Chapter - I
Introduction and Statement of the Problem
Chapter-I
1
Introduction
The topic “Topological Model for Traffic Management in Urban
Centres – A Data Base Management Systems approach” has been
chosen after some events encountered.
The First one being, an accident suffered by a girl, who visited twin
cities of Hyderabad for computer education anticipating a greener career.
She was travelling by Public Transport., as she got down the bus was
crossing the road only to be hit by a speeding car overtaking the bus she
just got down. Shows the need for minimizing accidents.
Second instance, a resident who wanted to catch a train at Railway
station 5 k.m. away, was looking for an auto, to catch the train ready to
leave in 10 minutes, enquired how-long it will take to reach the station.
This question although looks simple, is difficult to answer. The auto-driver
replied that the distance is something like 5 k.m., can be covered in 5-8
minutes. But there are 5 signals to pass, taking anything like 5 minutes at
each signal, need additional 25 minutes; hence it takes 30 minutes at
minimum. By that time the train will leave the station. This has prompted
me to look for minimizing the waiting time at traffic signals.
The Third, report in Newspapers, that Police Personnel supervising
of traffic at intersection, are suffering health hazards due to vehicular
pollution. I have also noticed that a large number of two wheeler users and
their Pelion and some pedestrian too, tie a hand-kerchief, a scarf around
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2
their face to protect themselves from vehicular pollution. Shows there is
every need for minimizing vehicular pollution.
It is well recognized that application of Data Based Management
System would improve the efficiency and effectiveness of any System.
Accordingly, I have opted the topic “Topological Model for Traffic
Management at Urban Centers – a Data Base Management System
approach”.
In view of recent reports that Engineering solutions of Education,
Engineering and Empowerment have offering only temporary relief and not
permanent solution to the problems, I have decided to adopt a Mathematical
Modeling approach of Topological Graph Theory to simplify the Traffic
Management.
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3
The National Priority on Urban Mobility :
Urban mobility faces several problems. Union Government has been
trying to solve them, by Five Year Plans. World over the problems of
Mobility has been tackled by speed mobility solutions and providing
infrastructure like road widening, flyovers, pedestrian walkways, over -
bridges and sub-ways. The Working group constituted by the Ministry of
Urban Transport has evaluated the approaches and came to a conclusion
that they are providing only temporary relief and thus the problem needs a
fresh look. Hence it is felt that a Mathematical Modeling approach is
worthy. My approach to the problem is as follows:
To make the study simple, I have adopted the approach of
Topological Graph Theory, which is distinct from other branches of
mathematics. As a Mathematical Modeling Tool this approach has
facilitated graphical representation of the problem and I am able to use the
principles of planarity, connectedness, isomorphism, decomposition/
partition, to simplify the traffic management problem of accident. This has
facilitated me in controlling the number of conflict points and to evolve
simpler signaling system to save time of the commuters. The traffic signals
need simplified approach to eliminated wastage of time and fuel at traffic
signals and also to reduced exposure to vehicular pollution.
Chapter-I
4
Objectives of the study :
The objectives of the study are
1 To control Road Accidents (between vehicle-to-vehicle and
Vehicle-to-Pedestrian) at Urban Centres..
2. To Minimize, waiting time at Traffic signals (4-leg intersection
and Pedestrian Crossing) resulting in time loss and Wastage of
fuel.
3. To minimize the intensity and duration of exposure to vehicular
pollution, suffered by the commuters at Traffic Signals
The Tertiary Objectives are :
a. To improve average speed of commuting.
b. To improve overall capacity of the road.
c. To improve fuel efficiency of the vehicles
Scope of the study:
1. The study concentrates on Model for Traffic Management at 4-
leg intersection and Pedestrian Crossing. The T-intersection
(three and multiple legged intersections) are outside the scope of
the study.
2. The approaches of speed transport modes (BRTS, MMTS, Metro,
Light Rail) and their repercussions are outside the purview of this
study.
3. More emphasis is attached to safety, saving of time and fuel and
exposure to Pollution and hence improving efficiency of traffic
management by using DBMS will not be covered.
Chapter-I
5
Overview of Traffic Accidents in India during the year 2010.
Majority of the road accidents Vehicle-Vehicle and Vehicle-
Pedestrian are encountered at intersections. Pedestrian suffer accidents
while crossing the road. To solve the problem several congestion. Road
widened. This has resulted in commuting by multi-lane system facilitated
overtaking, has resulted in increased accidents and congestion and other
connected problems in urban mobility.
Problem of overtaking from left and right; speeding up or slow down
or stopping suddenly. Entering from by-lanes and driving into has been
common; availability more capable engines without corresponding driving
skills is also found to be a reason. Public transport buses do not have
dedicated lanes. They overtake other commuters and commuters too have
the option and have to bear with condition of the road. Buses have to stop
every 500 mts in the name of commuter convenience. Pedestrian crossing
the road wherever they please. They also take L-turn, U-turn at
intersections, to follow their route . Wastage of fuel is rampant, emission
by vehicles is common.
Vehicular Accidents - overtaking, taking turn, changing lanes by
two, three, four wheelers. Pedestrian suffer accidents while crossing the
road, to catch bus or going to work place after leaving the bus.
a. Congestion, accidents, vehicular pollution and unbearable costs of
traffic management are universal phenomena. Working Group on
Traffic Management of Govt. of India has gone in to the problem
Chapter-I
6
and evolved approaches for urban mobility, has suggested
establishment of Centers of Excellence,
b. Experts in Traffic Management have opined that Roads Widening
and Flyovers at enormous costs are not resulting in sizable
improvement of the situation.
c. The Working group on Traffic Management has also studied the
approaches following worldwide and came to the conclusion that
they are not fit for Indian situation and found to be a costly
approach. Have suggested for fresh look to the problems to find an
indigenous solution.
The following table shows the number of road accidents (in thousands),
Number of persons injured and persons killed during the years 2006-2012.
(India) (‘000)
Sl.No. Year Road Accidents Persons injured Persons killed
1. 2006 394.4 452.9 1,05,725
2. 2007 418.6 465.3 1,14,590
3. 2008 415.8 469.1 1,18,239
4. 2009 421.6 466.6 1,26,896
5. 2010 430.6 470.6 1,33,938
6. 2011 440.1 468.8 1,36,834
7. 2012 440.0 469.9 1,39,091
Source :Col.9 of ‘Road Transport Year Book, Min of Road Transport & Highways, GOI . (Figures in Lakhs)
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Chapter-I
7
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Chapter-I
8
Accidents at 35 Mega Cities - 2010
Accidents- 2010 Road cases Injured deaths
1 Agra 1120 818 559 2 Ahmedabad 240 240 3 Allahabad 483 333 262 4 Amritsar 70 68 70 5 Asansol 152 80 191 6 Bengaluru 6490 5376 832 7 Bhopal 3169 2492 187 8 Chennai 5123 4425 607 9 Coimbatore 1131 1066 274 10 Delhi 5987 5389 1757 11 Dhanbad 137 44 45 12 Faridabad 710 545 263 13 Hyderabad 3025 2617 543 14 Indore 203 70 221 15 Jabalpur 201 112 201 16 Jaipur 2337 2123 530 17 Jamshedpur 487 372 201 18 Kanpur 1028 348 680 19 Kochi 1779 1783 166 20 Kolkata 2967 2738 353 21 Lucknow 1281 809 504 22 Ludhiana 57 53 59 23 Madhurai 568 522 117 24 Meerut 930 642 385 25 Mumbai 4005 3492 782 26 Nagpur 1758 1319 343 27 Nasik 3040 2980 233 28 Patna 208 98 106 29 Pune 1974 1607 571 30 Rajkot 1077 1183 147 31 Surat 982 941 229 32 Vadodara 1280 1361 192 33 Varanasi 349 122 237 34 Vijayawada 1341 1340 387 35 Vishakhapatnam 1866 1804 461 Total 5755 48951 12935
Chapter-I
9
Approach to the problem :
Urban Road are network of wide roads and intersections While
accidents between Vehicles are encountered at intersections, pedestrian
suffer accidents while crossing the road, these two spots are selected for the
study. The traffic movement at the spots was studied and the reason for
accidents is found to be encountering a large number conflict points (High
Crossing Nnumber of the Graph). Accordingly, we have taken up
minimize/ eliminate the conflict points using the methods of Mathematical
Modeling of Topological Graph Theory. The Graphs of Intersection and
Pedestrian crossing were prepared. The Number of ‘Conflict points”
represented by edge crossing (Cross Number) were 16 and 4 respectively.
In the second phase, the traffic signals were studied. It was found
that the Traffic Signals at intersection operating in four phases, while that
of Pedestrian Crossing in two Phases. Thereby each leg commuters are
waiting for 3 phases of the signal at intersection, while Pedestrian signals
are stopped for one phase. Thereby much time and fuel (while idling at
signals) were lost. We need to simplify the waiting time.
The intensity and duration of Vehicular Pollution at intersection and
Pedestrian signals were worked out. 3 leg commuters contribute to
pollution at intersection signals. Each commuter suffers vehicular pollution
for a duration of 3 Phases of the signals. We need to simplify the duration
and intensity of pollution.
Chapter-I
10
Using the methods of Graph Theory, the Graphs of Intersection and
Pedestrian Creossing were simplified to minimize the crossing number of
their graphs and adopted to the traffic management at these spots, Which
reduced the scope of accidents and improved the signals. The solutions
were recommended of adoption.
And I am happy to report that all the objectives of the study are
achieved.
Simplification of Traffic Management and Operation of Traffic Signals
at Intersection :
The problem of large waiting time at busy signaled intersection will
be studied and the number of phases in which signal operated is noted. The
numbers of conflict points encountered at the intersection will be recorded.
Using the methods of Mathematical Modeling The 4-leg intersection and
pedestrian crossing are represented by Graph in the form of Vertices and
Edges, and make them Planarity (by eliminating edge crossings) . Using
the methods of Graph Theory, the edges are altered and intersection graph
is partitioned into non-empty planar sub-graphs. The non-planar part of
the graph will be represented as union of isomorphic sub-graphs. The traffic
on these edges ply without hindrance (accident). The remaining portion is
proved to be of thickness of ONE . Since it cannot be Planar, we have opted
to introduce come controls by Traffic Signals and revise the Graph to 8
Conflict points and adopted it to intersection with Traffic Signals operating
in two Phases, to save fuel and time.
Chapter-I
11
Simplification of Pedestrian Crossing and its signals:
The problem of large waiting time at busy signaled pedestrian
crossing will be studied and the number of phases in which it operates, is
noted. The number of conflict points encountered will be recorded. Using
a Mathematical Model, the graph of Pedestrian Crossing has been
simplified . Finally, modified Graph is adopted to traffic management at
pedestrian crossing. This would minimize the waiting time of commuters.
Observations on approaches to traffic management:
a. Road Widening: When roads widened to 100’ and more, they have
facilitated use of the road in 4 lanes outward and another 4 inward.
Are permitted to overtake from left and right freely. Vehicles change
lanes using speed, apply breaks when necessary, they overtake from
left or right of a vehicle.
When traffic jam occurs, they drive at snail pace, as also follow the
car rule is not mandatory, they overtake, stop or speedup at will.
Hence, may be hit from behind, or may hit vehicle in front of them,
side swap may occur. Such happenings increased after road
widening.
b. Road widening has increased the road width. Thereby, pedestrian are
required to walk large distance to reach the other end of the road,
thereby take longer time to cross the road. Vehicle drivers complain
of increase in their of waiting-time at pedestrian crossing.
c. When 3-4 lane vehicles reach the intersection, each one option to
take left leg, opposite leg, right leg by commuters of all 4 legs, the
Chapter-I
12
number of conflict points increase in multiple. Thereby more
congestion is encountered.
d. No exclusive bus lanes are provided, hence overtaking by bus and
overtaking bus by vehicles freely happen. Bus stops at bus stops,
and vehicles following them or overtake often hitting the pedestrian
who get down from the bus.
e. The bus has two entry/exit doors, one at front and other at the back.
When bus stops, commuters alight the bus from these doors, cross
the road from the front and back of the bus, being hit by vehicles
overtaking the bus or vehicles driving from opposite direction of the
bus. When the bus stops at the bus-stop, the vehicles behind the bus
will overtake the bus, may hit the pedestrian crossing the road. The
accidents have increased as a result.
f. During the waiting time at the signals, the engine of the vehicles are
not switched off. The vehicular exhaust causes pollution and
commuters waiting at signals are exposed to. At a 4 leg intersection,
traffic signals operating in 4 phases, always 3 leg commuters will be
waiting at any point of time. Again, each commuter waits for 3
phases of the traffic signal to get their turn to cross the intersection.
g. To prevent pedestrian crossing the road, road dividers are created
from one intersection to another. Except at pedestrian crossing. The
vehicles who need to take U-turn are prevented and forced to take U-
turn only at pedestrian crossing or next intersection, causing
congestion, as U-turn requires more space and time. Further,
Chapter-I
13
incidence of wrong side driving is observed putting commuters
prone to accidents, often fatal.
h. Increase use of Public Transport results in increase in number of
pedestrian crossing the road:
It is observed that each person using public transport is required to
cross the road once at commencement or work place, either in
onward journey or return, that is twice in a trip. Hence, sufficient
capacity of pedestrian crossing are to be created, since twice the
people using public transport user would cross the road.
i. The driver/pedestrian requires 3 seconds time to take corrective
action, to avoid accident. The time is provided.
j. Vehicular exhaust is attributed to 70% of pollution in cities.
Pollution is due to driving at subnormal speed; stop-start operations
and not maintaining vehicles properly the pollution is high at traffic
signals. At any time commuters of 3 legs will be waiting at
intersection. Each leg commuter will wait for 3 Phases of the
signals. Hence, 75% of the vehicles that cross the intersection
contribute to pollution at intersection, through out the day.
k. Capacity of intersection is the number of vehicles use the
interchanges. Need to be improved.
l. It is found that introduction of Road dividers to restrict Pedestrian
crossing the road (to save from accidents) has caused inconvenience
to Vehicular commuters. The dividers force vehicular commuters to
take U-turn at nearest junction, increase in jams, severing congestion
and accidents to vehicular commuters. Installing dividers without
Chapter-I
14
provision for road-over bridges or sub-ways for use of pedestrian is
not a good approach.
m. After roads are widened, vehicles ply in 3-4 lanes in each direction
and Road dividers are constructed. There are no road over bridge or
underway. Pedestrian are at mercy of vehicular drivers (to cross the
road). Instances are common that Pedestrian look for auto to cross
the road.
n. The Signaled intersections donot provide for U-turn, thereby
congestion and accidents are resulted.
o. The motor cyclists donot have the concept of breaking time,
breaking distance, purpose of horn. Thereby, change lanes, stop or
speed up.
p. The motorcyclists are not aware that it requires 3 seconds to notice a
danger and to take corrective action, thereby fall pray to accidents.
q. To Main Roads and Streets are not separated, thereby slow and
speed moving vehicles ply on some roads, there by congestion,
accidents are common.
r. In case of encouraging use of public transport in place of self-driven
vehicles, it is found that the need for road crossing by pedestrian has
increased in proportion to the number of people using public
transport. Each commuter taking public transport is required to
cross the road two times in a trip. Without corresponding facilities
for crossing the road (road-over bridges; sub-ways), the
recommendation results in increase in pedestrian suffering injury or
fatality. Hence the recommendation to use public transport to
Chapter-I
15
individual driven vehicles needs a fresh thinking in view of
observation.
s. Since, the Engineering solutions of widening of roads, building
flyovers of different kind involve high investment and the Working
Group’s recommendation to look for simpler solutions, has
encouraged us work on accident control and saving commuters time
especially at traffic junctions and pedestrian crossing.
t. Delay at traffic signals are viewed as invisible speed breakers by the
Vehicular commuters.
u. Citizen are reluctant to take Public Transport, due to uncertainty,
lack of parking place, high parking fee.
v. Investment on individual vehicles is costly
w. Cost of private transport is comparable to individual vehicle use.
x. Roads are poorly maintained.
y. Pedestrian express displeasure to take walk-way, under-way and ask
for escalator or lift.
z. Increased speed would result in severity of accidents.
Chapter-I
16
Summary of Findings relevant to Traffic Management:
1. The number of conflict points (Crossing Number of its graph) of 4-
leg intersection is ‘16’, and that of Pedestrian Crossing is ‘4’. Larger
Crossing Number indicates that larger accidents are likely to occur.
2. The signals at intersection operate in FOUR phases and that of
Pedestrian Crossing in TWO Phases. Larger number of Phases
results in larger loss of time and fuel. Low average speed.
3. The fuel wastage (during waiting for signals)for Vehicular
commuters is for 3 phases of the traffic signals
4. At any point of time, commuters of 3-legs will be present at the
intersection contributing pollution.
5. Each leg commuter will wait for a duration of 3 phases of the signals
contribute pollution.
6. The Signals at Pedestrian Crossing operate in TWO phases.
Vehicular and Pedestrian commuters are made to wait for a duration
of ONE phase of the signal.
7. Crossing Number is the indicates the number of phases the traffic
signals will operate.
8. Thickness of the Graph indicates the number of layers the road
system needs to be free from accidents.
9. People using public transport (Pedestrian), cross the road two times
in a trip. Thereby, increased use of public transport results in
increased number of pedestrian crossing the road (two times in a
trip).
Chapter-I
17
10. Citizen are hesitant to use Public Transport due to lack of parking
place and lack of last mile transport facility.
Statement of the problem :
A large number of accidents are encountered at Major urban centres
[1] ; A lot of time is lost at Traffic Signals at intersection and Pedestrian
Crossing[2]; fuel wastage due to number of stop and start operations [3],
idling at the traffic signals[4]; Increasing cost of transportation results in
increased cost goods and services[5] . It is found that the traffic signals are
applied more as restraint measure than facilitating traffic movement, thus
need improvement[6]. The bar on entry of goods vehicles during the day
increases cost of living[7] and resulting in wastage of time results in
economic loss[8]. As much as 70% of pollution is attributed to traffic and
Commuters are exposed to a large vehicular emission resulting in health
problems[9]. Their average speed is found far below the capacity of the
vehicles they use [10].
India depends mostly on imported Petroleum products, and our
balance of payment situation is in strain. To discourage its use of imported
petrol, taxes are levied imported fuel. It is said that the taxes levied to a
tune of 40-50% of the cost[11]. The infrastructure creation by way of
widening of roads, constructing flyovers, installing traffic signals and
employing traffic signals at intersections and pedestrian crossing are giving
only temporary relief and increased vehicles are occupying the space
created[12]. The signals at traffic intersections and pedestrian crossing are
termed as invisible speed breakers by the vehicular commuters[13] and
Chapter-I
18
road crossing is scaring the pedestrian more lives are lost in accidents than
ailments. More young people lost life than the aged.[14].
Loss of hundreds of productive hours in traffic snarls has been
recorded world-wide[15]. The Comprehensive Traffic Studies undertaken
in India also at Metro cities also. For instance, In Bangalore, an average
person lost 272 hours in year due to traffic jam was documented. VIP
movements, Ambulance movement are affected due to Jam and special
arrangements are needed shows the position of traffic problem[16].
Working professionals complain that they spend 2 hours to reach office
which is 30 k.m. away. Person leaving home is doubtful to return, due to
high incidence of traffic accidents[17].
Urban is place where agricultural activity is low and is understood
as a place for industries, trade and commerce. A Place of high density of
population. Has ample facilities for employment, education, health care and
recreation. It is also understood as a place of comfort, with facility of
residential colonies, availability of drinking water, electricity and facility of
road, well lit for day night commuting. According to Censes 2011,
31.16% of Indian population live in Urban Centers The term has elaborate
meaning for Censes[18] :
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19
Statutory Town
1. A Municipality, Corporation, Cantonment Board or notified town
area where Area Committee has been constituted by Law.
2. A Place whose population is more than 5,000 is called Census Town.
3. Where more than 75% Men engage in non-agricultural activity.
4. Population Density more than 400 per Sq. Km. are called Statutory
Towns
5. Urban Agglomeration – An urban agglomeration is a continuous
urban spread constituting a town and its adjoining out growths, or
two or more physically continuous towns together with or without
outgrowths of such towns. (Greater UA. Delhi UA).
According to 2011 Census[19]:
There are 4041 Statutory Towns.
3894 Census Towns.
475 Urban Agglomerations
981 Out Growths in India.
“At the Census 2011 there are 7,935 towns in the country. Many of
these are part of Urban Agglomeration and the rest are independent towns.
The toal number of Urban Agglomerations/Towns, which constitutes the
urban fame, is 7,166 in the country.”
Of those, Class I cities (population more than 1 lakh) are 468 in
number. 70% of population live.
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20
There are 53 urban centers (population more than Ten Lakh) account
for 42.6% population.
There are Mega/Metro (population of more than a Million), and
Mega cities (with population of more than 10 million)
Greater Mumbai 18.4 Million.
Delhi UA 16.3 Million
Kolkata UA 14.1 Million
The Class I cities (population more than 1 lakh) 53 cities on priority
list for safe, smooth urban mobility as large number of accidents and loss
of valuable time of commuters, at traffic signals are:
The road structure of any town constitutes, intersections and roads,
where pedestrian and vehicular commuters move.
Improved standard of living and availability of motorized vehicles,
resulted in acquiring 2,3 and 4 wheelers for personal use. Thereby, traffic
Jam/Congestion, accidents, pollution are high. Many a pedestrian lost life
due to traffic accidents. Intersections where traffic is not supervised by
policemen or signals record accidents and traffic jam is common [22].
Pedestrian cross the road without signals are prone to accident and death.
Where traffic signals are provided, vehicular commuters are complaining of
low average speed and loss of valuable time [23].
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Congestion or jam is the impedance and delay imposed by one
vehicle on another [24]. When congestion occurs, due to wastage of fuel
and time the cost of transportation increases [25]. Delay to people, freight
results in increased cost of goods and services. The cost of maintenance of
vehicles also increased. The situation demand higher driving skills and
alertness[26]. The vehicular pollution increased, there by the health of the
commuters is affected due to pollution.
The accidents are due to two vehicles trying to occupy same spot,
while their paths cross one another [27]. The point of crossing is called
‘conflict point’. Higher the number of conflict points higher will be more
scope for accidents. To avoid a crash drivers are required to regulate their
speed, change direction or stop. Thereby, the vehicles that follow them are
forced to do so resulting in congestion or jam and when drivers fail to
control results in accident. The Crossing Number of the Graph indicates
the number of conflict points encountered.
To regulate accidents, traffic signals are introduced [28]. While
they are very useful, the time loss at the signals is found to be unbearable
and vehicular commuters complain that their average speed has fallen
drastically[29].
Road Accident deaths Urban Centers:
The loss of life is so severe that a person going out for work, is
doubtful of returning. The traffic jam is frequently referred as hell in daily
news paper terms. A a result of Jam commuters are exposured to a large
Chapter-I
22
vehicular exhaust causing ailments and there are reports that people dye
two days early fore each day of exposure to vehicular pollution. [30].
According to Guardian, in its report on Road Safety Fund, “Traffic
accidents are ‘biggest killer of young people worldwide’, “Roads are now
the biggest killer of young people over the age of 10, with road traffic
deaths contributing a global health epidemic that has reached crisis
proportions,” according to Safe and Sustainable Roads report, launched by
Campaign for Global Road Safety. The report blames the high numbers of
fatalities on transport policies that put vehicles, highways and speed before
people and road safety. The vast majority of those who die are in
developing countries, with 20 countries accounting for 70% of global road
deaths.”
Traffic Congestion :
The Urban Problems [31] “There are two main problems that
modern day cities face, viz., urban decay when parts of the city become run
down and undesirable to live in, and traffic congestion. Traffic congestion
is caused by:
a. Large number of people work in central part of the city, which may
have narrow streets.
b. Shortage of off-street parking which means people park on the roads
and so increase congestion.
c. People not using public transport – either because it is less
convenient, too expensive or not available.
d. More people own and use cars.” (www.scalloway.org.uk/sett16.htm)
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Speaking about the traffic jams, the website further says[31]:
“As an example of how bad traffic ams now are, a hundred years ago
it took about one hour to travel from Paramatta to the centre of Sydney
(Australia) by horse and cart. Today it takes longer by car.”
“A complete solution to traffic congestion needs people to be able
and willing to travel on public transport more”, the web-site opiones.
Speaking about unreliability in planning a trip, the website says [31]:
“The Planning Time Index (PTI), a measure of travel reliability,
illustrates the amount of extra time needed to arrive on time for higher
priority events, such as an airline departure, just-in-time shipments, medical
appointments or especially important social commitments. If the PTI for a
particular trip is 3.00, a traveler would allow 60 minutes for a trip that
typically takes 20 minutes when few cars are on the road. Allowing for a
PTI of 3.00 ensure on-time arrival 19 out of 20 times”. Shows the
uncertainty involved due to congestion/traffic jam
Narrating about fuel wastage, the report of 2011 says [32]:
“Congestion wastes a massive amount of time, fuel and money. In 2011:
a. 5.5 billion hours of extra time (equivalent to the time businesses and
individuals spenda year filing their taxes)
b. 2.9 billion gallons of wasted fuel (enough to fill four New Orleans
Superdomes).
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24
c. $121 billion of delay and fuel cost (the negative effect of uncertain
or longer delivery times, missed meetings, business relocations –
equivalent to lost productivity and direct medical expenses of 12
average flu seasons).
d. 56 billion pounds of additional carbon dioxide green house gas
released into the atmosphere during urban congested conditions.
e. 22% of the delay cost was the effect of congestion on truck
operations.
Speaking on delays, “Suffered 6 hours of congested road conditions
on the average weekday in areas over 3 million population”, “Fridays are
the worst days to travel. The combination of work, school, leisure and
other trips mean that urban residents earn their weekend after suffering over
20 percent more delay hours than on Mondays. “Approximately 37 percent
of total delay occurs in the midday and overnight times of day when
travelers and shippers expect free-flow travel.”[33]
Pollution:
According to Pollution Control Boards report [34], 50% of air
pollution is attributed to emissions from motorized vehicles. By this, life
expectancy erodes by two days for each day of exposure to pollution. The
health effects associated with pollutants due to vehicular emission are as
follows:
Carbon Monoxide: Affects the cardio vascular system, exacerbating
cardiovascular disease symptoms, particularly angina, may also particularly
Chapter-I
25
affect fetuses, sick, anemic and young children, affects nervous system
impairing physical coordination, vision and judgments, creating nausea and
headaches, reducing productivity and increasing personal discomfort.
Nitrogen Oxides : Increased susceptibility to infections, pulmonary
diseases, impairment of lung function and eye, nose and throat irritations.
Sulphur Dioxide : Affects lung function adversely.
Particulate Matter : Fine particulate matter may be toxic in itself or may
carry toxic (including carcinogenic) trace substance, and can alter immune
system. Fine particulate penetrate deep into the respiratory system
irritating lung tissue and causing long tern disorders.
Lead : Impairs liver and kidney, causes brain damage in children resulting
in lower IQ, Hyperactitity and reduced ability to concentrate.
Benzene : Is toxic and carcinogenic. Excessive incidence to Leukemia
(Blood Cancer).
Hydrocarbons : Potential to cause cancer.
Much of air pollution is attributed to vehicular emission (and the use
of facile fuel). The Carbon oxides, Nitrogen Oxides, Sulphur Oxides,
Hydrocarbon and suspended particular matter are the five pollutant
contribute to 90% of air pollution. They react with atmosphere and result in
Sulfuric Acid, Nitric Acid and Carbonic Acid. Carbon monoxide is
produced when organic materials like gas, coal, wood are incompletely
burnt. Vehicular exhaust is a major contributor of Carbon Monoxide, as
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they are not properly maintained. Nitrogen Oxide is found in vehicular
exhaust which results in secondary pollutant like Ozone. Hydrocrabons
pollute air are due to evaporation of fuel or when it is not burnt completely,
which when washed by rain run into surface water on reaching with acids
like Sulphuric Acid, Nitric Acid, Carbonic Acid is harmful to health.
Improved engines can control hydrocarbon exhaust to a large extent (4-
stroke engine, improved automobiles). High levels of Lead in vehicular
emission is also a cause for pollution. It is evident that incomplete burned
fuel and presence of Nitrogen, Sulphur Carbon, Lead in vehicular emission
is cause of concern. Pollutants in air cause irritation to respiratory track in
human, causing sneezing and cough. Prolonged exposure may lead to
cancer, Asthma, Chronic bronchitis.
Sulphur oxides irritates respiratory tissues; continuous exposure
cause condition cause bronchitis and reaction with water from Sulphur
containing acid, very corrosive to lungs.
Nitrogen Oxides can irritate lungs lead to Bronchitis, influenza or common
cold.
Volatile organic Compounds (Benzene and formaldehyde, lead
Cadmiumn) cause reproductive problems and Cancer.
Effects on Plants:
Gaseous pollutants enter leaf pores damage plants, Chronic exposure
breaks down waxy coating leads to damage of plants are prone to disease
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27
turns leaves yellow, brown or higher concentration of Sulphur dioxide turns
flower buds stiff and hard, cannot bloom.
Noise Pollution and its effects on Physical and Mental Health [36]:
Noise upto 80 dB (Decibel) are harms. “Workmen exposed to 80-
130 dB sound at work place developed temporary threshold Shift. 50% of
them faced ‘noise-induced permanent threshold shift’. Most people exposed
to 105 dB sound faced permanent hearing loss of some degree”. “Factories
with noise machinery, workers are subjected to high sound levels for
several hours a day. Exposure to 95 dB for 8 hours every day for over a
period of 10 years may suffer noise-induced permanent threshold shift”.
The excessive sound levels can cause harmful effects o the circulatory
system by raising blood pressure and altering pulse rates.
Noise can also cause emotional or psychological effects, such as
irritability, anxiety and stress, lack of concentration and mental fatigue.
High decibel sound at intersection for long duration will have significant
health hazard to commuters.
The Pollution due to vehicular exhaust at intersection and Pedestrian
crossing signals are large since they do not switch-off the engine, as they
want to move, once green signal is given. The commuters are directly
exposed to the vehicular exhaust for a large duration. It is common to see a
handkerchief, scarf tied around the face to protect themselves. Traffic
signals introduced to control traffic, to free them by accidents, has resulted
in stopping the commuters at traffic signals. Thereby, each commuter is
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28
stopped for duration of 3 signals, and allowed to pass in the fourth. At any
point of time commuters of 3-legs are in waiting in the area of intersection,
each idling their vehicles, leave vehicular emission. All those present at
intersection, including policemen and pedestrian are exposed to this
emission, thereby suffer cardiovascular diseases. There is every need to
minimize the intensity and duration of such exposure.
The Urban Centre consisting of road crossings and through roads,
congestion occurs at 4-leg intersections and pedestrian crossings[37].
Traffic signals are introduced to facilitate smooth flow of traffic. The signal
at In a 4-leg intersection operates in four phases and people of each leg are
forced to wait for a duration of 3 phases out of 4 phases[38]. Again, at any
point of time commuters of 3 legs of intersection will be waiting for
signal[39]. Again, each commuter is exposed to vehicular exhaust for a
duration of 3 phases of signals to the vehicular exhaust by 3 leg
commuters[40].
Review of approaches to Urban Mobility.
International agencies like World Bank, Unesco, has expressed great
concern over poor mobility conditions encountered by Urban Centres,
affecting economy and health hazard [41]. Our National Government has
also attached priority to Urban Mobility, of safe, secure and smooth
mobility, in the form of five year plans[42]. A Working Group has been
constituted for dealing the issue of increasing accidents, pollution [43].
Chapter-I
29
The problems of Traffic Management are encountered worldwide.
Both Developed countries and developing countries like India encounter
problem of accidents, loss of time due to congestion and as waiting time at
traffic signals. The Texas Transportation Institute [44], in its recent report
said “Driven Apart: How sprawl is lengthening our commutes and why
misleading mobility measures are making things worse” has also added that
“the solution to congestion problem has much more to do with how we
build our cities than how we build our roads’ means that the measures are
not resulting in sizable results. The World Bank also has examined the
problem [45]. The valuable time lost in traffic congestion, loss of lives due
to traffic accidents, pollution resulting on account of vehicular emission
was documented. The approach of road widening and construction of
flyovers at high cost, Mass mobility solutions were examined by experts.
They were assessed to bring temporary relief but not complete solution, is
due to proliferations of vehicles added to the roads, due to improved
standard for living. The created extra road space is not sufficient and the
problem of congestion, accidents are continue to occur. Recognizing the
problem, Government of India, has announced a National Urban Transport
Policy In the year 2006 [46]. A Working Group has suggested several
measures of infrastructure creation like widening of roads, construction of
flyovers, road over bridges and subways for pedestrian use. Have also
examined the methods of Mass transport measures like Multi Model
Transport System, Bus Rapid Transport System, Light Rail, followed world
wide and concluded that they have not resulting in good results, and hence
are to be adopted after careful analysis. Experts of Transportation cautioned
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30
that they will push the country into further debts. The World Bank in its
report ‘Cities on move’ has also considered the issue and felt that the
approaches are not bankable and discouraging financing [47]. Finally, the
Working Group has examined the matter and suggested that new methods
of Urban Mobility have to be evolved and offered some suggestions. After
the recommendations of the Working Group, the Ministry of Urban
Transportation [48]has designated four Centers of Excellence and spelt out
the areas of work:
a. IIT Delhi - Public Transit Planning, design and optimization with special focus on BRTs, Integration of Urban Planning, Traffic Flow, use of ITS, impact/benefits to environment including Non-Motorised Vehicles and Road safety factors in Urban Areas.
b. IIT Chennai –ITS application in Urban Areas, Urban Transport Systems Planning and Urban Transportation Infrastructure Management.
c. National Institute of Technology, Warangal – Strategy for improving Mass Transit Patronage, Modeling Urban growth Land use, Transport Integration and development of Capacity Analysis for Urban Streets. ITS based Traffic and Road Safety Management System and Modeling & Mapping Environmental Pollution.
d. CEPT University, Ahmadabad – Land use –Transport Integration, Transit Oriented Development, BRT planning and management, Fiscal tools for Urban Transport Management, Transit Impact Assessment, Social and Environmental aspects of urban transit and Sustainable Urban Transport.
World over the problem of accidents, traffic congestion are tackled
by introducing infrastructure of flyovers, wider road structure and speed
mobility solutions. Imposing restraining measures viz., speed limits, traffic
signals to regulate pedestrian and vehicular traffic, exclusive lanes for
public transport, cycle lanes. The 12th Plan document of Government of
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India [49], has prepared a policy framework for a five year period of 2013-
2017, has given some recommendations, wherein it was stated that Cities
and Towns contributed to more than 60% (approximately two-third) of the
total ‘Gross Domestic Product’. Spelt out an approach to be followed,
recognizing “For the cities to remain livable, bankable and as engines of
economic growth, it is utmost important that the urban mobility issues are
effectively addressed and the present gridlock in most of the big urban
agglomerations is immediately taken care of” [50]. Referring to National
Urban Transportation Policy-2006, the Working Group has set 10 goals
giving certain guidelines :
a. To create facilities for walking and cycling (in cities with population
more than 2 lac) –with an intention of encouraging non-polluting
modes of transport.
b. To develop non-polluting mode transport network for last mile
connectivity, to improve employment potential.
c. Introduction of organized bus service (public transport) for cities with
more than 23 lac population (to control pollution).
d. Providing Bus Rapid Transport System at 20 km per 1 million
population (in 51 cities with population more than a million).
e. Provide rail transit at 10 km/million population in phased manner:
i. Provide rail transit at 10 km/million population at cities with
population more than 2 million; first in cities with population
more than 3 million.
ii. Expand rail transit in Maga cities (more than 4 million
population) at 10 km per year (50 km in 12th plan period.
iii. Provide suburban rail services in urban agglomerations with
population more than 40 lakh.
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f. To improve accessibility and mobility in cities by developing
hierarchical road network in newly developing areas; completing
major road network projects.
g. To improve and maintain road surface to the highest standard with
good drainage facility (repair work).
The Traffic Jam, loss of valuable time at traffic signals, accidents at
intersections without signals, pollution at traffic signals, cost of
infrastructure, for urban mobility are inter dependant and need careful
approaches to tackle them.
If we prevent accidents using traffic signals, valuable time of
commuters is wasted for waiting at signals, They are exposed to large
vehicular exhaust causing ailments. There average speed falls drastically
and pollution due to vehicular exhaust are encountered resulting in health
hazard. If we encourage vehicular speed, pedestrian suffer accidents.
When roads are widened to accommodate vehicles waiting at signals,
pedestrian have to walk large length of the roads, take more time, forcing
vehicular commuter wait longer. Vehicular commuters suffer more
exposure due to pollution, loss of fuel during waiting time. If we restrict
goods vehicles during day time, to control accidents, the cost of goods
increase due to increase of cost of transportation. If we encourage use of
Public Transport to discourage individual vehicles, the pedestrian crossing
the road is increasing and more pedestrian suffering accidents. The
investment on Buses and Rail is enormous and cannot be undertaken by
Goverment and people are to be taxed in the name of Use and Pay. Where it
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33
is not possible Public Private Partnership and levying Toll has to be
resorted to. Pleople are preferring Public Transport for lack of last mile
connectivity and lack of or costly parking fee. Lack of security to vehicle
and fuel.
In view of high density population of our cities, unplanned city
expansion, our cities are specific in the sense, there is a by-lane every 10
meters, bus stops every 500 meters and large number of pedestrian crossing
the road. Large number of intersections traffic control, in form of traffic
signals. Our cities do not have distinction of road and street, where roads
are widened, pedestrian have hell visible, the road dividers running along
the road from intersection to intersection, donot permit crossing road and
pedestrian are in their anxiety to cross the road suffer injury or death .
Where pedestrian crossings are provided, the vehicular traffic complain of
longer delays as pedestrian take long time to cross the road, since the roads
are upto 100 feet now. It is burden for both pedestrian and vehicular traffic.
The number of traffic Signals on their path, large time is wasted at the
signals and they are exposed to pollution which cause health hazard.
The large number of accidents go un recorded, pollution pose a
major problem to commuters. The signals installed to control accidents at
intersection and pedestrian crossings, are consuming large time of vehicular
commuters and they complain that signals have become invisible speed
breakers and they are put to huge pollution while waiting for the signals.
Much of fuel is being wasted during waiting time, if the same is used for
commuting it helps economy.
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34
On the whole I feel accidents and time loss at traffic signals are
major culprit for urban mobility problems and once it is tackled other
problems of wastage of fuel, low average speed, pollution will be solved
to a major extent. Accordingly, an analysis of Traffic at intersection and
pedestrian crossing is undertaken to simplify the signaling system.
Problem of Accidents [51]:
There has been a spectacular increase in motor vehicles has resulted
in a major social problem – the loss of lives through road accidents.
World-wide road accidents are alarming. The situation in India is more
verse In percentage terms, persons killed during a year are as follows:
Delhi USA Thailand (1994) (1995) (1987) Pedestrian 42 13 47
Cyclists 14 2 6
Two-wheeler occupants 27 5 36
Four-wheeler occupants 12 79 12
Others 5 1 --
In 1968, the Government of India has set up a Study Group to assess
accident situation in India. Another Committee on Road Safety submitted
its report in 1983. The Prakash Narain Report for the Planning Commission
(2001) has recommended setting up Trauma Care Centres. Shows the
important attached to accidents suffered.
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35
At the International level, organizations such as World Health
Organisation and Economic Commission for Europe publish statistics of
road accidents[52]. The Road Research Laboratory (U.K.) has been
publishing figures on accidents since 1963, Smeed and Jeffcoate, have
presented accident figures of 68 countries, which include India, early in
1960-67, in their report to Organisation for Economic Co-operation and
Development, Paris, 1970. The number of persons killed per 10,000
vehicles is high for India, which is 24[53].
Traffic Signals :
Traffic signals are used to control conflicting streams of vehicular
and pedestrian traffic. The first traffic signal is reported to have been used
in Land early in 1868. The advantages of Traffic Signals are as follows:
a. They offer orderly movement of traffic.
b. Improve capacity of the intersection/pedestrian crossing.
c. Reduce frequency of accidents (right-angle type and pedestrian)
d. They can be coordinated to provide continuous or near continuous
movement of traffic at definite speed.
e. Can be used to interrupt heavy traffic, to permit others.
f. Substitute Police for control.
g. They offer orderly movement of traffic.
h. Improve capacity of the intersection/pedestrian crossing.
i. Reduce frequency of accidents (right-angle type and pedestrian)
j. They can be coordinated to provide continuous or near continuous
movement of traffic at definite speed.
k. Can be used to interrupt heavy traffic, to permit others.
l. Substitute Police for control.
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36
Disadvantages of Traffic Signals:
a. Excessive delay to vehicles (at peak hours).
b. Unwarranted signal installation results in tendency of signal
jumping.
c. Drivers are induced to take alternate route (less safer route) , to save
time.
d. When signals are faulty/breakdown, widespread confusion, difficulty
are faced.
Driver is the key factor in most of the accidents. He is the human
element in charge of the vehicle. He drives, steers, accelerates, decelerates,
brakes and stops, Any error in judgment results in crash. His skill in
driving, his emotional make-up, condition of the vehicle all play a vital role
in safety. Age and Sex of driver have also been found to be important
factors in safety. In the course of driving, Driver has to overtake many
vehicles and be overtaken by some, perform numerous turning, ability to
comprehend dangerous situations at intersections, deal with a number of
pedestrian who cross the streets at all sorts of odd places. He is required to
make many important decisions in a fraction of second. Drivers job
involves a great risk to self and commuters. He encounters a great stress.
There by accidents are more at intersections and when pedestrian cross the
road.
According to TRIPP (Transportation Research and Injury Prevention
Programme) report by Shri Dinesh Mohan
“There is still no clear vision among planners, policy makers and
transport experts about what cities in India need and what will make them
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37
better places to live in as far as mobility and access are concerned. The
prevailing mythology is that construction of metro rail systems will
somehow solve problems of the future and this remains the single one point
agenda of almost all transport consultants in India.
Unfortunately, the fact is that underground or elevated rail (or road)
systems have not solved any of the problems of congestion, pollution or of
access for a majority of city residents in any city in the world, especially
new cities”{54} The problem requires a fresh look. Accordingly, I have
decided to examine the problem afresh from Topological Graph Theory
approach to minimize accidents, control loss of time and fuel and the
exposure to vehicular pollution at Urban Centres.
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