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Prologue - Pre-Church History
In the beginning, God created the earth and the universe and saw
that it was good. Then He created man and woman and they
lived in the Garden of Eden. Eventually Adam and Eve ate from
the Tree of Knowledge of Good and Evil and were exiled from
the Garden, thus bringing sin into the world. After many
generations, God saw the corruption in man and decided to flood
the world. He saw one good man, however, and told him of the
impending flood and instructed him to build an ark and to bring
aboard two of every animal. After this, he swore to never flood
the Earth again, the rainbow being a sign of this promise. After many other generations, God
called out to a man named Abram for him to follow God. As such, Abram found God and the
Jewish religion. God made a covenant with Abram that he would have many descendants. His
wife, Sarah, however, was not fertile and Abram had a child with his servant Hagar and had a
son, Ishmael. God renewed his covenant with Abram that he
would have a child with Sarah, and a sign would be
circumcision and he would be known as Abraham. God says
that he will bless Ishmael (from whom the Muslim faith
would rise) and Abraham has Isaac (from who would come
the Jews). Later, God made the Davidic Covenant with David
that he would be king and the Messiah would come from his
line. After many more years, an angle appeared to Mary that
she would immaculately conceive a child who would be the
Son of God, Jesus Christ, the Messiah.
By: Andrew Wingersky
God Creates the Earth
The Flood
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The Life and Works of Jesus The Catholic Church itself was started by Jesus Christ.
Jesus Christ was born in 4 B.C. in Nazareth. He was
born in a farm animal stable and laid in a manger. It is
believed that the North Star itself light up brighter than
ever and that three kings followed the North Star to
witness the birth of the Most High, The King of Kings,
Jesus Christ himself. It is also believed that shepherds
attended the birth of Jesus. The three kings each gave
one gift to Jesus and his family. One king gave the gift
of gold. The gold represented that Jesus is the king of
kings. Another king gave Jesus incense. The incense
represented how Jesus is divine because incense is
burned with intent to go up to God. The final gift is
myrrh, and it represents how he is human, mortal. Jesus
was born into this world through a virgin. It was announced to Mary by Arc Angel Gabriel that she was
going to give birth to the Son of God. She agreed to it and in several months she gave birth to Jesus. She
gave birth to the man that would start the biggest religion to this day. He would most the renowned
person to ever live on Earth.
Jesus grew up in Nazareth under the reign of King Herod. He and his family had to flee Nazareth because
Kind Herod had a statewide execution of all boys under the age
of two. Him and His family was warned and thankfully made it
out alive. Jesus’ father John was a carpenter and John taught
Jesus how to be a carpenter. Jesus started his ministry, the
ministry that would change the world, around the years of 28-29
A.D. He was about 30 when he began his ministry. Jesus traveled
to many places during his ministry. The most significant places
that he traveled were: Jerusalem, Jericho, and Capernaum.
During his travels, he “picked up” his 12 apostles. They would be
with him till the very end. He also met some prominent biblical
characters along the way as well. He met Mary Magdalene, a
woman who Jesus saved from prostitution. Jesus was captured
around the years of 33-36. He had an extremely unfair trial. Even
though Pontius Pilot found him innocent, he was still executed.
His execution was one of the most unpleasant execution methods
of the time. After being severely scourged, he was forced to drag
a wooden cross many miles to Eusebius. He was then nailed
through the hands and feet to the cross and left there to die. He
was
hung in between two criminals. He was hung
at 9 am and He finally died at 3 pm. He was
buried, but in three days He resurrected and
ascended into Heaven, in paradise.
Jesus was important during his time that he
was alive on this Earth in such a way that the
most prominent religion to this day is based
Nativity Scene
Jesus as a child
Jesus being crucified
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on belief in Him and the rest of the Holy Trinity. His life on earth was entirely perfect; sin was absent in
His life. He was the human form of God on earth, both human and divine. During his time on earth, he
essentially updated the Ten Commandments to suit the time period. He introduced the Beatitudes at his
Sermon on Mount. He taught about many different things, like divorce, the anawim, discrimination, etc.
His life was important because of the new ideas that he taught and his universality. Although sad and
unfortunate, the death of Jesus was a very important aspect of his life. His dying on the cross saved us
from hell and reunited us with God in heaven because through his death, our sin is forgiven. Our souls are
re-invigorated and we are saved from spiritual death. His death was not in vain what so ever, it is still
remembered today as a valiant act of valor. The part of Jesus’ life that matters most to Christians is the
resurrection of Christ.
Probably the most renowned event in the life of Jesus is the resurrection. It was his rising from death. He
was dead and placed in a tomb for three whole days then he resurrected. We still celebrate the
Resurrection of Christ today. During Easter, we celebrate how Jesus resurrected and ascended into
heaven. Resurrection assures Christians the possibility of new life in Heaven, a life after death that is far
better than our life here on Earth. It is a life in paradise. Resurrection demonstrates how there is more to
our life than our life on Earth. Jesus was quite possibly one of the most important and renowned person to
ever be born into this Earth. Christianity would not exist in any form at all if Jesus was never born. His
ideas were revolutionary for the time. He lived an absolutely perfect life.
By: Alec Gonzales
Diocletian Persecution
The Diocletian Persecutions took place from 303 A.D.
– 313 A.D., a decade of struggle for the Christians.
Early Roman emperors had always discriminated
Christians in the empire. It was not till 250 A.D. that
the Roman Empire publically endorsed the
discrimination of Christians with their passing of a law
that forced Christians to sacrifice to Roman idols, or
face imprisonment and execution. People were being
killed for their faith! Out of fear, many Christians
sacrificed to the Roman idols, and the ones who didn’t
were incarcerated and martyred. In 302, a man named
Gallienus urged Emperor Diocletian to begin a general
persecution of Christians. Diocletian debated the idea,
and finally on February 24, 303, he began the
persecution that would make or break Christianity. The Diocletian Persecution was stricter in certain parts
of the emperor and more lax in certain parts. Where Diocletian and Gallienus resided, the laws were
upheld very strictly. Where Constantius resided, the laws were not upheld as harshly. The reason for the
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persecution was that Diocletian was seeking to restore the original religions of Rome and Greece. He
himself worshiped the Olympian Gods. He felt that the Christians were preventing him from doing this,
so he had to “remove” them, as they were an obstacle, a nuisance
There were various ways that Christians were persecuted during the Great Persecution. One way was
being tied to a stake and then burned alive. Some people were skinned alive, and left to die. Another way
to be executed was to be put into a coliseum, still a popular
sight today, and forced to fight wild beasts. Crucifixion was
still used during this era. These are just a few of the
torturous ways that people were executed. Some were
worse, like having your intestine slowly ripped out with a
revolving device. The Great Persecution finally ended with
the electing of Constantine, the first Christian Emperor to
reside in Rome. He ended the Great Persecution in 313.
By Alec Gonzales
Saints Emerge St. George was born the year 275 or 281 A.D., it isn’t
known which of these years it he was born. He was a
Roman Soldier, as portrait in the image. He is known as
one of the most prominent military saints to ever live. St.
George is often portrayed as slaying a dragon and a maiden
in the distance. The dragon represents Satan and the
Corrupt Roman Empire, whereas the maiden represents the
martyrdom of saints. He is protecting the martyrdom of
saints from Satan and the Roman Empire. St. George was
most likely born into Christian Noble family. He traveled
to Rome to meet with Diocletian. He met with Diocletian
to discuss his becoming a soldier in the Roman Army. He
was accepted into the army and after a few years he
acquired the rank of Tribusus and was stationed as an
imperial guard of the Emperor at Nicomedia. In 303 when
Diocletian endorsed the Great Persecution. Since
Diocletian liked George, he offered him land, slaves,
money, and power, but George refused to convert. He was
not going to worship Diocletian’s idols. Since George
refused to convert, Diocletian was left no with no other
choice than to execute him. After torturing him multiple
times, the Romans eventually decapitated him because he
still refused to give up his faith. Before he died, he gave all
of his possessions to the poor and needy. He was not
selfish at all.
St. George died on April 23, 303. His Feast day is on April
23, the same day that he died. St. George is the patron saint of Boy Scouts America. His colors are red
and white.
By: Alec Gonzales
St. George in his Army Uniform
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Second Council of Constantinople
Advances in the Church circa 6th
Century
In the 6th
century, the current Roman Emperor at the time – Emperor Justinian sought out for
Constantinople and to reclaim these western lands from the inhabiting Germans. These lands
would include North Africa up to Italy. The reclaiming of these lands was quite successful, buy
at the cost of destroying urban centers and ruining economies in the West. Some cities were even
abandoned and the main surviving Roman institution was the Western Church, the last remaining
link to Greek culture and civilization.
In the East, Rome has shifted into a new period of history
called the Byzantine. This was the time of the transformation
of the Roman world or fall of the Roman Empire. Although
there were many more Christians in the East that in the west,
developments in the West were the ones that would set stage
for major developments in the Christian world during the
later Middle ages.
The Major council that took place in the 6th
century was the Second Council of Constantinople.
Church was firmly opposed to all those who had either inspired or assisted Nestorius, the
eponymous heresiarch of Nestorianism—the proposition that the Christ and Jesus were two
separate persons loosely conjoined, and that the Virgin
Mary could not be called the Mother of God (Theotokos)
but only the mother of Christ (Christotokos). Nestorius
was an archbishop that was opposed to the following ideas
of calling Virgin Mary “Mother of God” and agreed with
the fact that Jesus had two natures. Justinian hoped that
the public rejection of these supposedly Nestorian
writings and their authors would help reconcile the
empire's Monophysites, those who belief that Christ has
one nature, with the Council of Chalcedon, which had determined that Christ had "two natures,"
divine and human, a formula which was seen by many as opening the door to Nestorianism.
Saint Gregory I the Great served his papacy in the 6th
century (590AD). He was a Doctor of the
church and one of the four great Latin Fathers of the Church. He had the most influence on the
early medieval church as the multitudes of writings he created. In the 530s the second Church of
the Holy Wisdom, the Hagia Sophia was built in Constantinople under Justinian. He was also a
very important writer in his time period, one of the two in his century.
As the political borders of the Roman Empire crumbled away and then destroyed, Christianity
spread beyond the old borders of the empire and into areas never Romanized.
Byzantium Empire in 555AD
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Christianity spread to Ireland, a land that was never exposed to Christianity. The spread in faith
was catalyzed by a former slave man, Saint Peter. He escaped slavery and was consecrated as a
bishop. After becoming a bishop, he returned to his homeland to preach the Gospel.
Christianity further spread to places such as Arabia, Gaul (modern day
France), Britain, and more heavily in Germany. The spread to the
Germans and the Franks was quite successful, but some Germanics
would praise their former Gods alongside with Jesus. They would
sometimes inter-swap between their Gods and ask for victory before
battle.
These were the major events of the 6th
Century: the Pope, Pope
Gregory the Great I, who wrote a multitude of documents, the Second Council of Constantinople
which clarified the divinity of Jesus and the nomenclature of Virgin Mary, and lastly the
missionaries that were spread through the northern and eastern Europe.
By: Niels Mohty
Rise of Islam and its Impact
Arabian religious leader named Muhammad
ibn ‘Abdullāh began to spread the message
of the Koran, which includes some tradition
similar to those of the Christian and Jewish
faith. Birth of Prophet Muhammad was the
beginning of Islam. After his teachings and
his death, his teachings were taught and
preached all over the Arabian Pedinusa and
more. This new faith, called submission,
proclaimed the worship and obedience of a
purely monotheist God as the purpose of
life. This uprising in a new religion would
pose many threats to Christianity during the middle ages. Prophet Muhammad unified the
Arabian Peninsula in 630 under the order of Islam. This unification also included a former
Christian nation: Yemen. After Prophet Muhammad died, a caliphate (Muslim empire) emerged.
Back to Christianity, there were three main councils that took place during the 7th
century. These
three councils:
Conversion of pagans
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1. The Third Council of Constantinople was met for the purpose of repudiating
monothelitism and reaffirmed that Christ had both human and divine wills.
2. The Quinisext Council discussed raising some local canons to ecumenical status,
establishing principles of clerical discipline, addressing the Biblical canon, and
establishing the pentarchy.
3. The Second Council of Nicaea which declared that images of Jesus misrepresented him
and that images of Mary and the saints were idols. The Second Council of Nicaea
restored the veneration of icons and ended the first iconoclasm.
Tensions between East and West grew as conflict arose over misunderstandings about
Hesychasm, the act of prayer. Communication between the Greek East and Latin West by the 7th
century had become dangerous and practically ceased - this marked the Great Schism.
Churches still kept preaching the word of the Gospel to new countries. They continued to preach
in the regular areas – Germany, England, and France, but there was a new place that they could
preach Christianity; China. When Christianity was first introduced to China, three major
religious systems, Buddhism, Confucianism, and
Taoism, were already popular there, woven into
the ancient traditions and customs of the people.
Active trade for centuries between China and the
West could have brought Christian missionaries at
an early date. Christianity was welcomed by
Emperor T'ai Tsung, the founder of the Tang
Dynasty. The emperor, having examined the
sacred writings, ordered their translation and the
preaching of their message. He also directed the
building of a Christian monastery in his capital.
According to the inscription, his successor,
Emperor Kao Tsung, also encouraged Christianity and ordered the building of a monastery in
each province of his domain.
The Muslims being in the Holy Land sparked conflict between the Christians and the Muslims.
The Muslim armies applied pressure on the Eastern Orthodox Byzantium Empire. Apostasy was
threatened with death punishment. Many Christians would convert just to avoid taxes and
discrimination. These actions deflected the Church from its positive growth, backed churches
into ghetto communities, and discouraged evangelism. The Islamic government eventually
controlled the trade routes and essentially closed the proclamation of the Gospel.
Ancient Chinese Church
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Example of Iconoclasm
Islamic rule started to spread and more and more land was starting to be conquered by the
Muslims as they ran rampant in the south.
The Roman-Persian Wars: Conflict between the Persian Nation and the Roman empires was
going on for approximately 700+ years. The series of wars waged upon each other weakened
them both equally, allowing Islamic nations to take advantage of their weakness and conquering
Persia.
Byzantine-Arab Wars: Following the death of Muhammad in 632, there was a push by the
Muslims to conquer tribes of the East - mostly Christian Ghassanids. The Byzantine-Muslim
Wars were a series of wars between the Arab Muslims Caliphates and the Eastern Orthodox
Byzantine Empire. As a result the Byzantines saw an extensive loss of territory. The initial
conflict lasted from 629-717, ending with the Second Arab Siege of Constantinople. After the
Arab conquest of North Africa in the 7th century the Eastern Orthodox Church of Egypt in
Alexandria were a minority even among Christians and remained small for centuries.
The wars that took place in the 7th
century shaped Christianity in a different way, a degrading
one. There were also three main councils that took place mainly concerning the veneration of
saints and the Lord. Christianity started to sprout in new places such as China.
By: Niels Mohty
Islamic Presence in a Christian World
Christianity in the 8th century was much affected by the rise of Islam in the south. Toward the
end of 8th century, the Muslim nation had conquered all of Persia and most of the Byzantine
territories which would include: Egypt, Syria, and Palestine. These events seemed to mark that
Muslim world has overtaken the Christian world. Muslim nations became the most powerful
nations in the Mediterranean areas.
As usual per century, there were a few more councils and
movements that took place in the 8th
century. The Second
Council of Nicea affirmed the making and veneration of
icons while also forbidding the worship of icons and the
making of three-dimensional statuary. Iconoclasm was a
movement within the Eastern Christian Byzantine church
to establish that the Christian culture of portraits of the
family of Christ and subsequent Christians and biblical
scenes were not of a Christian origin and therefore
heretical. Iconoclasm is the deliberate destruction of
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religious icons and other symbols or monuments, usually with religious or political motives. This
movement was later defined as heretical under the council. The group destroyed much of the
Christian churches' art history, which is needed in addressing the traditional interruptions of the
Christian faith and the artistic works that in the early church were devoted to Jesus Christ or
God. Many works were destroyed during this period. There was even more tension between East
and West parts of the Church because of the conflict over the ideal of
iconoclasm. In the Byzantine side of the conflict, they forbid the
creation and veneration of religious images. Judaism and Islam forbid
this practice as well. Despite all of this conflict and hardship, the
missionaries seem to strive and not only strive, but reach new places
such as the Netherlands, non-Frankish Germany, and Scandinavia.
The missionaries still were in function in the old places such as China
and Anglo-Saxons.
There was an important Saint during this time period – Saint John.
Saint John of Damascus wrote works expounding the Christian faith,
and composed hymns which are still used liturgically in Eastern
Christian practice throughout the world. He is considered "the last of
the Fathers" of the Eastern Orthodox Church and is best known for
his strong defense of icons and is generally considered to be the last of the Church Fathers.
The Arabs, under the command of the Berber General Tarik ibn Ziyad, first began their conquest
of southern Spain in 711. A raiding party led by Tarik was sent to intervene in a civil war in the
Visigothic kingdom in Hispania. Crossing the Strait of Gibraltar, they won a decisive victory in
the summer of 711 at the Battle of Guadalete and by 718 the Muslims dominated most of the
peninsula.
Overall in the 8th
century, the Church faced more problems such as the veneration of the saints
and if the production of religious images should be outlawed. As the Catholic institution was
arguing over this, the Muslims and their empire grew in size and power.
By: Niels Mohty
Conflict and Coronation
In the 9th
Century, the Charlemagne was coroneted as Holy Roman Emperor. Being coroneted
symbolized the pope's alleged right to crown Christian sovereigns, and the emperor's role as
protector of the Roman Catholic Church.
Saint John of Damascus
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A Church in Russia
This time period in where Charlemagne was coronated was called the Carolingian Renaissance.
With this, his papacy had acquired a new protectorate in the West in return from Charlemagne’s
Coronation, but also led to a schism, because the emperors and patriarchs of Constantinople
interpreted themselves as the true descendants of the Roman Empire dating back to the
beginnings of the Church.
As usual, the missionaries in the foreign countries still
prospered, adding more and more countries to the list every
century. The Spread of Christianity became more prevalent in
areas of Moravia, Bulgaria, Rus' (Slavic), and Scandinavia.
In the East Slavic area (Rus'), and after the First Bulgarian
Empire was converted to Christianity, it started a massive
missionary expansion north and east. As a result it was able
to convert and help convert many East Slavic peoples and introduce to them Bulgarian books and
Church literature in Bulgarian, most notably the Rus'. Christianize them had already been made
in the 9th century, with the Christianization of the Rus' Khaganate. The efforts were finally
successful in the 10th century, when about 980 Vladimir the Great was baptized.
In this century, the new Holy Roman Emperor Charlemagne was appointed and this caused
problems for the Church as some people claimed to be the direct descendent and therefore was
eligible for this title. As for the missionaries went - they went well and flourished in new areas in
the world; mostly eastern and northern Europe.
By: Niels Mohty
A Period of Peace
By the end of the 10th
century in Christianity, the word of the Gospel and its teaching has spread
throughout much of Europe and Asia. The Church in England was forming, but on the downside,
the Eastern Orthodox Church was still fighting each other in religious views which ultimately
erupt in the Great Schism.
As the Carolingian Empire started to fail, more theological activity was being seen and
intellectually influences from the Arab world started to merge via Spain.
The last of Europe was being introduced to the Gospel. Poland becomes Christianized and
buildings of Churches and other religious monuments are erected. Poland became unified under
the name of Christianity and was unified by the 13th
century. Also, the Kingdom of Hungary
became Christianized at the end of the 10th
century.
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Area of what now is Belarus, Russia and the Ukraine was
settled by the Kievan Rus' with an attempt to Christianize
them which had already been made in the 9th century, with
the Christianization of the Rus' Khaganate. The efforts were
finally successful in the 10th century, when about 980
Vladimir the Great was baptized at Chersonesos.
By: Niels Mohty
The Great Schism and Church Problems
Christianity in the 11th century is marked primarily by the Great Schism of the Church, which
formally divided the State church of the Roman Empire into Eastern (Greek) and Western (Latin)
branches.
The Investiture Controversy, or Lay investiture
controversy, was the most significant conflict
between secular and religious powers in
medieval Europe. It began as a dispute in the
11th century between the Holy Roman Emperor
Henry IV, and Pope Gregory VII concerning
who would appoint bishops (investiture). The
end of lay investiture threatened to undercut the
power of the empire and the ambitions of
noblemen for the benefit of Church reform.
Noblemen who held lands hereditarily passed
those lands on within their family. However,
because bishops had no legitimate children, when a bishop died it was the king's right to appoint
a successor. So, while a king had little recourse in preventing noblemen from acquiring powerful
domains via inheritance and dynastic marriages, a king could keep careful control of lands under
the domain of his bishops. The Church wanted to end this lay investiture because of the potential
corruption, not only from vacant sees but also from other practices such as simony.
By: Niels Mohty
Baptism of Poland
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1000-1500: Introduction and Preview
The period between 1000 and 1500 is known as “The High Middle Ages,” and was one of the
richest times in all history for creative theological thinking. Great scholars, attached to the
growing European universities, were hammering out refinements of basic Christian doctrines that
dealt with questions Christians of all times ask. It was an era not only of rich theology, but of
powerful preaching and evangelistic outreach; it was also a time when great leaders tried to focus
people’s attention on true Christian discipleship. Often our view of the Middle Ages is of
corruption and power politics at the papal level, and that element was present, but this series of
studies attempts to emphasize the positive accomplishments of great men of God in this time of
the flowering of the Christian Medieval civilization.
The Rise of the Papal Monarchy: Gregory VII and his Colleagues
At a synod in 1059, Hildebrand (Pope Gregory VII) and his
colleague Peter Damian issued harsh rebukes against
cathedral canons who lived “like laypeople.” In their view,
canons (groups of priests who were attached to specific
cathedrals or other churches) should live an “apostolic
common life,” cloistered within the church’s premise and
separate from the town’s laypeople. Many canons,
however, had taken up residence in homes and had begun
gathering personal possessions, something considered ‘un-
apostolic’. The Gregorian Reform partially took root,
launching a partial overhaul of the system by establishing
the “Rule of Augustine,” a rigorous, ascetic regulation of the
common life, for canons. Though only a minority of the
population adopted the Augustinian rule, it established a
significant alternative to the prevailing clerical culture of the time and reveals a lot about the
kind of Christianity that Gregory and his supporters sought to create.
By: Andrew Wingersky
Gregory VII
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The Struggle of Two Universals: German
Empire and Papal Monarchy
Through the reforms of Cluny, a series of forceful
Popes sought to free the Church from secular
control. A German, Pope St. Leo IX (1049–1054)
was the first of these reformer Popes. A relative
of Emperor Henry III, he traveled widely to fight
against the abuses of clerical incontinence, lay
investiture, and simony. A successor, Pope
Nicholas II (1058–1061), helped the cause of the
papacy by creating the College of Cardinals to
elect future Popes. The early efforts at reform
were led by St. Peter Damian and Hildebrand, the
brilliant monk from Cluny, who became Pope
Gregory VII. The brilliant Gregory VII’s
pontificate 1073–1085) was a milestone, the
beginning of a reform that gained for the Church
unparalleled status and power in Europe over the
next two centuries. Gregory’s reforms included
an insistence on clerical celibacy throughout the
Church, a move that led to revolts in some areas.
He also staunchly moved to eradicate simony and stamp out lay investiture. Gregory firmly held
that God founded the Church and commissioned it to welcome all humanity into a single society
ruled by divine law. Because the Church was founded by Christ, she is above all their human
societies, including the state. Gregory’s foundational beliefs were expressed in his controversial
Dictates of the Pope, which, in twenty-seven propositions, spelled out the rights of the Pope in
relationship to secular rulers.
By: Andrew Wingersky
The Crusades: The Odyssey of Faith
The Crusades were a series of Holy Wars launched by the Christian states of Europe against the
Saracens. The Crusades started in 1095 when Pope Claremont preached the First Crusade at the
Council of Claremont. The Pope’s preaching led to thousands immediately affixing the cross to
their garments – the name Crusade given to the Holy Wars came from the old French word
Pope Leo IX
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‘crois’ meaning ‘cross’. The Crusades were great military expeditions undertaken by the
Christian nations of Europe for the purpose of rescuing
the holy places of Palestine from the hands of the
Mohammedans. They were eight in number, the first
four being called the Principal Crusades, and the
remaining four the Minor Crusades. Also, there was a
Children’s Crusade. There were several other
expeditions which were insignificant in numbers or
results. The reason for the crusades was a war between
Christians and Moslems which centered on the city of
Jerusalem. The City of Jerusalem held a Holy
significance to the Christian religion. The Church of the
Holy Sepulcher in Jerusalem commemorated the hill of
crucifixion and the tomb of Christ’s burial and was
visited by Pilgrims. In 1065, Jerusalem was taken by
the Turks and 3000 Christians were massacred starting
a chain of events which contributed to the cause of the
crusades. The objectives of the crusades was at first to release the Holy Land, in particular
Jerusalem, from the Saracens, but in time was extended to seizing Spain from the Moors, the
Slavs and Pagans from eastern Europe, and the islands of the Mediterranean.
By: Andrew Wingersky
Return of Spain to the Christian Fold (The
Reconquista)
The Reconquista refers to the medieval Christian conquest
of the Iberian Peninsula (present-day Spain and Portugal)
from the Moslem forces, who had invaded the area in 711.
After 1000, the Moslem caliphate of Cordoba began to
break into several smaller states divided by warfare. This
provided the opportunity for Christian forces to initiate
the Reconquista, led by the Kingdom of Castile which
captured the important Moslem city of Toledo in 1085.The
kingdom of Aragón also began its own offensive against the
Moors in the early twelfth century and the union with
Catalonia in 1140 furnished additional military strength. In
1212, Pope Innocent III proclaimed a full crusade against
The Crusades
The Reconquista
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the Moors and the Battle of Las Navas de Tolosa in the same year provided the Christians with a
decisive victory from which the Moors never fully recovered. Castile captured Cordoba in 1236
and Cadiz in 1262. By 1270, the Moors were confined to the small Kingdom of Granada in the
south of Spain, which they held until 1492 when Ferdinand V and Isabella I completed
the Reconquista by capturing the last Moorish enclave in Spain.
By: Andrew Wingersky
Salvation Theology and Medieval
Theologians
The ‘High medieval’ period is also known as the ‘scholastic’
period, and is generally agreed to begin with Saint Anselm of
Canterbury, an Italian philosopher, theologian, and church official
who is famous as the originator of the ontological argument for the
existence of God. The 13th
and 14th
centuries are generally
regarded as the high period of scholasticism. The early 13th
century witnessed the culmination of the recovery of Greek
philosophy. Schools of translation appeared in Italy and Sicily,
and eventually in the rest of Europe. Scholars such as Adelard of
Bath travelled to Sicily and the Arab world, translating works on
astronomy and mathematics, including the first complete
translation of Euclid’s Elements. Also, powerful Norman kings
gathered men of knowledge from Italy and other areas into their
courts as a sign of their prestige. William of Moerbeke’s
translations and editions of Greek philosophical texts in the
middle half of the 13th
century helped in the formation of a clearer
picture of Greek philosophy, and in particular of Aristotle, than was given by the Arabic versions
they had previously relied on, which had distorted or obscured the relation between Platonic and
Aristotelian systems of philosophy. His work formed the basis of the major commentaries that
followed.
By: Andrew Wingersky
Plato, Seneca, Artistole From left to right
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England's Own Struggle: Archbishops of
Canterbury vs. Ambitious Kings
When Henry II became the Duke of Normandy in 1150 and Count of Anjou after his
father’s death in 1151, he married Eleanor of Aquitaine in 1152 and ruled her duchy as well, thus
becoming more powerful than his lord, King Louis of France. As such, King Louis was fearful
of his loos of influence in France and stated war on the couple, joined by Henry’s younger
brother Geoffrey who claimed the inheritance of Anjou. Their feeble opposition was easily
overcome, however, and Henry acquired a vast swathe of
territory in France from Normandy through Anjou to
Aquitaine. Meanwhile, in England, Stephen was unable to
gain the support that he needed from his Barons, fearful that
a victory for either side would be followed by a massive
confiscation of lands. He had quarreled with his Archbishop
of Canterbury in 1147, and the Church had, as a result,
refused to acknowledge his son Eustace as his heir. When
Eustace met an untimely death in 1154, Stephen was forced
to meet Henry at Wallingford, the great Barons decided to
shift any and all allegiances away from the King of England
to the one he was more or less forced to recognize as his
successor. Henry was duly crowned with general English
acclaim. Henry II left a greater impression upon the
institutions of England than any other king. Before long,
however, King Henry II and Archbishop Becket got into a dispute with three main factors
causing it: differing personalities, political implications, and the tolerance of the Age.
Eventually, as the quarrel progressed, Becket died and was more powerful and influential in said
death. Then, Henry’s sons broke out into open rebellion aided by the Queen. The sons’ lack of
cooperation, however, allowed Henry to defeat them and imprison Eleanor for her part. Henry
eventually divided up his kingdom.
By: Andrew Wingersky
Henry II
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The Story of Two Opposites: Francis of
Assisi and Dominic of Spain
With the end of the Crusades came the birth of a new social class, city people (bourgeoisie) who,
in turn, developed trades. These changes helped to hasten the end of feudalism and helped to
respond to the ever-growing migration to cities, the new form of religious life developed in the
Church to serve the needs of the city people – the mendicant or “begging” orders. Among the
new religious orders founded at this time were the Carmelites and Augustinians, but two most
important new orders of the time were the Dominicans and the Franciscans. Unlike members of
earlier orders who lived in monasteries, the early Dominican and Franciscan friars kept on the
move, living a simple life of poverty, preaching in towns and begging for their food and shelter.
St. Dominic Guzman founded his Order of Preachers (the
Dominicans) to combat heresies, most notably the Albigensian
heresy. The Dominicans took their vow of poverty and
became leaders in the emerging universities. Later, they also
assumed a prominent role on the court of the Inquisition, a
special Church tribunal to curb the spread of heresies. St.
Thomas Aquinas, one of the greatest theologians of the Middle
Ages, was a Dominican. St. Francis of Assisi founded the
Order of Friar Minors, popularly known as Franciscans. Like
the Dominicans, the Franciscans took the vows of poverty,
chastity, and obedience and lived simply among the people,
bringing Christ to the marketplace. The mendicant orders
helped the Church at a critical time as radical reforming groups
had begun to emerge as a response to a Church that had grown rich and powerful.
Universities developed in the large cities of Europe during this time
period, and rival clerical orders within the Church began to battle for
political and intellectual control over these centers of educational life.
The two main orders founded in this period were the Franciscans and
the Dominicans. The Franciscans were founded by Francis of Assisi in
1209. Their leader in the middle of the century was Bonaventure, a
traditionalist who defended the theology of Augustine and the
philosophy of Plato, incorporating only a little of Aristotle in with the
more neoplatonist elements. Following Anselm, Bonaventure supposed
that reason can discover truth only when philosophy is illuminated by
religious faith. Other important Franciscan writers were Duns
Scotus, Peter Auriol, and William of Ockham.
Francis of Assisi
Dominic Guzman
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By contrast, the Dominican order, founded by St Dominic in 1215 placed more emphasis on the
use of reason and made extensive use of the new Aristotelian sources derived from the East, and
Moorish Spain. The great representatives of Dominican thinking in this period were Albertus
Magnus and (especially) Thomas Aquinas, whose artful synthesis of Greek rationalism and
Christian doctrine eventually came to define Catholic philosophy. Aquinas placed more
emphasis on reason and argumentation, and was one of the first to use the new translation of
Aristotle's metaphysical and epistemological writing. This was a significant departure from the
Neoplatonic and Augustinian thinking that had dominated much of early Scholasticism. Aquinas
showed how it was possible to incorporate much of the philosophy of Aristotle without falling
into the "errors" of the Commentator Averroes.
By: Andrew Wingersky
Bernard of Clairvaux and the Cistercians
Bernard was born in Burgundy to a family of lower nobility
and with parents of virtue. Because his mother who exerted
the most influence on him, her death in 1107 marked the
beginning of his long path to complete conversion. He
eventually sought out the counsel of the abbot of Citeaux,
Stephen Harding, and decided to enter his small, struggling,
new community called the Cistercians. The order had been
established in 1098 to restore Benedictine monasticism to a
more primitive and austere state. Bernard was so taken
with the order; he persuaded not only his brothers but some
25 others to join him at Citeaux in 1112. Here he began
practicing lifelong ascetic disciplines (strict fasting, sleep
deprivation, etc.), which severely impaired his health---he
was plagued by a myriad of diseases. Within three years,
he was appointed abbot of the third Cistercian monastery
and continued to show his growing spiritual wisdom. By
1118 Clairvaux was able to found its first daughter house—the first of some 70 Cistercian
monasteries Bernard founded (which in turn founded another 100 monasteries in Bernard’s
lifetime). As the order grew, so did Bernard’s influence and responsibilities.
By: Andrew Wingersky
Bernard of Clairvaux
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Medieval Church Architecture
Architecture played a very important role for the church in medieval England. The more
splendid the architecture, the more the church believed it was praising God. The church in
Medieval England poured vast sums of
money into the creation of grandiose
architectural projects that peaked in the
cathedrals at Canterbury and York.
Medieval churches and cathedrals were
superbly built. The vast sums accrued
by the church (primarily from the
poorer classes) gave it the opportunity
to spend on large building projects.
Many of the churches and cathedrals
that survive from the medieval times
have also had additions to them. The
cathedrals started in the reign of
William the Conqueror were the largest buildings seen in England up to that time. With the
exception of Worcester Cathedral, William appointed Norman bishops to these cathedrals.
Therefore, these men would have been heavily influenced by the architecture used in Normandy
and this style came to dominate the architecture of the cathedrals build under William. Norman
architecture is also referred to as Romanesque because it was influenced by the Ancient Romans.
By: Andrew Wingersky
Thomas Aquinas and the Thomistic Synthesis
Thomism is the philosophical school that arose as a legacy
of the work and thought of Saint Thomas Aquinas,
philosopher, theologian, and Doctor of the Church. In
philosophy, his commentaries on Aristotle are his most
lasting contribution. In theology, his Summa Theologica
was one of the most influential documents in medieval
theology and continues to be studied today in theology and
philosophy classes. Thomas believed that truth is true
wherever it is found, and thus consulted Greek, Roman,
Jewish, and Muslim philosophers. Specifically, he was a
realist. He largely followed Aristotelian terminology and
Medieval Church
Thomas Aquinas
22
metaphysics, and wrote comprehensive commentaries on Aristotle, often affirming Aristotle’s
views with independent arguments. Thomas respectfully referred to Aristotle simply as “the
Philosopher.” He also adhered to some neoplatonic principles. Shortly before Thomas died, his
friend Reginald of Piperno implored him to finish his works. With the decree Postquam
sanctissimus, Pope St. Pius X declared that 24 theses formulated by teachers from various
institutions…clearly contain the principles and more important thoughts of Thomas.
By: Andrew Wingersky
Downfall of the Papal Monarchy
Gregory VII’s success in establishing a papal monarchy, which dominated the Church and all
emperors and kings, was continued by successor popes though the 11th
, 12th
, and 14th
centuries.
As time went on, however, the gradual formation of nation states and the power of their kings
and emperors would put an end to the concept of Christendom – the various peoples of the West
united by the Church – as established by Charlemagne in the 9th
century. Furthermore, the
events of the 14th
century called into question not only the power of the popes but their authority
and spiritual and moral prestige. The major marks of the downfall of the Papal Monarchy were
the conflicts between the Popes and the German kings, the conflicts between the Popes and the
French, the Babylonian Captivity (in which the papacy remained in Avignon, France), and the
return of the Papacy to Rome.
By: Andrew Wingersky
Prelude to the Reformation
Although the Reformation officially began in 1517, there were
many key men who began to call for reform in the church.
Among the men who called for reform some of the most
important were John Wycliffe, John Hus, and Martin Luther.
John Wycliffe was born in England and studied at Oxford. He
eventually came to criticize the clergy in 1376 and the corruption
of the Roman Church, and rejected purgatory and the worship of
saints. Wycliffe yearned to return the church to the first-century
Christianity. He believed the Bible to be the supreme authority
for the Christian faith. Although he was a priest of the Roman
Church for his life, he declared the only head of the church was
Christ. Those who followed him were called “Lollards,” and went about preaching the gospel.
John Wycliffe
23
John Hus was influenced by Wycliffe but was a diligent independent thinker. He preached
against corruption of the roman Church and believed that the church consists of the total number
of the predestined (those who would be saved). He distinguished between being in the church
and being of the church. He taught that one could be in the church and yet not be a real member
of it. He also taught that cardinals and popes were not necessary to the government of the
church, although he would not have opposed the Episcopal form of government. The whole
nation of Bohemia followed Hus, even after his excommunication. When the pope summoned
Hus to the Council of Constance, the Emperor Sigismund ordered him to go and promised safe
conduct to and from the Council, but he did not interfere when he was condemned a heretic and
burned at the stake. Martin Luther also called for reform in the church in his 95 Theses thus
marking the beginning of the Reformation period.
24
25
Pope Leo X
Secrets of the Vatican
As you may know the pope plays a very significant role in
the Catholic faith. I will give you the facts on some very
well-known popes of the last 500 years and bring you in on
the secrets of the Vatican. Let us start out with Pope Leo X;
he was the second son in the Medici family with the name
of Giovanni de Medici (Giovanni the magnificent). The
Medici’s had so much power he was made a cardinal at age
13. He then became Pope at 38 and he chose the name Leo
X. Within year of being pope he had drained all the money
from the church turning Rome into a cultural center of the
Renaissance. With dreams of rebuilding Saint Peter’s he
needed to make money and at that point he went out of
control. He started selling condolences (forgiveness from
god written on a scroll) to all the people. People thought it
was a small price to pay for a ticket into heaven and bought
them for husbands, wives, sons, daughters, and even dead
relatives just to make sure they made it into heaven. Martin
Luther saw this as an abomination and protested
immediately. He then wrote the 95 Theses, a list of things he though was wrong with the church.
Luther did not mean it in a way to aggravate the pope, but it did. Pope Leo X then he
excommunicated Luther from the church. Luther then breaks of to start Protestants. The
cardinals could see that the pope was getting out of hand so they planned to assassinate him,
Giovanni found out and used a double. They killed his double and at that moment Pope Leo X
was determined to kill all responsible. He killed the cardinals that conspired and then died
mysteriously later.
By Peter Marozzi
Pope John Paul II
Pope John Paul II (shown in the right) had a very interesting reign as pope.
He suffered on thing that most popes do not, an assassination attempt. It all
started on the morning of May 13, 1934, He was riding through St. Peter’s
square and then Mehmet Ali Ağca a Turkish ultra-naturalist and a member
of the Grey Wolves shot him 4 times with a Browning Hi-Power 45. It is a
Belgium semi-automatic handgun. It is used by over 50 countries
worldwide and is still used today. It would not be hard to obtain especially
in turkey at the time of an uproar. As the Pope drove by Mehmet shot him
four times and two other people empting his 13 round clip. Only 7 rounds
hit their target and the rest were launched into the air or missed. He was
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Pope John Paul I
quickly brought down and comprehended. The pope was in critical condition and was
immediately rushed to the hospital and luckily he survived. Mehmet Ali Ağca was sentenced to
life in Italian prison. But later he met with the pope and he was forgiven by the pope. His
sentence was later pardoned by the Italian government and commuted to 19 years in Italian
prison and 10 years in Turkish prison. He was released in 2010.
Pope John Paul I
Pope John Paul I was the shortest ever life of a pope. He was pope for 33 days. He was found
dead sitting up in his bed one morning by a nun. It was presumed COD was cardiac arrest. There
was no autopsy performed, but that is not uncommon for a pope.
Statements were taken but it is thought it is inaccurate on who
actually found the body and what he was doing before he died.
David Yallop later wrote a book on the happenings and concluded
that the pope could have been in potential danger from the IOR
(Vatican bank). The bank owed a lot of people money and most of
those people disappeared after the incident. Later one of the people
who the IOR owed money was found dead in his home and ruled
suicide. His family was in disbelief and ordered a reinvestigation,
the outcome, not suicide but an open verdict. Lucien Gregoire knew
the pope personally even before he became pope. He started to
investigate the sudden death of his friend and it came to a sudden
stop when he was mysteriously killed in a hit and run accident.
By: Peter Marozzi
Eastern and Western Schism
The Great Western Schism occurred in in Western
Christendom from 1378 - 1417. In 1378 the papal court
was based in Rome and an Italian was elected pope as
Pope Urban VI. The cardinals in the French interest
refused to accept him, declared his election void, and
named Clement VII as pope. Clement withdrew to
Avignon, whilst Urban remained in Rome. Western
Christendom could not decide which one to obey. Some
countries declared for Urban, while other countries
accepted Clement.
By: Peter Marozzi
27
Church of England The Church of England happened during the time the Protestant
Reformation. King Henry VIII (shown to the left) wanted to
divorce his wife but the church did not let him. So he declared
himself the head of his own church the Anglicans or the Church of
England. When he became the leader he divorced his wife and
repeated the process a couple of times. It is a different religion but
it is very similar to Catholic but Catholics follow the pope and they
follow the king and queen.
By: Peter Marozzi
Science Questions Faith in God
Since Da Vinci, to Galileo, Darwin, and Sir Isaac Newton
the church has been battling against science. The problem
of disagreeing over creation and miracles may never be
solved. The church does recognize evolution now, they
say that god created everything and he created things to
cause everything. A lot of those same people protest
things like invetro and abortion and other scientific things.
By: Peter Marozzi
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Abortion Abortion is a fragile subject and will
spark up an argument almost anywhere
you bring it up. I personally do not
voice my opinion openly just to retain
the peace. Catholics are Pro-life and
think abortion is murder. Others may
think it is okay. There have been anti-
abortion riots outside of the clinics and
they are so against it they insult the
people going in and throw eggs or
other things. Many states have tried to
pass rules on whether it should be legal
or not. Some presidents even say they
will fix the issues but nothing has
happened yet. Pro-choice states that since the Mother is holding the baby and that it is her body,
that she has the right to have an abortion at any time. Pro-life claims that the baby has a soul
(according to Catholic teachings) it would be considered murder and it forbidden to get an
abortion. I don’t think there will ever be a straight answer.
By Peter Marozzi
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Glossary
Americanism: the belief that American Catholics should adapt themselves to the best of American
culture rather than remove themselves and be confined to minority groups.
Aggiornmaneto: "A bringing up to date", was one of the key words used during the Second Vatican
Council both by bishops and the clergy
Apologist: Christian authors that protected the Church from anti-Christian writings or using reasoning
Apostle: Each of the twelve chief disciples of Jesus Christ; any important early Christian teacher, esp. St.
Paul.
Apostolic Father: a late first century or early second century author who knew actually knew some of
the Apostles or a few of their disciples.
Apostasy: A term that means total abandonment of the Church or the Catholic faith.
Arianism: A heresy denying the divinity of Christ, originating with the Alexandrian priest Arius
Baltimore Catechism: the first catechism written for Catholics in North America, replacing a translation
of Bellarmine's Small Catechism.
Caesaropapism: the doctrine that the state is supreme over the church in ecclesiastical matters.
canon (of the Bible): The list of the inspired books of the Bible endorsed by the Church.
Catholic Action: was the name of many groups of lay Catholics who were attempting to encourage a
Catholic influence on society
Christendom: A time during which great achievements were made taking place in the middle Ages when
the Church and the Western society were one. Broader, the term defines a larger territory where
Christianity is dominant.
Church: The name given the “People of God” who come together from the ends of the earth. For
Christians, the term has three meanings: the People of God gathered from the whole world; the local
church (diocese), and the liturgical assembly (primarily at Eucharist).
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Collegiality: is the relationship between colleagues. Colleagues are those explicitly united in a common
purpose and respecting each other's abilities to work
Conciliarism: A popular idea from the Middle Age claiming that the Pope has less authority than the
Church and that the Church could get rid of the Pope whenever it wants to. Conciliarism was
condemned during the first Vatican Council, but the Second Vatican Council endorsed it but stressed
that the Church was not superior to the powers of the papacy.
Council of Nicea: A council condemning Arianism, proclaimed the divinity of Jesus Christ, and issued a
creed of major Christian beliefs.
cuius regio, eius religio: “whose religion, his religion,” meaning that whatever the king’s religion is, will
be the religion of his/her people.
Dark Ages: A period of time around starting in 843 in which the Christian empire split into 3 different
divisions. With this political breakup of the Holy Roman Empire, disorder and civil wars followed. Weak
leaders caused even more fragmentation.
Deism: A religion that came about in the Age of Enlightenment that involves a belief in the existence of
a supreme being, specifically of a creator who does not intervene in the universe.
Didache: The Teaching of the Twelve Apostles
Donation of Pepin: The Donation of Pepin provided a legal basis for the formal organizing of the Papal
States, which inaugurated papal temporal rule over civil authorities.
Ecumenical Council: A worldwide, official assembly of the bishops under the direction of the Pope.
There have been twenty-one Ecumenical Councils in history, the most recent being the Second Vatican
Council (1962–1965).
Ecumenism: The movement that seeks Christian unity and eventually the unity of all peoples throughout
the world.
Edict of Milan: an edict tolerating Christianity throughout the Empire.
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Efficacious symbol: A description of sacrament; a sign of grace instituted by Christ and entrusted to the
Church. A sacrament is an efficacious symbol because it is a concrete, outward, and visible sign that is,
at the same time, what it represents.
Empiricism: A belief from the Age of Enlightenment that taught all knowledge is derived from sense-
experience.
Enlightenment: A name used in association with the Age of Reason after the Protestant Reformation
where it was held that only human reason, separated from religious belief, can “enlighten” people
Episkopoi: A word in Greek meaning bishop (or overseer)
Fall of Rome: Caused by an attack by the Visigoths in 410, Rome eventually fell in 476. One of the
results of the Fall of Rome was that the Pope emerged as a stronger and more powerful leader of the
Church.
Feudalism: A form of government popular in Europe in the Middle Ages in which a superior/lord
granted land to vassal to compensate for military service.
Filioque: “and from the Son,” one of the main motives for the Eastern Schism.
Freemasonry: Not revelation, governs human lives.
Four Articles: articles that made some outrageous claims: first, that the Pope had no power in temporal
matters; second, general councils were superior to the Pope in spiritual matters; third, the papacy must
adapt its rulings to the French Church; fourth, the decrees of the Pope are only binding on the faithful
when a general council agrees to them.
Gallicanism: A theory from the sixteenth century involving religion and politics that claimed that the
French Church is independent from the authority of the Pope.
Gnosticism: A heretical movement of the 2nd-century Christian Church, teaching that esoteric
knowledge (gnosis) of the supreme divine is enabled.
Hegira: Muhammad's departure from Mecca to Medina in ad 622.
Heresy: A false teaching that denies an essential (dogmatic) teaching of the Church.
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Hierarchy: The sacred leadership of the Church that is made up of the Pope, bishops, priests, and
deacons. The Pope is the symbol of unity in the Church and the successor to St. Peter.
Humanism: A movement of the Penaissance stressing the importance the rediscovery of art, literature,
and civilization of ancient Rome and Greece.
hypostatic union: The doctrine that in Jesus Christ, one divine being exists in two natures, in a divine
nature and in a human nature
Interdict: A Church Ruling preventing a person or religion from receiving or participating in the
sacraments.
Jansenism: A heretical belief teaching the depravity of humanity and that only a few receive the grace of
God. It is similar to Calvinism.
Josephinism: A heretical theory devised by Joseph II advocating the control of the state in matters of
religion, to include the control over the naming of bishops.
Justinian Code: A series of laws originally written in Latin that became the basis of European law that
was instituted by Byzantine emperor Justin (527–565).
Kerygma: A Greek word for the “proclamation” of religious truths about Jesus Christ (e.g., that he is the
way, the truth, and the life.).
Koinonia: The Greek word for “fellowship.” Christians are called to build fellowship with one another so
that they can be a sign of Christ to the world.
Koran: The Islamic sacred book, believed to be the word of God as dictated to Muhammad by the
archangel Gabriel and written down in Arabic.
Kulturkampf: refers to German policies in relation to secularity and the influence of the Roman Catholic
Church, enacted from 1871 to 1878 by the Prime Minister of Prussia, Otto von Bismarck. Liberalism.
lay investiture: A medieval practice where secular rulers of certain territories choose the bishop for that
territory.
Leitourgia: Latin term for liturgy, which means “work of the public.” The liturgy is the work of the
Blessed Trinity; the Father is the source of liturgy, Christ pours out the blessings of the Redemption he
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won for us on the cross through the sacraments, and the Holy Spirit enlightens our faith and
encourages our response.
Lumen Gentium: the Dogmatic Constitution on the Church, is one of the principal documents of the
Second Vatican Council
Macedonianism: A fourth century heresy named for a bishop of Macedonius that claimed that that the
Son created the Holy Spirit who was in turn subordinate to the Father and the Son.
Magisterium: The teaching authority of the church. The Lord bestowed the right to teach in his name
on the Apostles and their successors, that is, the bishops with the Pope as their leader.
Marks of the Church: Traditional signs of the Church: one, holy, catholic, and apostolic.
Mendicant: “to beg,” mendicants are members of a religion that take a vow stating that they are willing
Modernism: in its broadest definition, is modern thought, character, or practice. More specifically, the
term describes the modernist movement in the arts
Monasticism: asceticism as a form of religious life; usually conducted in a community under a common
rule and characterized by celibacy and poverty.
Monophysitism: a Christian heresy of the 5th and 6th centuries that challenged the orthodox definition
of the two natures (human and divine) in Jesus and instead believed there was a single divine nature
Mystery: A term to describe God’s hidden plan for mankind. The Church is a mystery. St. Augustine
defined mystery as “a visible sign of invisible grace.”
Nepotism: The practice among those with power or influence of favoring relatives or friends, especially
by giving them jobs.
Nominalism: The doctrine that general ideas are mere names without any corresponding reality and that
only particular objects exist.
Orthodoxy: A condition of agreeing to obey the teaching of the faith.
Office of the Propagation of the Faith: An office pointed towards coordinating and centralizing the
missionary activity of Rome.
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Opus Dei: a secular institute created as a personal prelature to the Pope and with its own bishop
independent of the typical diocesan framework.
Papal Inquisition: A Church tribunal from the thirteenth century in which papal representatives
employed the Inquisition to judge the guilt of suspected heretics with the aim of getting them to repent.
Pax Romana: “Peace of Rome,” A short period in time around Jesus’ birth.
Peace of God: An initiative beginning in the 10th century that was to make roads and cities more suited
for pilgrims and merchants.
Peace of Westphalia: The treaty ending the Thirty Years’ War that was signed in 1648. It solidified the
concepts of cuius regio, eius religio, which ended any hope for a united European Christendom.
Pelagianism: the theological doctrine put forward by Pelagius which denied original sin and affirmed the
ability of humans to be righteous
Pharisee: A Jewish sect during Jesus’ time that had a lot in common with Jesus including: belief in
Resurrection, the need for virtuous living, and the importance of the Law.
Preferential option for the poor: The option for the poor or the preferential option for the poor is one
of the basic principles of the Catholic social teaching as articulated in the 20th century.
Quietism: a heresy taking a dim view of humanity, claiming that humans are weak and powerless so
they shouldn’t take precedence over the national government.
Rationalism: A philosophy teaching that human reason is your “ticket to salvation”
Reign of Terror: an effort to wipe out Christianity itself by substituting a state religion, one that
Renaissance: A new cultural era occurring during the late middle Ages that rediscovered the ancient
civilization of Greece, Rome, and Egypt. The Renaissance stressed glorified the human body, pleasures of
life, and celebrated education.
Sacrament: An invisible sign of invisible grace. An efficacious symbol, a sacrament is an outward sign
instituted by Christ to confer grace.
Sadducee: A sect of Judaism that controlled the Temple. They were aristocratic.
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Schism: A break in Christian unity that takes place when a group of Christians separates itself from the
Church. This happens historically when
Scholasticism: a word describing the theological and philosophical system that came about through
Simony: The trade of Church offices that is condemned by the Church.
Syllabus of Errors: A list consisting of 80 errors that previously had been highlighted in earlier Church
teachings.
Theocracy: A civil form of government with the Church at its head.
Theotokos: Mother of God (used in the Eastern Orthodox Church as a title of the Virgin Mary).
Totalitarianism: is a political system where the state recognizes no limits to its authority and strives to
regulate every aspect of public.
Transubstantiation: A Church teaching that teaches how the bread and wine are consecrated into the
Body and Blood of Christ during Mass.
Truce of God: A policy ostracizing fighting from Wednesday evening to Monday morning, and also on
religious holidays. This left eighty days of the year for fighting. If you defied this truce, you were
excommunicated.
Ultramontanes: “Beyond the mountains,” ultramontanes describes supporters of the Pope who oppose
the nationalistic position of other French churchmen in the seventeenth century.
Unam Sanctam: one of the most extreme statements of Papal spiritual supremacy ever made. The
original document is lost but a version of the text can be found in the registers of Boniface VIII in
the Vatican Archives.
USCCB: United States Conference of Catholic Bishops. Official organization of the Catholic hierarchy in
the U.S. A canonical entity governing the church, and a public policy arm.
Vulgate: The principal Latin version of the Bible, prepared mainly by St. Jerome in the late 4th century,
and (as revised in 1592) adopted as the official text for the Roman Catholic Church
Zealot: A sect of Judaism hating Roman rule in the time of Jesus. They successfully started a revolution
against Rome.
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