile lackinglacking aa
pluperfectpluperfect oror futurefuture perfectperfect
nn DiachronicDiachronic changeschanges affectingaffecting thethe perfectperfect maymay havehave
nono repercussionsrepercussions onon thethe pluperfectpluperfect andand futurefuture
perfectperfect
nn German and French:German and French: perfectperfect takestakes overover functionsfunctionsoriginallyoriginally coveredcovered byby pastpast tensetense butbut pluperfectpluperfect andand futurefuture
perfectperfect remainremain
nn FrequentFrequent implicatureimplicature:: moremore recentrecent timetime referencereference
3.3. AspectAspect
3.1.3.1. ApproachesApproachesnn AspectsAspects areare differentdifferent waysways ofof viewingviewing thethe
internalinternal temporaltemporal constituencyconstituency of aof asituationsituation. (. (ComrieComrie 1976:3)1976:3)
nn CharacterisationCharacterisation ofof thethe internalinternal structurestructure ofofanan eventevent
nn Sue wasSue wasreadingreadingwhenwhenIIenteredentered..
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