Chapter 23
Mass Society in an “Age of Progress,”
1871 - 1894
Timeline
The Growth of Industrial Prosperity: New Products & New Markets
Mass SocietyIn the late 19th century, human progress was measured with material progress and consumption of material goods
Europeans began to value leisure activities and the weekend (free from work)Lower and middle class began to take trains to amusement parks and the beach
Mass PoliticsAfter 1871, the focus of European life became the national state
Growing sense of nationalism and popularity of sports Extension of universal male suffrage leads to nationalism to influence the masses
First Industrial RevolutionTextiles, railroads, iron, and coal
Second Industrial RevolutionSteel, chemicals, electricity, and petroleum
Possible Test Question
In late nineteenth-century Europe, human progress was increasingly identified with
War.
Economic inequality.
Material progress or greater consumption of material goods.
Sport.
Spiritual beliefs and practices.
Possible Test Question
By 1871, the focus of Europeans’ lives had become
Their weekends.
Their schools.
Their favorite sports teams.
The national state.
Their church.
Substitution of steel for iron1860 – Britain, Germany, France, Belgium produced 125,000 tons of steel1913 – the total rose to 32 million tons
ChemicalsGermany led the market in production of dyes & photographic plates
Electricity (powered 2nd Industrial Revolution)Thomas Edison (1847-1931) and Joseph Swan – light bulbAlexander Graham Bell (1847-1922) – telephone, 1876Guglielmo Marconi (1874-1937) – radio waves across the Atlantic, 1901Used for transportation – railways, streetcars, subwaysTransformation of factories
Possible Test QuestionBetween 1860 and 1913, western European steel production went from
5000 tons to 1 million tons.
35,000 tons to 2 million tons.
50,000 tons to 15 million tons.
125,000 tons to 32 million tons.
10 million tons to 100 million tons.
Internal Combustion Engine (1878-Gas & Air)Automobile and airplane
• Henry Ford (1863-1947) – mass production (assembly line)• Zeppelin airship, 1900• Wright brothers, 1903 (1st passenger air service 1919)
New marketsFocused on consumer goods for domestic marketsPrices of food and manufactured goods decreasedIncreased wagesCompetition for foreign marketsTariff
• Reaction against free trade to guarantee domestic markets for their own industries
Cartels• Companies worked together to fix prices & set production
quotas
Larger factories• Assembly lines
Possible Test Question
The first internal combustion engine burning a mixture of gas and air was produced in
1798.
1838.
1858.
1878.
1898.
An Age of Progress
New Patterns in an Industrial Economy
Economic Patterns, 1873 – 1914Depression, 1873 – 1895Economic boom, 1895 – 1914
German Industrial LeadershipGermany replaces Britain as the industrial leader of EuropeNew areas of manufacturing (chemicals, electrical equipment)Industrialized later, so they invested in modern equipmentEncouraged scientific & technical education
Possible Test QuestionGermany began to replace Britain as Europe’s industrial leader by the early twentieth century largely due to
Britain’s careless and radical changes made to its industries.
Germany’s cautious approach and doctrine of “sticking to what works” in industry.
Britain’s reliance on cartels to invest large sums of money in new industries.
Germany’s development of new areas of manufacturing including chemicals and heavy electric machinery.
Britain’s loss of empire during and after the Boer War.
European Economic ZonesAdvanced industrial core of Great Britain, Belgium France, the Netherlands, Germany, western part of the Austro-Hungarian Empire, and northern ItalyLittle industrial development in southern Italy, most of Austria-Hungary, Spain, Portugal, the Balkan kingdoms, and RussiaSurplus grain and cheap transportation caused a sharp drop in agricultural prices.
The Spread of IndustrializationIndustrialization in Russia and JapanJapan’s government took the lead in promoting industry
Emergence of a World EconomyEurope was importing goods from around the worldForeign countries were used as markets for the surplus of manufactured goods
Possible Test QuestionThe Second Industrial Revolution experienced
A drop in agricultural prices.The shift from a three-field to a two-field crop rotation system due to better chemical fertilizers.The emergence of a new class of agricultural production leaders called coloni.A sharp increase in agricultural prices.To stabilize agricultural prices at the level attained in 1850.
Map 23.1: The Industrial Regions of Europe by 1914
Women and Work: New Job OpportunitiesWomen sought the “Right to work”Ideal of Domesticity – working class organizations supported traditional roles for womenSweatshops – subcontracting work out to women at homeWhite-Collar Jobs
Increase in white-collar jobs created a shortage of male workers opening up opportunities for women (After 1870)Expansion of service sector jobs - secretaries, teachers & nursesFreedom from domestic patterns
ProstitutionMany lower class women became prostitutes in big cities as a way to surviveLondon – 1885 – an estimated 60,000 prostitutesContagious Diseases Acts in the 1870s & 1880s
• Called for inspection of prostitutes for venereal diseases• Acts were repealed over complaints that men were not being checked
Possible Test QuestionEmployment opportunities for women during the Second Industrial Revolution
Changed in quality and quantity with the expansion of the service sector.
Declined dramatically as prostitution became illegal.
Increased greatly with working-class men pushing their wives to work outside the home.
Declined when piece-work was abandoned as inefficient and “sweatshops” were outlawed.
Declined because labor unions forced governments to restrict most employment opportunities to men only.
New Jobs for Women: The Telephone Exchange
Organizing the Working ClassTrade UnionsFirst half of the 19th Century
Trade Unions functioned as mutual aid societiesLate 19th Century
Formed labor unions and political parties based on ideas of Karl MarxTrade unions are increasingly aligned with socialist parties
Socialist PartiesGerman Social Democratic Party (SPD)
• Largest German political party by 1912
Growth of socialist parties – spread to other European countriesSecond International – united socialist organization
• Struggled due to internal differences• Two divisive issues: nationalism and revisionism
Possible Test QuestionThe trade union movement prior to World War I
Was strongest in France after the dissolution of the Second International in 1890.
Occurred despite trade unions being banned by most state governments.
Varied from state to state, but was generally allied with socialist parties.
Was primarily for unskilled laborers, especially the New Model unions.
Focused entirely on wages and working conditions negotiated directly with employers without any government involvement in the process.
Evolutionary Socialism (Revisionism)• Eduard Bernstein (1850-1932)
Member of the German Social Democratic Party who spent years in exile in Britain
Argued that Marx had made fundamental mistakes and socialists needed to stress cooperation and evolution rather than class conflict and revolution
Stressed the need to work through democratic politics to create socialism, not revolution.
The Problem of NationalismVariation of socialist parties from country to countryFocused on issues in their own countries instead of a unified workers movement
The Role of Trade UnionsNational variations
• German unions were the strongest
Unions and political parties
The Anarchist AlternativeMore popular in less industrialized nations (Italy, Spain, Russia, & Portugal) where people saw no hope of peaceful political changeInitially believed that people were inherently good but got corrupted by the state and societySocialist parties and trade unions became less radical so some people turned to anarchism as a means for a social revolutionMichael Bakunin
• Russian anarchist who advocated violence to dissolve state institutions
Possible Test Question
Anarchist movements were most successful inIndustrialized countries like Great Britain and Germany.
Toppling national governments through assassinations.
Restoring legitimacy to radical movements through peaceful dialogue with political opponents.
Less industrialized and less democratic countries where ordinary people could see no hope of peaceful political change.
Countries with revolutionary traditions like France.
“Proletarians of the World, Unite”
Emergence of a Mass SocietyPopulation Growth
1850 270 million1910 460 millionPopulation growth 1850-1880 – caused by increasing birth rateAfter 1880 – caused by declining mortality rate
• Medical discoveries and environmental conditions Smallpox vaccination
• Improved publication sanitation Reduced deaths from diarrhea, dysentery, typhoid fever, cholera
• Improved nutrition Better nutrition & food hygiene Faster shipment of food Pasteurization of milk
EmigrationEconomic motives
• Oppressed minorities went to other countries (especially U.S)Political motives
• Lower class citizens seeking more freedom
Possible Test Question
Between 1850 and 1910, European population
Increased from 270 million to 460 million.
Actually decreased slightly.
Increased from 45 to 60 million.
Stagnated, causing severe problems for the development of leisure industries.
Declined significantly because of the pollution engendered by increasing urbanization.
Table 23.2: European Emigration, 1876 – 1910
Map 23.2: Population Growth in Europe, 1820-1900
Transformation of the Urban Environment
Urbanization of EuropeMigration from rural to urban 1800 – 21 European cities with a population of 100,000+1900 – 147 European cities with a population of 100,000+People moved to the cities for job opportunities
Improving Living ConditionsReformers: Edwin Chadwick and Rudolf VirchowPointed to relationship between living conditions and diseaseBuildings begin to be inspected for problemsPublic Health Act of 1875 in Britain
• Clean water into the city• Private baths (Hot water) became accessible to people in 1860s• Shower appears in 1880s• Sewage System
Housing NeedsReformer-philanthropists focused on relationship of living conditions to political and moral health of the nation – built homes for the poorGovernment support – increase in regulationsDemolition of old, unneeded urban defensive walls and new, wider streetsOctavia Hill rehabilitated old homes and built new ones designed to give the poor an environment they could use to improve themselves
Redesigning the CitiesMajor European cities were redesigned after the example of Paris in the 1850sConstruction of streetcars & commuter trains created suburbs
Possible Test Question
Reforms in urban living included all of the following except
The development of pure water and sewerage systems.
Model homes built for the poor by wealthy philanthropists.
The demolition of old, unneeded urban defensive walls, replaced by wide avenues.
A concerted effort to clean up all polluted rivers and lakes.
Some increases in governmental regulations.
Working-Class Housing in London
The Social Structure of the SocietyThe Upper Classes
5% of the population that controlled 30 to 40% of wealthPlutocrats – aristocrats who made their money on investments in railroads, public utilities, government bonds, & businessesAlliance of wealthy business elite and traditional aristocracyCommon bonds – wealthy middle class kids admitted to elite schools
The Middle ClassesUpper middle class, middle middle-class, lower middle-classProfessionals (law, medicine, civil service)
• New professionals – engineers, architects, accountants, chemists
White-collar workers (product of the 2nd Industrial Revolution)• Sales reps, bookkeepers, bank tellers, telephone operators,
secretaries, department store clerksMiddle-class values came to dominate
• Concerned with traditional Christian values and work ethic
Possible Test QuestionThe middle classes of nineteenth-century Europe
Were composed mostly of shopkeepers and manufacturers who barely lived above the poverty line.
Offered little opportunity for women in improving their lot.
Were very concerned with propriety and shared values of hard work and Christian morality.
Viewed progress with distrust as they did not wish to lose their economic gains.
Were sinking in economic and social security because of the increase of plutocrats.
The Lower classes
80 percent of the European population
Agriculture
• Many were landholding peasants – sharecroppers, laborers
Urban working class: Skilled, semiskilled, unskilled workers
• Skilled artisans – cabinet makers, printers, jewelry makers
• semiskilled artisans – carpenters, bricklayers, factory workers
• Unskilled laborers – day laborers, domestic services
A Middle-Class Family
The “Woman Question”: The Role of WomenTraditional Values
Marriage the only honorable and available careerDecline in the birth rate in part to some birth control1840s-invention of vulcanized rubber made birth control an optionElizabeth Poole Sanford encouraged women to avoid being self-sufficient. Thought women should embrace domesticity and dependence on their husbands.
Middle-Class and Working-Class FamiliesGlorified DomesticityDomestic ideal for the family emphasized togetherness with time for leisureStressed functional knowledge for their children to prepare them for future roles.Daughters of working class families worked until married1890 – 1914: higher paying jobs made it possible to live on husband’s wages
• Limit size of the family• Reduced work week
Possible Test Question
For Elizabeth Poole Sanford, women should Avoid being self-sufficient.
Strive to become equal to men.
Accept their roles at home until new governmental reforms were instituted.
Make it known to their husbands that they were dissatisfied.
Take employment outside the home to become economically self-sufficient.
Education in the Mass SocietyExpansion of Secondary EducationUniversal Elementary Education
States began to offer public educationBy 1900, most were free and compulsory at the primary levelStates assumed the responsibility for teacher training
Liberal Beliefs About EducationPersonal and social developmentNeeds of industrializationDifferences in education of boys and girls
• Girls - less math & science, more domestic skills• Boys – humanities plus carpentry & military drill
Political motives• Need for an educated electorate• Instilled patriotism and nationalized the masses
Female TeachersIncreased Literacy from mass educationGrowth of Newspapers
Possible Test Question
By 1900, most European educational systemsWere free and compulsory at least at the primary level.
Were expensive to operate, and charged high tuition.
Were backward and lacked good teachers.
Still taught a “medieval” variety of subjects.
Had declined because of lack of governmental interest and support.
Mass LeisureAmusement Parks
Music and Dance Halls
Thomas Cook (1808-1892)Pioneer “father” of mass tourism
Offered vacations to Europe
SportsBoy Scouts (1908) “The real boy scout is not a sissy.”
Became organized with rules
Professional sports leagues emerged
Boys were encouraged to play sports to toughen them up
Possible Test Question
A new development in the age of mass leisure was
The newspaper and novel.
The excessive consumption of alcohol.
The theater.
Carnival.
Professional sports.
Western Europe: The Growth of Political Democracy
Reform in Britain: William GladstoneReform Act of 1867: Suffrage extendedEnglish Reform Bill of 1884
• Gave English agricultural workers the right to vote Redistribution Act of 1885: Reorganized the election boroughsSalaries paid to members of the House of Commons, 1911
• More people could run for office
Charles Parnell (1846-1891)• Leader of the Irish representatives in Parliament• Called for Home Rule for Ireland• This would have established a separate Parliament for Ireland• English conservatives voted against home rule
Resulted in terrorist attacks by the Irish
Possible Test Question
The English Reform Bill of 1884Enfranchised women.Gave English agricultural workers the right to vote.Did not dramatically increase the size of the electorate.Increased the total number of members in the House of Commons.Increased middle-class representatives in Parliament.
Reform in FranceLouis Napoleon’s 2nd Empire ended with his defeat in the Franco-Prussian WarUniversal male suffrage in 1871 enforced by Bismarck
• People elected a new National Assembly
Radical republicans formed an independent government in Paris known as the Commune
• Fighting broke out between the Commune and the National Assembly• National Assembly massacred thousands of members of the Paris
Commune• Brutal suppression of the Paris Commune created a split between the
working class and the middle class
Establishment of the Third Republic, 1875Monarchists, Catholic clergy and army officers opposed the Third RepublicGeneral Georges Boulanger - leader of a proposed coup d’etat
• Lost the courage to carry it out and fled the country• Boulanger crisis rallied French citizens to the republic
Possible Test QuestionSplits between the French working and middle class
Were largely solved by the liberal reforms of the Third Republic.Enabled the Third Republic to elect a new monarch in 1875.Led a strong parliamentary system of government.Were further widened by the brutal suppression of the Paris Commune in 1871.Ended in light of continued Prussian threats to France’s national survival.
ItalyHad pretensions of great power statusSectional differences in ItalyItalians were loyal to their family, towns and regions, but not their countryChronic turmoil beyond the government’s controlNo universal male suffrageItaly & Spain
• Both remained second rate European powers
Central & Eastern Europe: Persistence of the Old Order
GermanyTrappings of parliamentary government1871 constitutionEmperor commands the military in Prussian traditionBismarck’s conservatism
• Used coalitions to get what he wanted & then he dropped them• Kulturkampf - “struggle for civilization” an attack on Catholic
Church• Tried to weaken Social Democratic Party by passing
antisocialist law• Tried to woo workers from socialism by passing social welfare
programs
Possible Test Question
Which statement best applies to Germany under chancellor Otto von Bismarck?
Prussia lost much of its influence on state politics.
Coalitions were used by Bismarck to get what he wanted and then he dropped them.
Socialism was almost completely stamped out by the Prussian army.
Almost all regional differences disappeared under the charismatic leadership of Bismarck.
The emperor became merely a figurehead and lacked any political power and influence.
Austria-HungaryAustrian constitution of 1867 (in reality it was still an autocracy)
Problem of minorities worsened with universal male suffrage, 1907
RussiaAlexander III, 1881-1894: Overturns reform and returns to repressive measures (autocracy) after assassination of Alexander II
Nicholas II, 1894-1917: Believed in absolute rule
Possible Test Question
The policy pursued by Russia’s Alexander III and Nicholas II after the assassination of Alexander II was a policy of
Liberalism.Nationalism.Socialism.Militarism.Autocracy.
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