CHAPTER - III
CHAPTER - III
EDAPHIC FACTOR
3.1. INTRODUCTION
In .1983 the International Union of Biological Sciences (IUBS), with the
collaboration of the UNESCO "Man and the Biosphere" programme initiated a
period of collaborative research entitled "the decade of the tropics". The
objective of the programme was that of "increasing our knowledge and
understanding of the biology of the tropics from the point of view of the various
biological sub-disciplines" (Soibrig & GoIley, 1983). One of the sub-disciplines
identified for inclusion within the decade programme was that of soil biology.
The study of soil is important in many respects. Soil is a natural habitat
for plants and animals. It provides water and nutrients to the living organisms.
Knowledge of soil is helpful in agricultural practices, such as cultivation,
irrigation, artificial drainage and use of fertilizers. In India, more than 70% of
the population is dependent on agriculture. The modernization of agriculture in
each way is very much essential (Balaji & Vinukumar, 1998).
Productivity is related to the ability of a soil to yield crops and in the
broader term fertility is a major factor that determines the magnitude of crop
yields. People are dependent on soils and to a certain extent good soils are
dependent upon people and the way they use them.
Characteristics of the soil vary widely from place to place. The chief types
of soil in peninsular India are laterites (high and low levels), red loam, medium
black soil (plateau), hill soils (undifferentiated), red gravelly soils, alluvial soils
including coastal alluvium and mixed red and black soils. Alluvial soils occur
on the banks of rivers like Cauvery and Godavari. Black cotton soils occur in the
Deccan of Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka and Tamilnadu. Laterite soils occur on
the summit hills of Deccan foothills of Western Ghats in Kerala and Karnataka,
17
Northeast Andhra Pradesh and some parts of Kerala. Peaty soils (pH 3.9) occur
in the low land of Kerala (Antonisamy, 1997).
Soil as "a collection" of natural bodies provide substratum for plants to
grow. Man uses these plants for the supply of fiber, food and fodder for man
and for cattle. Standards of living are often determined by the quality of soil and
the kinds and quality of plants and animals grown on them. So considerable
research has been done on the physico-chemical properties of soil or sediment of
different aquatic bodies (Sinha et al., 1992). But study on the physico-chemical
properties of wetland sediment is very much limited.
This present study focuses the physico-chemical characteristics of wetland
soil and sediments.
3.2. LITERATURE REVIEW
Soils are "Collection of natural three dimensional bodies developed in the
unconsolidated mineral and organic material on the immediate surface of the
earth (a) which serves as a natural medium for the growth of land plants and
(b) has properties due to the effects of climate and living matter acting upon
parent material as conditioned by topography over a period of time. Their
origin, classification and characterization are worthy to be studied. The
pedologist is concerned with these aspects as well as with the variety of
purposes, farm and non-farm, for which soils may be used. The edaphologist,
on the other hand, is concerned principally with one major use of soils as a
medium for the production of plants and particularly crop plants" (Nyle, 1984).
The nutrients required by plants are carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, oxygen,
phosphorus, potassium, calcium, magnesium, sulphur, boron, iron, manganese,
copper, zinc, molybdenum and chloride. In addition to this cobalt, vanadium,
sodium, silicon and nickel are also needed by some plants (Samuel et al., 1995).
Availability of these nutrients in soil were reported by Sharma et al., (1990) and
Richter & Babbar (1991).
18
A recent survey of forest soils along the middle stretch of the Caqueta
river in the Amazon low lands of Eastern Columbia has revealed a general trend
of increasing thickness, necromass and fine root content of terrestrial humus
forms along a gradient of decreasing soil nutrient status (Duivenvoorden & Lips, 1993,
1995). Minerals in soil environments in USA has been reported by Dixon & Weed
(1989). Dakgren et al., (1991) has reported the subalpine spodosol in Washington
State.
The effect of fire on the chemical and physical properties of forest soil will
vary significantly depending on the type of soil, the moisture content of the soil,
the intensity and duration of the fire and the timing and intensity of post fire
precipitation (Chandler etal., 1983). Soil properties may change in response to heat
and increased exposure (Ralston & Hatctieli, 1971). The short-term effect on nutrient
availability depend on the thermal effects of the fire on organic compounds, the
rise in soil pH and the microbial processing of organic matter (Binkley et al., 1993).
The presence or absence of duff, humus and other unincorporated organic
materials on the forest floor and the amount consumed are of key importance in
determining how the soil is affected (Brown & Davis, 1973). Sahaijo (1995) showed
that even changes in soil shifting-cultivation does not improve soil fertility.
The mangrove soils are peaty, calcareous and sandy. Salinity and
nutrient level fluctuate due to the complex hydrology of the littoral areas. Since
the mangrove habitat is basically saline, several studies have been conducted to
correlate salinity to the standing crop of vegetation and productivity (Ukpong,
1991, 1992, 1994, 1995b). The importance of nutrient factors, however, has not
received sufficient attention in mangrove ecology.
Naidoo (1980) observed that cation concentrations in mangrove soils has a
correlation with extent of tidal inundation and seepage. Since true mangrove
species (with viviparous fruits / pneumatophores) often exhibit zonation from
the shore inland, the relationship between the mangroves and soil nutrients have
19
been viewed in terms of differences in the values of soil nutrients between
monospecific zones of species (Ukpong, 1995a).
Heath Land soils are characterized as low nutrient soils usually composed
of sand. The dynamics of the typical heath land vegetation species depends as
far as known on a limited supply of nitrogen from external sources. Increased
supply of nitrogen is assumed to change the plant community of heath lands
towards grasslands (Aerts etal., 1990; Madsen & Nomberg, 1995).
In wet areas, however, the actual evapotranspiration may exceed the
potential rate due to a higher interception loss than that of grass. Water in
filtration in sandy soil is often regarded as homogeneous, but during the past
decade preferential flow initiated by soil textural and structural differences and
also soil hydrofobicity have been reported as playing an important role (Dekker &
Ritsema, 1994; Kung, 1990; Ritsema et al., 1998). The physico-chemical properties of
the wetland soils play an important role for the microbes and plants. It has been
reported by Singh and Jha (2000).
In India, the occurrence, distribution pattern, physical and chemical
properties in different forest soil have been reported by Behera et al., (1991).
Agarwal et al., (1976) has reported similar results in South Orissa, Mohanty & Panda
(1996) in Uttar Pradesh, Mohanty et al., (1991) in West Rajasthan, Jha & Dimri (1997) in
North Bihar and Lahiri (1981) in Jodhpur.
The physical conditions of soils are altered by many factors, including
ploughing and tillage operations. There are two very important physical
properties of soil, soil texture and soil structure (Nyle, 1984; Bisdom et al., 1993). The
texture of the soil has been reported by Johanna etal., (1996).
One of the outstanding physiological characteristic of the soil solution is
its reaction, that is, whether it is acid, alkaline or neutral - pH of the soil has
been reported by Birgitte & Knud (1998), IMOH (1998), Under etal., (1998), Devarnavadagi &
Murthy (1999) and Knud etal., (2000).
20
The electrical conductivity of the soil has been reported in northern zone
of Karnataka by Devaranavadagi & Murthy (1999). The electrical conductivity of the
wetland soil has also been reported by Singh & Jha (2000).
Soil organic matter plays a key role in crop sustainability, primarily
through its interactions with soil chemical and physical properties on nutrient
release, cation retention and soil structure (Singh & Singh, 1992). Production and
decomposition processes in the trophogenic zone are closely related to the
amount of organic matter entering the sediments (OhIe, 1956). The rate of
decomposition of organic matter reserves in forest depends on the mode of
addition of plant residues to soil and sequences of microbial activity inside the
soil (Brown & Dickey, 1970). Use of extractable fractions of soil organic matter as
taxonomic criteria has been proposed by Lowe (1980) and Schnitzer etal., (1981).
The organic compound in various soil has been reported by Bisdom et al.,
(1993), Johanna et al., (1996) and Knud et al., (2000). Organic compound in the
sediments has been reported by Singh & Jha (2000).
Of the various essential elements nitrogen has been subjected in several
studies and it still receives much attention. Forest production is often limited by
the non-availability of sufficient amount of nitrogen. Forest species differ in their
preference of various forms of nitrogen, by far nitrate forms the major source.
Nitrate offers certain advantages over other forms of nitrogen especially NH4 in
that (1) it is highly mobile in the soil and its delivery to the root by diffusion or
mass flow is higher than that of NH 4 under equivalent condition, (2) its uptake
avoids the competition that occurs between NH4 uptake and other positively
charged nutrient ions (Waring & Schlesinger, 1985), (3) uptake of nitrate is favoured
by increased acidity (Fried etal., 1965).
Changing seasons had been reported to have significant influence on
nitrogen content of soil (Pokhriyal et al., 1987). Soil nitrogen has been reported by
Knud et al., (2000). Nitrogen in agricultural soils has been reported by Bobbink et al.,
21
(1992), Kristensen & Henriksen (1997), Knud etal., (1999). Singh & Jha (2000) have reported
about nitrogen in wetland soil.
Next to nitrogen the most critical elements in influencing plant growth
and production throughout the world are phosphorus and potassium. Unlike
nitrogen, these elements are not supplied through biochemical fixation, but they
come from other sources to meet plant requirements. The phosphorus and
potassium of various soil has been reported by Johanna etal., (1996), Imoh (1998) and
Singh & Jha (2000).
Trace elements are essential for the growth of plants and microorganisms.
The five micronutrient cations such as iron, manganese, zinc, copper and cobalt
are influenced in a characteristic way by the soil environment. However, certain
soil factors have the same general effects on the availability of all of them. Major
and trace element analysis of 12 reference soils has been studied by Lechler et al.,
(1981).
Calcium, magnesium, sodium, calcium carbonate, cations exchange
capacity and other minerals of the soil samples has been reported by various
scientists in various soils (Johanna et al., 1996; Birgitte & Knud, 1998; Imoh, 1998; Linder
etal., 1998, Devamavadagi & Murthy, 1999; Singh & Jha, 2000).
Apart from these some chemical, physical, mineralogical and ecological
properties of some soils have been studied by Baillie (1989), Shukla & Misra (1993) and
Duivenvoorden & Lips (1995).
The study of biologically mediated soil processes would not only be
scientifically interesting but could also make a significant practical contribution
to agricultural development in the tropical zone. One of the five themes now
established as part of the decade of the tropics is thus the Tropical Soil Biology
and Fertility Programme (TSBF).
22
The major justification for the launching of the decade programme was
the recognition of the critical necessity for improved utilization of the natural
resources of the tropical zone. The continuing high rate of population increase
in many tropical countries and the coincident pressure on land has led both of
food shortage and environmental degradation. One crucial component for the
solution to these problems lies in the development of sustainable agriculture and
forestry systems, which are ecologically viable as well as economically
productive. Based on this the biologically mediated soil samples of the
Koonthakulam bird sanctuary was analysed for various edaphic factors.
3.3. MATERIALS AND METHODS
Soil or sediment is an integral part of an aquatic ecosystem which
acquires properties due to complex reactions within itself and also due to the
exchange of chemical between soil and water. The present work was carried out
in order to study the physico-chemical properties of the three tanks,
Koonthakulam, Kannankulam and Kadankulam.
3.3.1. Collection of Soil Samples
Using a corer, soil samples upto a depth of 12 cm were collected from the
tank (sediment), bank, village and cultivated land of Koonthakulam,
Kannankulam and Kadankulam. The collected soil samples were air dried,
ground and sieved through 2 mm mesh and stored in polythene bags for various
analysis. The samples meant for organic carbon estimation was finely ground
and sieved through 0.2 mm mesh and preserved in polythene bags separately.
Except in agricultural field, in all the other regions, the soil samples were tested
every month from November 1998 to December 2000 for various physico-
chemical parameters. Agricultural soil samples were analysed only once.
23
3.3.2. Analysis of Soil Parameters
3.3.2.1. Determination of Soil pH (Piper, 1966)
Principles
pH of the soil is the measure of the hydrogen ion activity and depends
largely on relative amounts of the absorbed hydrogen and metallic ions. Thus, it
is a good measure of acidity and alkalinity of a soil-water suspension, and
provides a good identification of the soil chemical nature.
Procedure
The pH of the soil extract was determined using systronic pH (digital) in
a soil water suspension of 1:5 ratio.
3.3.2.2. Determination of Electrical Conductivity (Piper, 1966)
The electrical conductivity measurement gives the total amount of soluble
salts present in the soil. The electrical conductivity (EC) is expressed as dsm-1.
Procedure
The EC of the soil extract was determined using systronic EC meter
(digital) in a soil water suspension of 1:5 ratio.
3.3.2.3. Determination of Lime Status (Piper, 1966)
Principle
Calcium carbonate in the soil sample is neutralized with excess of
standard acid and the excess acid is determined by back titration with standard
alkali using phenolphthalein as indicator.
24
Reagent
0.1 N Sulphuric acid, 0.1 N potassium hydroxide and phenolphthalein
indicator.
Procedure
5 g of soil sample was taken with 100 ml of 0.1 N sulphuric acid in a
beaker. The content was stirred well and allowed to stand for one hour to
complete the reaction. 25 ml of the clear supernatant from the above content
was taken along with 2 drops of phenolphthalein indicator and titrated against
0.1 N potassium hydroxide till the appearance of faint permanent pink colour.
Calculation
Volume of 0.1 N KOH consumed for 25 ml of the aliquot = A ml
Volume of 0.1 NKOH consumed for 25 ml of 0.1 N H2SO4 (blank) = B ml
InlOOmi (0.005)(B-A)x100/25
3.3.2.4. Determination of Carbonate (Piper, 1966)
Principle
This estimation is based on simple acidimetric titration in the presence of
phenolphthalein indicator and titrated with standard H 2SO4, phenolphthalein
gives pink colour with CO3-2. The reaction is as follows:
Na2CO3 + H2SO4 -* NaHSO4 + NaHCO3
Reagents
Phenolphthalein indicator and 0.01 N H2SO4.
25
Procedure
A. Extraction
Weigh 40g of soil in a conical flask. Add 200 ml of distilled water, shake
for one hour and filter the suspension.
B. Volumetric Analysis
Take 5 ml of the extract and add 2 to 3 drops of phenolphthalein
indicator. Titrate the aliquot with 0.1iN H2SO4 until the pink colour just
disappears.
Calculations
Volume of aliquot taken for analysis = V ml
Volume of H2SO4 used for titration = C ml
mg of CO3-2 per 100 g of soil = [(0.01 x C) x (200 / V) x (100 / 40) x 30)
3.3.2.5. Determination of Total Organic Matter and Total Carbon (Walkley &Black, 1934)
Principle
The organic matter present in the soil is digested with excess of potassium
dichromate and sulphuric acid and the residual unutilized dichromate is then
titrated with ferrous ammonium sulphate. The elementary carbon present as
graphite, charcoal etc., is not attacked in this method and only organic carbon is
determined. Only about 60 - 90% of the total organic matter is recovered.
Reagents
1 N potassium dichromate solution, sulphuric acid, phosphoric acid,
ferrous ammonium sulphate and diphenylamine indicator.
26
Procedure
2 g of soil sample was taken in a conical flask. A mixture of 10 ml of I N
K2Cr2O7 solution and 20 ml of Conc. H2SO4 was added and mixed by gentle
swirling. The mixture was kept for 30 minutes to complete the reaction. After
the reaction was over the content was diluted with 200 ml of distilled water
along with 10 ml of diphenylamine indicator. This sample was titrated against
0.4 N ferrous ammonium sulphate till the colour changed to brilliant green at the
end. A blank was run with same quantity of the chemicals without soil.
Calculation
(a) % of carbon = 3.951/ g (1 - T / S)
(b) % of organic matter = %C x 1.724
Where, g = Weight of the sample
S = ml ferrous solution with blank titration
T = ml ferrous solution with sample titration
Note: The factor 1.724 is based on the assumption that carbon is only 58% of the
organic matter. In the estimation of carbon a factor for average recovery
of about 75% organic matter by this method had been taken into
consideration in the above formula.
3.3.2.6. Determination of Available Nitrogen in Soil (Alkaline PotassiumPermanganate Method, Subbiah & Asija, 1956)
Principle
A given weight of soil is treated with excess of alkaline Kmn04 and
distilled. KMnO4 is a mild oxidizing agent in an alkaline medium. The organic
matter, present in the soil, is oxidized by the nascent oxygen, liberated by
Kmn04 in the presence of NaOH, and, thus, the ammonia released is distilled,
and adsorbed in a known volume of a standard acid, the excess of which is
27
treated with a standard alkali, using mixed indicator (methyl red and
bromocresol green). Nitrogen estimated by this method is considered to be
hydrolysable N or potentially available N.
Reagents
0.32% Kn04 solution, 2.5% NaOH solution, 2% boric acid, "methyl red
and bromocresol green indicator.
Procedure
Place 20 gram of soil in a distillation flask, add 20 ml of water, 100 ml of
0.32% K11n04 solution and 100 ml of 2.5% NaOH. Pipette out 20 ml of 2% boric
acid in a conical flask. Add 2 - 3 drops of mixed indicator, and dip the end of
the delivery tube into it. Distill the ammonia gas from the distillation flask and
collect in boric acid solution. Continue distillation till the evolution of ammonia
ceases completely (test by bringing a moist red litmus paper near the outlet of
the condenser, which will turn blue as long as ammonia is being evolved).
Titrate against N/50 H2SO4 and note the volume of H2SO4 used. The end point
is reached when the colour changes from pink to blue.
Calculation
% of available N = T.V. x 0.00028 x 100
Available N in the soil (kg/acre) = T.V. x 14
T.V. = Titre value
3.3.2.7. Determination of Available Phosphorus in Soil [Olsen's Method(Olsen etal., 1954)]
Principle
In this method, the soil is shaken with 0.5 M NaHCO3, at a nearly
constant pH of 8.5, in 1:25 ratio, for half an hour, in the presence of Dargo - G60
28
(which absorbs the dispersed organic matter in the sample and thus helps giving
a clear extract) and the extract is obtained by filtering the suspension.
Phosphorus in the extract is treated with ammonium molybdate (a complexing
agent), which results in the formation of a hetropoly complex, known as
"phosphomolybdate" (yellow coloured). Then the phosphomolybdate is
reduced by the use of SnC12 (a reducing agent). As a result of this reduction,
some of M06 is converted to M03 and / or M05 , and the complex assumes
the characteristic blue colour. The intensity of the blue colour obtained is
proportional to the quantity of F, entering into the reaction, yielding the complex
known as "molybdenum blue". This colouration permits P to be quantitatively
determined with a satisfactory precision.
NaHCO3 controls the tonic activity of Ca (from calcium phosphate)
through precipitation of Ca as CaCO3 during the extraction of calcareous soils, in
particular. This extractant also extracts some P from the source of Al and Fe -
phosphates in acid and neutral soils by way of suppressing Al and Fe activities
and enhancing the phosphate activity.
Reagents
0.5 M NaHCO3, Dargo-G60, ammonium molybdate and stannous
chloride.
Procedure
A. Extraction
Weigh 5 gm of soil in a 100 ml conical flask. Add a pinch of Dargo-G60
and 50 ml of 0.5 M NaHCO2 solution. Shake the flask for half an hour on an
electric shaker and filter the suspension through Whatman No. 42 filter paper.
Prepare a blank with all the reagents except the soil.
29
B. Analytical Determination
Pipette out 5 ml of the extract in a 25 ml volumetric flask, and add 5 ml of
ammonium molybdate solution. Shake the contents of flask gently so as to avoid
the direct contact of SnCl2 with the conc. ammonium molybdate. Finally add
1 ml of SnC12 working solution, make up ta25 ml with distilled water and mix
the contents of the flask. Measure the intensity of the blue colour developed, on
a colorimeter, 10 minutes after the addition of SnC1 2 solution. This measurement
should be carried out at a wavelength of 660 nm, using a red filter. Locate the
readings of the sample as well as that of the blank, measured on the colorimeter
in the standard curve, and calculate the result.
Calculations
Colorimeter reading obtained = X
Phosphorus content with reference to standard curve = ig / ml
Amount of available X x pg 25 ml 50 mlphosphorus in kg/ acre - ------x
1 5m1 5g
50 ml = 0.5 M NaHCO3, 25 ml = Volume of extract
3.3.2.8. Determination of Available Potassium in Soil (Jackson, 1973)
Principle
The method was based on the principle of equilibrium of soils with an
exchanging cation made of the solution of neutral normal NH 40AC, in a given
soil: solution ratio. During the equilibrium, ammonium ions exchange with the
exchangeable K ions of the soil. The K content in the equilibrium solution is
estimated with a flame photometer. Since NH 4 holds highly charged layers
together just as K, the release of the fixed K in an exchangeable form is retarded
during NH40AC extraction.
30
Reagent
Neutral N NH40AC solution.
Procedure
Weigh 5 gm of soil in a 150 ml conical flask. Add 25 ml of neutral N
NH40AC solution to it. Shake the contents of the conical flask on an electric
shaker for 5 minutes and filter. Feed the filtrate into the atomizer of the flame
photometer, 100 ppm of which has been set with 40 ppm K solution and note the
reading. Locate this reading on the standard curve, which will give the
K concentration in the extract. From this concentration measurement, the
amount of K in the sample is calculated.
Calculations
Flame photometer reading = ppm
25Amount of available potassium in the soil (Kg/acre) = ppm x --
5
Where 25 = volume of extract added
5 = weight of the soil sample
3.3.2.9. Determination of Exchangeable Calcium and Magnesium (Piper, 1966)
Cations present in the exchange complex of the soils can be removed by
leaching the soil with ammonium acetate solution. Different exchangeable
cations are then estimated separately in this ammonium acetate leachate.
For determination of the exchangeable cations, the soil is first washed
with ethyl alcohol to remove the soluble fraction. Moreover, for total cations
(exchangeable + soluble) there is no necessity of prior alcohol washing. For
soluble fraction only, a 1:5 soil solution is used to estimate the cations.
31
Reagents
Ethyl alcohol 40%, absolute alcohol, ammonium acetate solution, aqua-
regia, 0.01 M EDTA solution, sodium hydroxide 0.1 N, murexide indicator,
buffer solution and eriochrome black T indicator.
Procedure
Take 50 g of air-dried soil in a 500 ml beaker and add about 100 ml of 40%
alcohol. Shake well and keep for about 15 minutes. Filter the suspension
through Whatman No. 50 filter paper using Buchner funnel and vacuum pump.
Wash the soil 4 - 5 times with 50 ml portions of 40% alcohol and perform the
final washing with absolute alcohol to dry the soil. Remove the filter paper and
scrap the soil in a 250 ml beaker and wash finally the Buchner funnel and filter
paper with 100 ml ammonium acetate solution to remove any adhered portion of
the soil. Stir the soil suspension and keep for overnight. Now filter the
supernatant and later the soil with additional ammonium acetate through
Whatman No. 42 filter paper, using Buchner funnel. Leach the soil 4 - 5 times
more with portions of ammonium acetate and make up the final volume of the
filtrate to 500 ml with distilled water in a volumetric flask.
Ammonium acetate and dispersed organic matter when present in
appreciable amounts, interfere with the titration with EDTA; they must almost
entirely be removed prior to titration with EDTA. Evaporate a portion of the
ammonium acetate extract to dryness and dissolve the residue in a very small
portion of aqua-regia. Evaporate again to dryness and dissolve the residue this
time in distilled water to make up the original volume of the extract evaporated.
Calcium
Take 50 ml of sample in a conical flask. Add 2 ml of NaOH solution and
approximately 100 mg of murexide in the sample; a pink colour will develop.
Titrate the contents with EDTA solution until the pink colour changes to dark
32
purple. As there is no sharp end point, for better judgement compare the end
point colour with that of the purple colour obtained after distilled water blank
titration end point.
Magnesium
Take 50 ml of sample in a conical flask add 1 ml of buffer, 1 ml of sodium
hydroxide and approximately 100 mg of Eriochrome Black T indicator, the
solution will turn wine red. Titrate the contents with EDTA solution, the colour
changes to blue at the end point.
Calculation
Ax400.8xV% Calcium =
Vxl0000xS
A x 400.8 x VCalcium meq I 100 -— --------------
Vx20.O4xlOxS
(B - A) x 400.8 x V% Magnesium = ------. -------------
Vxl0000xSxl.645
(B - A) x 400.8 x VMagnesium meq / 100 g =
V 10 x S 1.645 x 12.16
A Volume of EDTA (ml) used for Ca determination
B = Volume of EDTA (ml) used for Ca:Mg determination
V Total volume of soil extract prepared (500 ml)
S = Weight of soil taken (50 g)
v = Volume of soil extract titrated (50 ml)
33
3.3.2.10. Determination of Exchangeable Sodium and Potassium (Stanford &English, 1949)
Exchangeable sodium and potassium can also be determined in
ammonium acetate leachate. Find out the Na and K by flame photometry
method.
Calculation
mg Na/l of soil extract x V% Na = -----------------------
10000 x S
mg Na/l of soil extract x V
Na meq / 100 g = --10 x S x 23
mg Na/i of soil extract x V% K = --------------------
10000 x S
mg Na/i of soil extract x VK meq / 100
10 x S x 39
Where
V = Total volume of soil extract prepared
S = Weight of soil taken
3.3.2.11. Determination of Micronutrients Cu, Zn, Fe, Mn (DTPA ExtractMethod by Lindsay & Norvell, 1978)
Preparation of Extractant Solution
Weigh 1.865 grams of DTPA (Diethylene triamine penta acetic acid) plus
14.9 grams of Triethanol amine plus 1.47 grams of calcium chloride in
1000 ml. Volumetric flask made up t1000 ml with double distilled water. Then
adjust the pH of the solution to 7.3 by using distilled HC1.
UJI
Preparation of Distilled HO
Take 1 litre of double distilled water and 650 ml of con. HO (AR) in
round-bottomed flask. Then boil it, distill completely and collect the distillate,
this should be sievedwith nylon sieve 2 mm.
Procedure
Weigh 10 gm of soil sample in 125 ml. polythene conical flask. Then add
20 ml of DTPA extractant. Shake it for two hours. Then filter through Whatman
No. 40 filter paper. Then take reading in Absorption Atomic Spectrometer
(AAS).
3.3.2.12. Determination of Cation Exchange Capacity of Soil (Schollennberger &Dreibelbis, 1930)
Principle
In this method, the CEC of a soil is measured by leaching it with neutral
N NH40AC solution which saturates the soil surface with NH4 ions, this is
followed by the removal of excess salts with alcohol. The absorbed NH 4 is
finally determined by distilling the soil with magnesia (MgO) and the gas
evolved during the distillation, is absorbed in a known volume of a standard
acid taken in excess the unreacted acid molecules, being back-titrated with a
standard alkali.
Reagents
NH40AC (pH7), opropyl alcohol or ethanol, 0.1 H2SO4, 0.1 N NaOH,
MgO powder, NH4HC1 crystals, methyl red indicator.
Procedure
Weigh 10 g of soil sample in a 500 ml conical flask. Add 50 ml of
NH40AC solution to the soil sample mix thoroughly and let it stand for over
night. Transfer the contents of the beaker on to a moist filter paper, seated inside
a Buchner funnel under suction. Continue to leach the soil with 150 ml of
NH40AC solution, pouring 25 ml at a time. Keep the filtrate for the
determination of total and individual exchangeable bases. To the soil on the
filter paper, add a pinch of NH4C1 crystal and leach with alcohol. Continue
washing of the residue till the filtrate runs free of chloride (test the filtrate with
AgNO3 solution - white turbidity indicates incomplete washing). Transfer the
residue and the filter paper to a 500 ml distillation flask. Add 0.5 g of MgO and
200 - 300 ml of . distilled water. Connect the flask to the distillation apparatus.
Place a 250 ml beaker, containing 25 ml of 0.1 N H2SO4 under the condenser of
the distillation apparatus to receive NH3. Start distillation by heating till no NH3
is evolved through the end of the condenser which is confirrnedby the turning
of red litmus paper to blue. Titrate with 0.1 N NaOH solution.
Calculations
Volume of 0.1 N NaOH required for sample titration = S ml
Volume of 0.1 N NaOH required for blank titration = B ml
CEC of the soil (meq / lOOs)(B - S) xO.1 x 10
10
3.3.2.13. Determination of Soil Texture (International Pipette Method:Piper, 1966)
Principle
This method is based on Stokes' Law. According to this law the rate of
fall of a particle in liquid is directly proportional to the square of its radius Va y2.
2 gr2 dp - dV=-- x
g n
36
where V = Sedimentation velocity in cm / sec.
g = Acceleration due to gravity cm / sec2
r = Radius of the particle on sphere (cm)
dp = Density of the particle (g/cc)
d = Density of the liquid (g/cc)
n = Viscosity of the liquid
The soil is first dispersed by destroying the binding agents with hydrogen
peroxide and hydrochloric acid followed by treatment with a dispersing agent.
Clay and silt are separated by sedimentation and coarse and fine sand by
sieving.
Procedure
Take 20 g of air-dried soil sample to a 500 ml beaker. Add 60 nil of
6% hydrogen peroxide. Stir it well and keep it on a water bath for 30 minutes till
frothing ceases. Treatment with hydrogen peroxide is to destroy the organic
matter which acts as a binding material. Then add 200 ml of N/5 HC1, stir it
well and keep it over night. Hydrochloric acid is added to destroy CaCO3 which
acts as a binding agent.
Filter the contents through Whatman No. 50 filter paper and wash it with
water till the filtrate runs free of chloride. Add about 400 ml water. Then add
8 ml of normal sodium hydroxide and stir it well for 10 minutes with a
mechanical stirrer. Transfer the contents to a 1000 ml spoutless measuring
cylinder and make up to 1000 ml mark with water. Cover the cylinder tightly
with a rubber stopper.
Clay and Silt
Remove the rubber stopper and place the cylinder under Robinson
pipette just touches the surface of the suspension. At the end of the stipulated
settling time for clay and silt, lower the pipette to 10 cm depth and draw 20 ml
37
suspension and deliver it to a weighed clean porcelain dish. Evaporate this first
by keeping it on a water bath and dry it in an air oven at 105°C. Cool it in a
desiccator and determine the weight as clay and silt.
Clay Alone
Shake the contents of the cylinder well and leave undisturbed till the
stipulated settling time for clay alone corresponding to the suspension
temperature. Withdraw 20 ml of the suspension. Evaporate it in a hot air oven
at 105°C. Cool it in a desiccator and determine the weight as clay.
Coarse Sand and Fine Sand
Wash the sediment with water and transfer the contents to a tall beaker.
Add water to a height of more than 10 cm. Stir well and allow it to stand for
4 minutes. Repeat this process till the water is poured off and no longer turbid.
Transfer the residue to a porcelain basin, dry it in an oven and weigh as coarse
sand plus fine sand. Sieve the coarse sand and fine sand in a 70 mesh sieve.
Calculation
Clay + Silt
Weight of empty porcelain dish = ag
Weight of silt + clay + dish + NaOH = bg
Weight of clay + silt alone = (b - (a + 0.0064))g
Clay Alone
Weight of empty porcelain dish = p g
Weight of dish + clay + NaOH = q g
Weight of clay alone = (q - (p + 0.0064))g
38
Coarse Sand + Fine Sand
Weight of porcelain basin = xg
Weight of dish + coarse sand and fine sand = yg
Weight of coarse sand and fine sand = (y - x)g
Coarse Sand alone
Weight of porcelain basin = cg
Weight of basin + coarse sand = dg
Weight of coarse sand alone = (d-c)g
3.4. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
The characteristics of the soil vary widely from place to place. The
physico chemical characteristics of four different places (Tank, Bank, Village and
Agricultural field) of three different stations (Koonthakulam, Kannankulam and
Kadankulam) are shown in the table. The three stations Koonthakulam,
Kannankulam and Kadankulam are referred as Station I, Station II and Station
III respectively.
3.4.1. Soil Texture
Soil texture is concerned with the size of mineral particles. Specifically, it
refers to the relative proportions of particles of various sizes in a given soil.
3.4.1.1. Coarse Sand
Coarse sand proportion varies in the different soil samples and also in
different stations. Coarse sand in the tank soil of Station I ranges from 18.13% to
28.5%, of Station II ranges from 14.3% to 27.8% and of Station III ranges from
25.10% to 45.5% (Tables 5, 11 and 17). In the bank soil of Station I, II and III
coarse sand ranges from 11.21% to 24.6%, 17.6% to 28.9% and 23.5% to 44.5%
respectively (Tables 7, 13 and 19). Coarse sand in the village soil of Station I
39
ranges from 19.63% to 30.16%, of Station II ranges from 17.2% to 29.5% and it
ranges from 28.1% to 42.5% in Station III (Tables 9, 15 and 21). Coarse sand in
the agricultural field of Stations I, II and III is 46.7%, 29.5% and 45.8%
respectively (Table 22). Kadankulam has maximum coarse sand in the tank,
bank and village soil when compared to the other two stations.
3.4.1.2. Fine Sand
Fine sand composition also varies in different stations and in different soil
samples. Fine sand in the tank soil of Stations I, II and III ranges from 33.7% to
55.3%, 25% to 44.6% and 8.2% to 32.3% respectively (Tables 5, 11 and 17). Fine
sand in the bank soil of Station I, II and III ranges from 45.3% to 55.6%, 26.5% to
51.5% and 12.3% to 32.4% respectively (Tables 7, 13 and 19). Fine sand in the
village soil ranges from 33.5% to 59.2% in Station I, 32.7% to 49.2% in Station II
and 11.2% to 34.8% in Station III (Tables 9, 15 and 21). Agricultural field soil of
Station I, II and III has 18.5%, 7.7% and 11.8% fine sand respectively (Table 22).
Station I shows maximum amount of fine sand compared to Stations II and III.
Coarse and fine sands combine to form total sand (Table 25). The total
sand percentage is more in Station I and it ranges from 60% to 78.2% in tank,
from 59.91% to 71.7% in bank, 60% to 82.3% in village and it is 65.2% in
agricultural field (Table 22).
3.4.1.3. Clay
Clay percentage in the tank soil of Station I ranges from 12.5% to 18.58%,
Station II from 29.9% to 39.8% and 31.8% to 39.6% in Station III (Tables 5, 11 and
17). In bank soil of Stations I, II and III it ranges from 10.1% to 20.77%, 11% to
19.5% and 31.3% to 39.1% respectively (Tables 7, 13 and 19). The percentage of
clay in village soil of Stations I, II and III it ranges from 9.0% to 30.7%, 12.5% to
19.3% and 12.7% to 20.6% respectively (Tables 9,15 and 21). In agricultural field
Station II had maximum clay of 49.2%, minimum of 29.2% in Station I (Table 22).
40
Maximum percentage of clay is observed in the tank, bank and village soil of the
Station III.
3.4.1.4. Silt
Silt in the tank soil of Stations I, II and III ranges from 7.8% to 24.9%, 7.3%
to 9.7% and 5.1% to 9.3% respectively (Tables 5, 11 and 17). In bank soil of
Stations I, II and III it ranges from 16.15% to 21.2%, 12.5% to 36.5% and 6% to
8.7% respectively (Tables 7, 13 and 19). In village soil silt percentage ranges
from 8.6% to 25.6% in Station I, 16.3% to 36% in Station II and 16.9% to 29.6%
Station III (Tables 9, 15 and 21). In agricultural field soil of Stations I, II and III it
is 5.6%, 13.6% and 8.2% respectively (Table 22). Tank soil of Stations I, bank,
village and agricultural field soil of Station II are more silty in nature compared
to the Station III.
Based on the study of the colour, nature and the particle size of the
sample, the soil in the study area is classified as the brown sandy loam in the
tank, bank and village samples of Station I, bank and village samples of Station
II and village sample of Station III, as brown sandy clay in the tank sample of
Stations II, III and bank sample of Station III. In agricultural field of Stations I
and III it is sandy clay loam and Station flit is clay in nature. Clay soils increase
the soil mixture and soil aeration. This corroborates with the findings of Johnston
(1992) and Joost (1995).
3.4.2. pH
The pH of the tank soil of Stations I, II and III ranges from 5.4 to 7.5, 5.8 to
8.5 and 6 to 8.4 respectively (Tables 4, 10 and 16) (Fig. 2, 5 and 8). The pH of
bank soil of Stations I, II and III ranges from 5.8 to 6.6, 5.9 to 8.4 and 6.7 to 8.3
respectively (Tables 6, 12 and 18) (Fig. 3, 6 and 9). The pH of village soil of
Stations I, II and III ranges from 5.7 to 6.3, 6.7 to 8.4 and 6.7 to 8.5 respectively
(Table 8, 14 and 20) (Fig. 4, 7 and 10). Agricultural field soil of Stations I, II and
III has the pH value 5.2, 6.6 and 8.4 respectively (Table 22).
41
The relationship of the pH of the tank soil is not significant with
temperature and rainfall in Station I whereas in Stations H and III it shows
significant relationship with the rainfall. "y' value of Station II is 0.000884, 0.0954
and the P value is 0.96375 and 0.7493. 'y' value of Station III is - 0.177, 0.119 and
the P value is 0.532, 0.699 (Table 27). pH value of tank soil shows significant
relationship with water pH of Station I, their 'y' value is 0.176, 0.0704 and their
P value is 0.532, 0.8172 (Table 31).
The physiological characteristics of the soil solution is its reaction, that is,
whether it is acid, alkaline or neutral. It is measured by one of a number of
methods and expressed in terms of pH unit (BUT, 1953). pH in the soil samples
of three Stations I, II and III is acidic to medium alkaline in nature. So, there is
no alkaline or acidity problem. They are in optimum range for plant growth.
Acidity of soil may be due to the presence of birds guano. It was supported by
Sinha (1995) in the sediment of Kawar Lake of North Bihar, India. Here the
acidity is due to the presence of humus which possess large amount of
aminoacids and other organic acids.
Decrease in pH may be due to the leaching and run off of cations such as
calcium, magnesium, potassium and sodium (Toky & Ramakrishnan, 1981). In
humid areas where soil pH is closely related to base cations such as calcium, the
loss of cations from the surface soil will reduce soil pH (Hakim etal., 1986).
3.4.3. Electrical Conductivity
Electrical conductivity in tank soil of Stations I, II and III ranges from
0.04 dsm 1 to 0.09 dsm-1, 0.05 dsm 1 to 0.21 dsm 1 and 0.09 dsm 1 to 0.32 dsm1
respectively (Tables 4, 10 and 16) (Fig. 2, 5 and 8). Bank soil of Stations I, II and
III ranges from 0.02 dsm-1 to 0.06 dsm 1 , 0.02 dsm 1 to 0.2 dsnr1 and 0.08 dsm 1 to
0.28 dsm 1 respectively (Tables 6, 12 and 18) (Fig. 3, 6 and 9). Village soil of
Stations I, II and III ranges from 0.049 dsm 1 to 0.08 dsm 1, 0.07 dsm 1 to 0.31 dsm
1 and 0.07 dsm-1 to 0.31 dsm 1 respectively (Tables 8, 14 and 20) (Fig. 4, 7 and 10).
42
Agricultural field soil of Stations I, II and III has 0.07 dsm- 1 , 0.08 dsm 1 and 0.24
dsm-1 respectively (Table 22). Salinity of Kadankulam is higher than that of
other stations. Village soil of Kannankulam is equally saline as that of
Kadankulam.
Electrical conductivity in tank soil of these three Stations I, II and III
shows non-significant relationship with temperature and rainfall (Table 27).
Tank soil of Stations II and III shows significant relationship with EC of tank
water. The 'y' value is -0.0496 and 0.106, their p value is 0.8690 and 0.733
respectively in Stations III and II (Table 31).
EC of these stations are optimum and the same result was also observed
by Sinha (1995) in Kawar Lake sediment. Mitsch & Gosselink (1986) state that mineral
soils have higher hydraulic conductivity due to dominance of major cations in
the sediment. Summer increases its conductivity and it may be due to
decomposition processes which releases nutrient and ions from the dead and
decaying biota. According to Rickard (1965) the soils with electrical conductivity
values greater than 4 ds/m are considered saline. Generally conductivity values
that fall in the range of 4-8 dsm/m are not inhibitory to plant growth in most
semi arid to and region unless other factors compound the salinity problem
(Munshower, 1993). EC of these three stations recorded below 4 dsm/m. So there
is no salinity hazards and they are optimum for plant growth.
3.4.4. Calcium Carbonate
Calcium carbonate in the tank soil of Stations I, II and III ranges from
5.09% to 7.1%, 5.8% to 8.11% and 5.15% to 8.1% respectively (Tables 4, 10 and
16). Calcium Carbonate is absent in the bank soil of all the three stations. In
village soil of Stations I, II and III it ranges from 1% to 2.7%, 1.01% to 2.9% and
1.26% to 3.25% respectively (Tables 8,14 and 20).
Depending upon the percentage of calcium carbonate the areas are
classified as profuse effervescence, nil effervescence and medium effervescence.
43
Tank soil of Stations I, II and III and the agricultural field soil of the third station
are profuse effervescence and they are calcareous. Bank soil of Stations I, II, III
and agricultural field soil of Stations I and II are nil effervescence and they are
non calcareous. Village soil of all three stations are medium effervescence and
they are medium calcareous.
Calcareous nature of CaCO3 was reported by Maliwal (1999) in saline and
sodic soils in the coastal area of Gujarat. Here the CaCO3 ranges from 5% to
10%. Calcareous, noncalcareous and medium calcareous nature of CaCO3 was
reported by Sharma and Vinod (1991) in the herbaceous vegetation region of Kailana
catchments in the Indian Thar Desert.
3.4.5. Organic Carbon
Organic carbon in the tank soil of Stations I, II and III ranges from 0.12%
to 1.7%; 0.01% to 0.07% and 0.01% to 0.42% respectively (Table 4, 10 and 16) (Fig.
2, 5 and 8). Bank soil of Stations I, II and III ranges from 0.12% to 0.4%, 0.02% to
0.08% and 0.02% to 0.28% respectively (Tables 6, 12 and 18) (Fig. 3, 6 and 9).
Organic carbon of village soil of Stations I, II and III ranges from 0.16% to 0.32%,
0.03% to 0.12% and 0.01% to 0.18% respectively (Tables 8, 14 and 20) (Fig. 4, 7
and 10). Agricultural field soil of Stations I, II and III has 0.78%, 0.47% and
0.45% respectively (Table 22).
Organic carbon of Station I is maximum when compared to Stations II
and III. Status of organic carbon is low to medium. This is in accordance with
the data compiled by Jenny & Ray Chaudhuri (1960). Lower organic matter content
was found during the rainy season. Tropical soils were found unfavourable for
a number of species of terrestrial water moulds, probably because of the high
temperature (Dayal & Tandon 1962; Srinivasan 1967). It can be argued that higher
temperature inhibited zoospore formation and induced the formation of
resistant gemmae and zoospores, which required a certain period of dormancy.
The soil fungi play an important role in the formation of soil organic matter. The
44
surface soil contains more organic matter compared to the layers lying below
because the surface soil receives the leaf fall. Natural vegetation, when it
accumulates on the soil surface, contributes to the organic matter of the soil. The
level of organic matter in soil determines the multiplication of microorganisms
and makes a system more dynamic (Prescott et al., 1993).
In the available literatures values of organic carbon in soils are normally
between 1 meq/g to 3 meq/g. In the present investigation, it ranges from 0.01%
to 1.7% of organic carbon, hence the level of organic matter is found to be low to
medium. According to Lowe (1975), higher levels of biological activity should be
reflected in lower amounts of organic matter in the soils.
3.4.6. Carbon I Nitrogen Ratio
Carbon/ Nitrogen ratio in the tank soil of Stations I, II and III ranges from
3:2 to 50:4, 1:3.5 to 7:8 and 1:1 to 13:10 respectively (Table 24). In bank soil of
Stations I, II and III C/N ratio ranges from 2.9:1 to 20:5, 1:2 to 8:7 and 1:2 to 17:11
respectively (Table 24). C/N ratio of village soil of Stations I, II and III ranges
from 1:6 to 16:6.5, 1:11 to 11:10 and 1:12 to 17:14 respectively (Table 24).
Agricultural field of Stations I, II and III has 88:1, 13:1 and 46:1 C/N ratio
respectively (Table 22).
The C/N ratio in soil organic matter is important for two major reasons
(a) keen competition among micro organisms for available nitrogen results when
residues having a high C/N ratio are added to soils and (b) because this ratio is
relatively constant in soils, the maintenance of carbon and hence soil organic
matter depends largely on the soil nitrogen level. C/N ratio in the tank soil of
the Station I is maximum 50:4. Large quantities of organic residues with a wide
C/N ratio are incorporated in this soil under conditions supporting vigorous
digestion (Nyle, 1984). High C/N ratio was also supported by Joost et al., (1994).
According to Berthelin & Toutatin (1982) a C/N ratio of the heath mor-layer between
20 and 30 can be regarded as an active mor-layer which is relatively easy to
45
activate. Since C/N ratio in the bank soil of Kadankulam ranged between 20
and 30, this region is more active.
3.4.7. Available Nutrients
Nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium are available nutrients.
3.4.7.1. Nitrogen
Nitrogen in the tank soil of Stations I, II and III ranges from 45 kg/ acre to
68 kg/acre, 36 kg/acre to 49 kg/acre and 41 kg/acre to 67 kg/acre respectively
(Tables 4, 10 and 16) (Fig. 2, 5 and 8). Nitrogen content of bank soil of Station I
ranges from 40 kg/acre to 60 kg/acre, Station II from 35 kg/acre to 45 kg/acre
and Station III from 46 kg/ acre to 72 kg/ acre (Tables 6, 12 and 18) (Fig. 3, 6 and
9). Amount of nitrogen in the village soil of Stations I, II and III ranges from 49
kg/acre to 65 kg/acre, 49 kg/acre to 62 kg/acre and 60 kg/acre to 76 kg/acre
respectively (Tables 8, 14 and 20) (Fig. 4, 7 and 10). Agricultural field soil of
Stations I, II and III has 80 kg/acre, 73 kg/acre and 66 kg/acre respectively
(Table 22).
Village soil of Kadankulam reports maximum amount of nitrogen.
Whereas agricultural field of Koonthakulam reports slightly higher value than
the village soil of Kadankulam. Soils of Station I and II have minimum nitrogen
content. According to Chandrasekaran et al., (1999) 450 kg/ha and above are the
maximum amount of nitrogen. Since the nitrogen amount of various soil
samples in all the three stations are less than 100 kg/acre, the fertility status of
the soil is very low.
Nitrogen is an integral component of many compounds essential for plant
growth processes. The availability of nitrogen is due to the addition of plant
residues on the soil decomposition (Bhola & Misra 1998). Continuous exchange of
nitrogen within the ecosystem is called the nitrogen cycle. In the total cycle
about 4-7 tons of nitrogen per hectare is added to the soil each year (De, 1996).
46
The nitrogen content of an ecosystem will be relatively stable, or it may be
changing in quantity, depending on the net gain and loss of nitrogen by various
input and output processes (Collier of al., 1973). In these stations, during winter
there are tons of birds guano is added to this soil. Available nitrogen in
birds guano is 220.5 kg/ha (Table 26). Net gain of nitrogen in this station may
be due to the presence of birds guano.
Reduction in soil nitrogen involves three mechanism; denitrification,
chemical reactions, and volatilizations of NH3 from the soil surface after
burning. Loss of nitrogen and the release of other nutrients are associated with a
decrease in the organic matter content of the forest floor (Chandler of al., 1983).
Nitrogen in these stations shows significant correlation with rainfall data,
the)' values is 0.110, 0.152, p value is 0.716 and 0.594 (Table 27).
3.4.7.2. Phosphorus
Phosphorus in the tank soil of Station I ranges from 5 kg/acre to
8.3 kg/acre, Station II from 6.5 kg/acre to 8.56 kg/acre and Station III from
6.5 kg/acre to 9.2 kg/acre (Table 4, 10 and 16) (Fig. 2, 5 and 8). Bank soil of
Stations I, II and III the phosphorus content ranges from 3.7 kg/acre to
6.8 kg/acre, 5.6 kg/acre to 7.30 kg/acre and 6.2 kg/acre to 9.2 kg/acre
respectively (Tables 6, 12 and 18) (Fig. 3, 6 and 9). Phosphorus of village soil of
Stations I, II and III ranges from 7 kg/acre to 8.5 kg/acre, 3.96 kg/acre to
10.13 kg/acre and 5.2 kg/acre to 10.1 kg/acre respectively (Table 8, 14 and 20)
(Fig. 4, 7 and 10). The phosphorus in agricultural field soil of Stations I, II and III
has 2.0 kg/ acre, 3.5 kg/ acre and 1.0 kg/ acre respectively (Table 22). Phosphorus
in birds guano is very high 255.75 kg/ha (Table 26). According to Chandrasekaran
of al., (1999) phosphorus content of 22 kg/ ha and above are very high. Station III
has high amount of phosphorus than Station I and II. Very low value of
phosphorus is noticed in the Kannankulam. Since the maximum value of
phosphorus ranges from 7 to 10 kg/acre the phosphorus value is medium in all
47
the three stations. Phosphorus in the tank soil is non significant with
temperature and rainfall except in the Station I (2000) y value is -0.146, p value is
0.635 and Station III (1998 and 1999) y value is 0.0178, p value is 0.9396
(Table 27).
Phosphorus is virtually used in every important process in plants. It is an
essential constituent of protoplasm and it does not move readily through the soil
and is not leached by rain and watering. Phosphorus is absorbed by the plants
as H2PO4, HPO4 or PO4 depending upon the soil pH. Most of the total soil
phosphorus is tied up chemically in compounds of limited solubility.
Phosphorus is never readily available. Available soil phosphorus may be only
1% or less of the total amount present. But its availability is generally highest in
the range centering around pH 6.5 (Nyle, 1984). Here pH of the soil ranges from
5.2 to 8.6, therefore the available phosphorus is also slightly higher. Phosphorus
level is reduced during winter and monsoon due to rapid utilization of these
vital nutrients by the macrophytes and phytoplankton. Similar result in this
system was also found by Sinha (1995) and Singh & Jha (2000).
3.4.7.3. Potassium
Potassium in the tank soil of Stations I, II and III ranges from 87 kg/acre
to 188 kg/acre, 97 kg/acre to 145 kg/acre and 121 kg/acre to 233 kg/acre
respectively (Tables 4, 10 and 16) (Fig. 2, 5 and 8). Bank soil of Stations I, II and
III ranges from 115 kg/acre to 135 kg/acre, 108 kg/acre to 150 kg/acre and
148 kg/ acre to 226 kg/ acre respectively (Tables 6, 12 and 18) (Fig. 3, 6 and 9).
Potassium content of village soil of Stations I, II and III ranges from 210 kg/ acre
to 261 kg/acre, 216 kg/acre to 261 kg/acre and 216 kg/acre to 263 kg/acre
respectively (Tables 8, 14 and 20) (Fig. 4, 7 and 10). In agricultural field soil
potassium of Station I is 171 kg/acre, Station II is 261 kg/acre and Station III is
294 kg/ acre (Table 22).
48
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Fig. 2- Monthly variation in Physico-chemical characteristics ofKoonthakulam Tank soil from November 1998 — December 2000
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I I I I IO 0 0 Q 0 0 0 c' 0 0 0 0C 9 9 o 9 9 9 9 0 9 9C D '- >. C 0. t5 > C)( (1) CL CO - (D 0 a)
—) U —) < Cl) 0 z 0
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52
160
140
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20
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9
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Fig. 6- Monthly variation in Physico-chemical characteristics ofKannankulam Bank soil from November 1998 - December 2000
160
140
120s-uC . 100
80
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0
9
8
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0 o a)z a -) U- -) < (1) 0 z a
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p—s * p p $ $ •- S I I I
250
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100
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Fig. 7- Monthly variation in Physico-chemical characteristics ofKannankulam Village soil from November 1998 — December 2000
300
II
A a_èA A—.A A £ A j—&-----A £. S S •S$ $ . p . p p p •
Co co 0) 0) a) C) C) 0) a, a) a) 0) 0)0) 0) a) a) C) M C) C) 0) a) a) 0) 0) 0)> 0 C M IL >s C 0. > C.)o a) CU CU 0. CO .-,
C.)Z 0 -, Li.. -) < CO 0 z o
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250
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9
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54
CO
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Fig. 8- Monthly variation in Physico-chemical characteristics ofKadankulam Tank soil from November 1998 - December 2000
CO C) a 0) M 0) 0) 0) 0) 0) 0) C)0) 0) 0) 0) 0) M C) 0) 0) 0)C) 0) 0) 0)> C) . '- !- > C 0) 0 • > C)o a, CO a, 0. cc a, 0 Wz 0 -) U.. -) < 0) 0 Z 0
—&-- N —w— P —*-- K -- pH —4— B(dsm-1) —I-- OC%
9
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50
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55
250
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EU)
2 w
s—s a • •—$----. a S • S S $ • 0
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Fig. 9- Monthly variation in Physico-chemical characteristics ofKadankulam Bank soil from November 1998 - December 2000
'1CO CO C 0) 0) 0) 0) 0) 0) 0) 0) 0)0) 0) 0) 0) 0) T 0) 0) 0) 0) 0) 0) 0)> 0 C . - C C CD Q- t5 > C)o a Ca CD Q ca (, 0 QZ 0 –) u –) < (1) 0 z a
—i-- N —w-- P —*— K —R-- pH —+— B(dsm . 1) —.— OC%
250
9
8
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50.— $ $ $ I •—. a p $ $ • 0
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N ---- P —ac--- K -- pH ---EC (dsrml) -.-- OcJ
56
t $ $ $ $ a- . -a- 0 0 $ •
250
200
c 150
0100
50
300 9
8
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60
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Fig. 10- Monthly variation in Physico-chemical characteristics ofKadankulam Village soil from November 1998 - December 2000
300
9
8
250 7
6
ccci 200 5 0
c 150
4,;.E
3&)
100 2 Ui
50.—. S • • 0 •—+- $ 0 0 0 0—*. 0
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—h--N —*— P —*— K -- pH ---B(dsm-1) —.—OC%
c 0 0 0 0 0 0 c 0 0 0 09 9 9 0 9 9 9 0 9 0 9 9- IL > 5 6) 0. —) > 0CU () CU 0)) C 0 CI)-) LL -) < CO 0 z a
EEE_N ---P--*--K —s—pH ---(cism-1) Wlb
57
Potassium is one of the major nutrients needed for plants. It plays a
major role in plants. It is an activator of dozens of enzymes responsible for
energy metabolism, starch synthesis, nitrate reduction, sugar degradation and
also plays a major role in protection against disease by thickening the outer cell
walls of plant tissues (Nyle, 1984).
According to Chandrasekaran et al., (1999) potassium values are classified
into three status low(118 kg/ha), medium (118 kg/ha to 280 kg/ha) and high
(280 kg/ha and above). In the present study high value of potassium is
observed in these stations this may be due to the presence of birds guano, which
contains 428.125 kg/ha of available potassium (Table 26).
Potassium in these stations are suitable for the growth of macrophytes
and phytoplankton. The higher level of potassium during summer is due to
decomposition, while lower level during post monsoon and winter season, may
be due to the utilization of these nutrients by the growing plant communities.
Similar result in this system was also found by Singh & Jha (2000) in sediment of
Kawar Lake North Bihar.
1-ligh amount of potassium is also reported in sediment of river Yamuna
and Hindan (Dakshini et al., 1983) and Sursagar Lake (Agarwal et al., 1978).
3.4.8. Exchangeable Cations
3.4.8.1. Calcium
The calcium content of tank soil of Stations I, II and III ranges from
4 meq/lOOg to 18.8 meq/lOOg, 5.1 meq/lOOg to 11.2 meq/lOOg and
7.5 meq/lOOg to 15.4 meq/lOOg respectively (Table 4, 10 and 16). In the bank
soil of Stations I, II and III amount of calcium ranges from 6.8 meq/lOOg to
10.1 meq/lOOg, 5.7 meq/lOOg to 11.5 meq/lOOg and 6.2 meq/lOOg to
11.65 meq/lOOg respectively (Tables 6, 12 and 18). Village soil of Station I has
3.8 meq/lOOg to 7.5 meq/lOOg, Station II has 5.3 meq/lOOg to 9.6 meq/lOOg and
58
Station III has 8.3 meq/lOOg to 13.65 meq/lOOg (Tables 8,14 and 20). Calcium in
agricultural field soil of Stations I, II and III is 2.75 meq/lOOg, 10.5 meq/100g
and 15.1 meq/100g respectively (Table 22).
Tank soil of all the three stations has significant amount of calcium in the
year 2000. Their y value is -0.102, -0.124 and -0.117. P value is 0.733, 0.683 and
0.699 (Table 31). This significant result may be due to the exchange of nutrients
between the soil and the water. Calcium in this station shows optimum level
and they are suitable for plant growth (Chandrasekaran etal., 1999).
Tank soil of Station I and bank, village and agricultural field soil of
Station III has high calcium. This may be due to the birds guano because birds
guano contains 260.520 mg/i of calcium. Similar results were found in the
catchment area and the river Burhi Gandak, and the increase in calcium is due to
the addition of calcium carbonate from the neighbouring industry (Singh & Jha,
2000).
3.4.8.2. Magnesium
Magnesium in the tank soil of Stations I, II and III ranges from
2.1 meq/lOOg to 17.5 meq/lOOg, 4.1 meq/lOOg to 9.2 meq/lOOg and.
3.75 meq/lOOg to 5.65 meq/lOOg respectively (Tables 4, 10 and 16). The amount
of magnesium in the bank soil of Stations I, II and III ranges from 9.8 meq/lOOg
to 15.7 meq/lOOg, 7.49 meq/lOOg to 15.1 meq/lOOg and 3.36 meq/lOOg to
8.51 meq/lOOg respectively (Tables 6,12 and 18). Village soil of Stations I, II and
III has 2.2 meq/lOOg to 3.2 meq/lOOg, 2.9 meq/lOOg to 10.5 meq/lOOg and
2.63 meq/lOOg to 6.25 meq/lOOg magnesium respectively (Tables 8, 14 and 20).
Agricultural field soil of Station I has 2 meq/lOOg, Station II has 3.5 meq/lOOg
and Station III has 4 meq/lOOg (Table 22).
Magnesium of tank soil shows significant correlation with the water
samples of all the three stations (Table 31). This significant correlation may be
due to the exchange of cations. Mg value of this present study is slightly higher
59
and this may be due to the presence of birds guano. Mg in the birds guano is
97.386 mg/i (Table 26).
Higher amount of calcium and magnesium are observed in the river
Yamuna and Hindon (Dakshini et al., 1983) and Sursagar lake (Agarwal et al., 1978).
Same result was found in Mangrove swamps in South Eastern Nigeria (IMOH,
1998).
In the present study, Mg in the tank soil of Station I, Bank and village soil
of Station II, agricultural field of soil of Station III are found higher than that of
other stations. Magnesium in these stations is in optimum level and good for
plant growth.
3.4.8.3. Calcium/Magnesium Ratio
Calcium/ Magnesium ratio in the tank soil of Stations I, II and III ranges
from 1.06:1.18 to 3.5:2.6, 1.01:1.06 to 3.73:3.07 and 1.88:1.18 to 5.13:1.25
respectively (Table 23). Bank soil of Stations I, II and III Ca/Mg ratio ranges
from 1.01:2.53 to 5.05:7.05, 1:1 to 3.83:2.55 and 1:1 to 3.88:1.26 respectively (Table
23). In the village soil of Station I Ca/Mg ratio ranges from 1.5:1 to 3.75:1.35, in
Station II 1:1 to 3.2:3.07 and in Station III 2.1:1.05 to 6.83:1.33 (Table 21).
Agricultural field soil of Stations I, II and III has 1.4:1, 3:01, 3.8:1 Ca/Mg ratio
respectively (Table 22).
Calcium and magnesium are absorbed by plants as ions (Ca2 and Mg2)..
Both are similar in their behaviour in soils, and are held as exchangeable ions by
electrostatic attraction around negatively charged soil colloids. Soils with
predominantly 2:1 colloids will have higher exchange capacities (Samuel et al.,
1995). In the present study Ca/Mg ratio was 2:1 in the Kadankulam station and
here the exchange capacity is higher. Normal range of Ca and Mg in humid soil
ranges from 0.7% to 1.5%. Here the Ca and Mg is higher and this may be due to
the addition of birds guano and litter fall. Same effect was reported by Whitmore
60
(1989), in white sand soils of tropics and were also found in L horizons over
podzolised soils in the middle caqueta area (Duivenvoorden & Lips 1995).
3.4.8.4. Sodium
Sodium in the tank soil of Station I ranges from 0.891 meq to 1.76 meq,
Station II from 0.85 meq to 2.35 meq and Station III from 1.26 meq to 1.75 meq
per 100 g of soil samples (Tables 4, 10 and 16). In the bank soil of Stations I, II
and III sodium ranges from 0.4347 meq/lOOg to 0.81 meq/100g, 0.96 meq/lOOg
to 2.11 meq/lOOg and 1.26 meq/lOOg to 1.97 meq/100g respectively (Tables 6,12
and 18). Village soil of Stations I, II and III has 0.4347 meq/lOOg to
3.1 meq/lOOg, 0.534 meq/lOOg to 1.41 meq/lOOg and 1.07 meq/lOOg to
1.81 meq/lOOg sodium respectively (Tables 8,14 and 20). Agricultural field soil
of Station II has 0.22 meq/lOOg and Station III has 2.46 méq/lOOg (Table 22).
Whereas sodium is completely absent in the agricultural field soil of Station I.
Sodium is one of the micronutrients essential for the plant growth.
Sodium level in most plants and plant parts are typically low and related to soil
Na levels, which in turn are highly affected by Na levels in rainfall and the
frequency of rainfall. In these stations sodium level is higher during summer
than the other seasons. This was supported by Nyle (1984) that the level of
sodium in the soil increases due to low rainfall and the impeded drainage, which
leads to accumulation of sodium and turn the soil into saline or sodic. Similar
results were also reported by Lal & Cumming (1979). Saharjo & Makhrawie (1998)
reported that the sodium increased immediately after burning. High rainfall
reduced the Na content and it was reported by Silver (1994). Village and bank soil
have high amount of sodium than the tank soil.
3.4.8.5. Potassium
Potassium content in the tank soil of Stations I, II and III ranges from
0.24 meq/lOOg to 0.49 meq/lOOg, 0.46 meq/lOOg to 0.91 meq/lOOg and
0.28 meq/lOOg to 0.97 meq/lOOg respectively (Tables 4, 10 and 16). Bank soil of
61
Stations I, II and III has 0.06 meq/lOOg to 0.64 meq/100g, 0.36 meq/lOOg to
0.98 meq/lOOg and 0.27 meq/lOOg to 0.98 meq/lOOg potassium respectively
(Tables 6, 12 and 18). In the village soil of Stations I, II and III the potassium
ranges from 1.01 meq/100g to 2.70 meq/lOOg, 0.56 meq/lOOg to 1.32 meq/100g
and 0.37 meq/lOOg to 1.57 meq/lOOg respectively (Tables 8, 14 and 20).
Agricultural field soil of Stations I, II and III has 0.51 meq/lOOg, 0.64 meq/lOOg
and 0.64 meq/lOOg potassium respectively (Table 22).
90% of available potassium is in the exchangeable form (Attoe & Truog 1945).
In these stations whenever the soil content of potassium increased and sodium
decreased. Seasonality of these effects are also reported by Scott etal., (1992). The
rainfall reduced the level of K and it was reported by Johanna & Joost (1996).
3.4.9. Cation Exchange Capacity (CEC)
Cation Exchange Capacity in the tank soil of Station I, II and III ranges
from 7.33 meq/100 g to 36.71 meq/lOOg, 12 meq/lOOg to 22.19 meq/lOOg and
14.05 meq/lOOg to 21.51 meq/lOOg respectively (Tables 4, 10 and 16). In the
bank soil of Stations I, II and III CEC ranges from 17.72 meq/lOOg to
26.25 meq/lOOg, 15.52 meq/lOOg to 28.38 meq/lOOg and 12.92 meq/lOOg to
18.15 meq/lOOg respectively (Tables 6, 12 and 18). In the CEC of village soil of
Stations I, II and III ranges from 7.97 meq/lOOg to 13.37 meq/lOOg,
9.98 meq/lOOg to 21.34 meq/lOOg and 13.9 meq/lOOg to 20.62 meq/lOOg
respectively (Tables 8, 14 and 20). In the agricultural field soil of Station I CEC is
10.2 meq/lOOg, in Station II CEC is 16.7 meq/lOOg and in Station III CEC is
22.5 meq/lOOg (Table 22).
Cation exchange is generally considered to be more important, since the
anion exchange capacity of most agricultural soil is much smaller than the cation
exchange capacity. Ion exchange reactions in soils are very important to plant
nutrient availability, soil development and ecosystem activities (Samuel et al.,
1995). The leaching and runoff of cations such as Ca, Mg, K and Na has reduced
62
the pH. Same effect was reported by Toky & Ramakrishna (1981). The decrease of
these cations reduced total bases and CEC. Reduction of organic content means
it reduces CEC value. Similar result was also reported by Trabaud (1990). CEC is
affected by many factors such as soil reaction, texture, type of clay, minerals,
organic matter and liming. The CEC decrease was probably a consequence of
the relatively high clay content. Same result was also found by Giovannini et al.,
(1988).
Cation Exchange Capacity in the present study is more and this may be
due to the presence of high level of cations. Similar results were also found in
Kwa Ibo river swamp and Imo river swamps (IMOH, 1998). Cations are more
during dry month. Soil with predominately 2:1 colloids will have higher
exchange capacities, 2:1 ratio of Ca:Mg is observed in Station III. Cations of Ca,
Mg, Na and K are in optimum levels and they are good for plant growth.
3.4.10. Micronutrients
Micronutrients are required in very small quantities. Also, they are
harmful when the available forms are present in the soil in larger amount than
the level that could be tolerated by plants or by animals.
3.4.10.1. Copper
Copper in the tank soil of Stations I, II and III ranges from 0.7 ppm to
0.92 ppm, 0.25 ppm to 0.97 ppm and 0.56 ppm to 1.96 ppm respectively (Tables
4, 10 and 16). Bank soil of Stations I, II and III has 0.6 ppm to 0.75 ppm,
0.28 ppm to 0.63 and 0.27 ppm to 1.46 ppm respectively (Tables 6, 12 and 18).
Village soil of Station I has 0.91 ppm to 1.32 ppm, Station II has 0.32 ppm to
0.96 ppm and Station III has 0.65 ppm to 1.98 ppm copper (Tables 8, 14 and 20).
In the agricultural field soil of Stations I, II and III has 2.89 ppm, 2.06 ppm and
1.13 ppm copper respectively (Table 22).
63
3.4.10.2. Zinc
In the tank soil of Station I zinc ranges from 0.36 ppm to 1.48 ppm, Station
II from 0.01 ppm to 0.65 ppm and Station III from 0.62 ppm to 1.26 ppm (Tables
4, 10 and 16). Zinc in the bank soil of Stations I, II and III ranges from 0.23 ppm
to 0.42 ppm, 0.05 ppm to 0.63 and 0.49 ppm to 0.95 ppm respectively (Tables 6,
12 and 18). Village soil of Station I has 0.78 ppm to 1.92 ppm, Station II has
0.09 ppm to 1.02 ppm and Station III has 0.36 ppm to 1.26 ppm respectively
(Tables 8, 14 and 20). The agricultural field soil of Stations I, II and III has
1.03 ppm, 0.49 ppm and 0.63 ppm zinc respectively (Table 22).
Zinc values are maximum in the tank and bank soil of Kadankulam,
village and agricultural field soil of Koonthakulam when compared to the other
areas.
3.4.10.3. Iron
Iron content in the tank soil of Stations I, II and III ranges from 3.2 ppm to
4.92 ppm, 2.07 ppm to 2.81 ppm and 3.17 ppm to 6.71 ppm respectively. The
bank soil of Stations I, II and III has 2.63 ppm to 4.2 ppm, 2.06 ppm to 2.91 and
2.65 ppm to 4.85 ppm respectively. In the village soil of Stations I, II and III iron
ranges from 1.2 ppm to 2.97 ppm, 1.3 ppm to 2.06 ppm and 3.27 ppm to
6.71 ppm respectively. In the agricultural field soil of Station I, iron is 32.2 ppm,
in Station 1112.8 ppm and in Station 111 3.59 ppm. Kadankulam station has high
iron content in all the soil samples.
3.4.10.4. Manganese
Amount of manganese in the tank soil of Stations I, II and III ranges from
2.65 ppm to 5.3 ppm, 4.27 ppm to 7.35 ppm and 7.25 ppm to 9.08 ppm
respectively. Bank soil of Stations I, II and III ranges from 2.59 ppm to 3.9 ppm,
4.15 ppm to 5.81 and 4.58 ppm to 8.66 ppm respectively. Village soil of Stations
I, 11 and III has 0.97 ppm to 2.3 ppm, 2.35 ppm to 4.86 ppm and 7.07 ppm to
9.11 ppm manganese respectively. Agricultural field soil of Stations I, II and III
has 7.29 ppm, 12.6 ppm and 4.63 ppm manganese respectively.
Manganese in the Station III shows maximum value when compared to
the Stations I and II.
Uptake of heavy metals are very low in loam and sandy loam soil. So
large amount of heavy metals are accumulated in the soil this was reported by
Under et al., (1998) in terrestrial and wetland habitat. Nature of the soil in the
present study is also sandy loam in condition. Hence large amount of heavy
metals are accumulated in this soil.
Accumulation of micronutrients depend upon the pH of the water and
the soil samples. Here the pH of the water and the soil are 5 to 8. Aston et al.,
(1974) reported that high amount of metal in sediment may be due to high
alkalinity of the water. It has also been reported by Dean etal., (1972) that most of
the metals in water precipitates at higher pH values (i.e., above 5.0 Cu above 7.0
Zn). Alkaline pH enables precipitation and much higher concentration of heavy
metals Fe, Mn, Zn, Cu, Ni and Co in the sediment as per above view and it has
also been supported by Ajmal & Khan (1987).
Copper ions are strongly adsorbed by the surface of both silicate clays
and oxide clays. Organic matter is another very effective medium adsorbing
copper ions and may well contribute to most exchangeable copper ions (David
Jeffrey, 1987). Here, the Station III soils are clay in nature and hence copper
content is also more here when compared to the Stations I and II.
Calcareous soils may have deficiencies of iron, manganese, zinc and
copper and in a few cases, a toxicity of molybdenum (Nyle, 1984). Status of
micronutrient in these stations: Copper is low to medium. Iron and manganese
are high, Zinc is very low, deficient and they are under critical level. Copper,
Iron and Manganese are above critical level and they are sufficient for plant
growth.
65
From the present findings, the following points are enlightened.
1. pH of the soil is acidic to medium alkaline in nature. So there is
no alkalinity or acidity problem.
2. There is no salinity hazards with the EC value.
3. Fertility status is also good.
4. Micro nutrient is also above critical level, hence, the soil has an
optimum range for plant growth.
66
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Mechanical Fractions of Koonthakulam Tank Soil fromNovember 1998 to December 2000
Mechanical Fraction (%)_____________Month Texture
Clay Silt Coarse sand Fine sand
Nov-98 15.10 24.90 26.30 33.70 Brown sandy loam
Dec-98 16.00 21.00 26.30 36.70 Brown sandy loam
Jan-99 15.30 17.70 26.40 40.60 Brown sandy loam
Feb-99 14.10 17.90 26.10 41.90 Brown sandy loam
Mar-99 15.70 24.00 26.50 33.80 Brown sandy loam
Apr-99 15.70 19.40 26.50 38.40 Brown sandy loam
May-99 15.10 17.80 27.00 40.10 Brown sandy loam
Jun-99 12.50 19.00 28.50 40.00 Brown sandy loam
Jul-99 14.20 18.10 26.20 41.50 Brown sandy loam
Aug-99 16.00 19.80 26.20 38.00 Brown sandy loam
Sep-99 15.65 18.95 24.20 41.20 Brown sandy loam
Oct-99 13.16 20.62 23.20 43.02 Brown sandy loam
Nov-99 15.17 18.93 21.60 44.30 Brown sandy loam
Dec-99 14.26 10.21 18.13 57.40 Brown sandy loam
Jan-00 18.58 8.25 25.17 48.00 Brown sandy loam
Feb-00 17.06 14.45 27.19 41.30 Brown sandy loam
Mar-00 17.64 8.96 26.30 47.10 Brown sandy loam
Apr-00 16.09 9.60 25.31 49.00 Brown sandy loam
May-00 16.30 16.30 21.80 45.60 Brown sandy loam
Jun-00 13.94 13.20 22.46 50.40 Brown sandy loam
Jul-00 14.31 14.89 21.30 49.50 Brown sandy loam
Aug-00 14.03 9.87 27.00 49.10 Brown sandy loam
Sep-00 14.85 10.75 23.20 51.20 Brown sandy loam
Oct-00 13.99 7.81 26.50 51.70 Brown sandy loam
Nov-00 15.30 7.80 26.40 50.50 Brown sandy loam
Dec-00 15.35 10.18 19.17 55.30 Brown sandy loam
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Mechanical Fractions of Koonthakulam Bank Soil fromNovember 1998 to December 2000
Mechanical Fraction (%)____________Month Texture
Clay Silt Coarse sand Fine sand
Nov-98 12.30 20.00 21.60 46.10 Brown sandy loam
Dec-98 11.20 17.90 24.60 46.30 Brown sandy loam
Jan-99 11.80 20.20 21.70 46.30 Brown sandy loam
Feb-99 11.40 20.60 21.80 46.20 Brown sandy loam
Mar-99 11.30 20.40 21.10 47.20 Brown sandy loam
Apr-99 11.30 19.60 21.90 47.20 Brown sandy loam
May-99 10.10 19.80 22.00 48.10 Brown sandy loam
Jun-99 10.40 19.60 22.00 48.00 Brown sandy loam
5JuI-99 10.30 19.40 22.30 48.00 Brown sandy loam
Aug-99 10.50 19.10 23.20 47.20 Brown sandy loam
Sep-99 13.27 19.01 18.71 49.01 Brown sandy loam
Oct-99 12.01 19.23 19.06 49.70 Brown sandy loam
Nov-99 12.93 19.96 15.01 52.10 Brown sandy loam
Dec-99 12.97 16.82 18.61 51.60 Brown sandy loam
Jan-00 20.15 19.62 12.63 47.60 Brown sandy loam
Feb-00 20.77 19.32 13.71 46.20 Brown sandy loam
Mar-00 11.80 18.54 14.06 55.60 Brown sandy loam
Apr-00 20.47 18.93 14.00 46.60 Brown sandy loam
May-00 18.68 18.91 11.21 51.20 Brown sandy loam
Jun-00 12.66 17.23 20.71 49.40 Brown sandy loam
Jul-00 12.00 18.09 19.91 50.00 Brown sandy loam
Aug-00 10.60 17.90 22.30 49.20 Brown sandy loam
Sep-00 10.90 17.40 23.40 48.30 Brown sandy loam
Oct-00 11.70 21.20 21.80 45.30 Brown sandy loam
Nov-00 11.80 20.20 21.70 46.30 Brown sandy loam
Dec-00 13.10 16.15 18.75 52.00 Brown sandy loam
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Mechanical Fractions of Koonthakulam Village Soil of fromNovember 1998 to December 2000
Mechanical Fraction (%)____________Month Texture
Clay Silt Coarse sand Fine sand
Nov-98 20.40 19.60 26.50 33.50 Brown sandy loam
Dec-98 20.50 19.50 26.50 33.50 Brown sandy loam
Jan-99 12.80 25.60 26.60 35.00 Brown sandy loam
Feb-99 30.70 8.60 26.50 34.20 Brown sandy loam
Mar-99 17.50 21.70 27.00 33.80 Brown sandy loam
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Jul-99 13.00 17.70 28.10 41.20 Brown sandy loam
Aug-99 11.50 19.60 28.60 40.30 Brown sandy loam
Sep-99 11.20 18.67 29.06 41.07 Brown sandy loam
Oct-99 10.97 18.18 30.15 40.70 Brown sandy loam
Nov-99 10.07 20.17 30.16 39.60 Brown sandy loam
Dec-99 9.60 20.79 29.51 40.10 Brown sandy loam
Jan-00 9.80 17.59 27.41 45.20 Brown sandy loam
Feb-00 9.40 18.25 26.05 46.30 Brown sandy loam
Mar-00 14.76 14.23 25.41 45.60 Brown sandy loam
Apr-00 10.30 21.39 25.11 43.20 Brown sandy loam
May-00 11.20 18.64 26.76 43.40 Brown sandy loam
Jun-00 11.80 10.27 19.63 58.30 Brown sandy loam
Jul-00 10.14 11.01 19.65 59.20 Brown sandy loam
Aug-00 10.60 12.20 27.50 49.70 Brown sandy loam
Sep-00 10.40 10.30 26.70 52.60 Brown sandy loam
Oct-00 9.00 8.70 26.60 55.70 Brown sandy loam
Nov-00 16.40 21.60 26.60 35.40 Brown sandy loam
Dec-00 9.70 12.40 27.80 50.10 Brown sandy loam
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Mechanical Fractions of Kannankulam Tank Soil fromNovember 1998 to December 2000
Mechanical Fraction (%)Month Texture
Clay Silt Coarse sand Fine sand
Nov-98 35.80 8.70 16.30 39.20 Brown sandy clay
Dec-98 37.60 9.60 15.20 37.60 Brown sandy clay
Jan-99 29.90 9.30 16.20 44.60 Brown sandy clay
Feb-99 35.00 8.40 14.30 42.30 Brown sandy clay
Mar-99 36.50 8.50 27.50 27.50 Brown sandy clay
Apr-99 37.80 9.50 22.60 30.10 Brown sandy clay
May-99 38.60 9.50 21.70 30.20 Brown sandy clay
Jun-99 39.80 7.50 22.60 30.10 Brown sandy clay
Jul-99 35.50 7.60 26.20 30.70 Brown sandy-clay
Aug-99 38.50 8.70 27.80 25.00 Brown sandy clay
Sep-99 31.50 9.50 24.20. 34.80 Brown sandy clay
Oct-99 35.60 8.50 22.70 33.20 Brown sandy clay
Nov-99 30.50 9.40 22.30 37.80 Brown sandy clay
Dec-99 31.20 8.00 24.60 36.20 Brown sandy clay
Jan-00 33.70 7.50 22.50 36.30 Brown sandy clay
Feb-00 33.70 8.50 23.60 34.20 Brown sandy clay
Mar-00 32.30 7.30 24.20 36.20 Brown sandy clay
Apr-00 32.00 8.60 23.20 36.20 Brown sandy clay
May-00 31.90 8.50 21.70 37.90 Brown sandy clay
Jun-00 32.50 7.30 22.50 37.70 Brown sandy clay
Jul-00 33.60 8.20 21.70 36.50 Brown sandy clay
Aug-00 30.00 9.70 22.70 37.60 Brown sandy clay
Sep-00 32.70 7.60 27.50 32.20 Brown sandy clay
Oct-00 32.00 7.80 24.50 35.70 Brown sandy clay
Nov-00 33.80 8.20 24.30 33.70 Brown sandy clay
Dec-00 31.57 8.70 17.90 41.83 Brown sandy clay
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Table -13
Mechanical Fractions of Kannankulam Bank Soil fromNovember 1998 to December 2000
Mechanical Fraction (%)Month Texture
Clay Silt Coarse sand Fine sand
Nov-98 18.30 36.50 18.70 26.50 Brown sandy loam
Dec-98 16.20 32.95 17.60 33.25 Brown sandy loam
Jan-99 15.30 31.10 18.30 35.30 Brown sandy loam
Feb-99 16.40 30.10 19.20 34.30 Brown sandy loam
Mar-99 16.20 18.90 28.20 36.70 Brown sandy loam
Apr-99 15.20 27.10 24.50 33.20 Brown sandy loam
May-99 11.00 17.80 23.20 48.00 Brown sandy loam
Jun-99 11.30 23.20 24.50 41.00 Brown sandy loam
Jul-99 15.50 22.00 25.40 37.10 Brown sandy loam
Aug-99 11.20 23.30 24.50 41.00 Brown sandy loam
Sep-99 14.50 24.50 20.80 40.20 Brown sandy loam
Oct-99 17.10 24.30 24.20 34.40 Brown sandy loam
Nov-99 16.70 23.90 20.30 39.10 Brown sandy loam
Dec-99 13.20 18.80 21.80 46.20 Brown sandy loam
Jan-00 11.80 18.20 18.50 51.50 Brown sandy loam
Feb-00 17.80 17.20 19.70 45.30 Brown sandy loam
Mar-00 16.20 17.10 23.50 43.20 Brown sandy loam
Apr-00 11.70 18.00 21.60 48.70 Brown sandy loam
May-00 13.20 21.60 25.40 39.80 Brown sandy loam
Jun-00 19.50 22.10 24.20 34.20 Brown sandy loam
Jul-00 18.50 12.50 28.90 40.10 Brown sandy loam
Aug-00 13.50 24.20 23.40 38.90 Brown sandy loam
Sep-00 14.50 18.30 24.30 42.90 Brown sandy loam
Oct-00 13.20 18.50 26.20 42.10 Brown sandy loam
Nov-00 14.30 20.70 21.20 43.80 Brown sandy loam
Dec-00 14.30 19.70 19.20 46.80 Brown sandy loam
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Table - 15
Mechanical Fractions of Kannankulam Village Soil fromNovember 1998 to December 2000
Mechanical Fraction (%)Month Texture
Clay Silt Coarse sand Fine sand
Nov-98 16.40 27.80 19.60 36.20 Brown sandy loam
Dec-98 13.50 27.60 19.30 39.60 Brown sandy loam
Jan-99 14.10 36.00 17.20 32.70 Brown sandy loam
Feb-99 13.90 26.30 18.10 41.70 Brown sandy loam
Mar-99 14.10 18.30 29.50 38.10 Brown sandy loam
Apr-99 13.70 18.20 23.20 44.90 Brown sandy loam
May-99 14.50 17.50 24.80 43.20 Brown sandy loam
Jun-99 12.50 20.30 23.20 44.00 Brown sandy loam
Jul-99 17.20 20.20 23.20 39.40 Brown sandy loam
Aug-99 13.50 20.40 26.20 39.90 Brown sandy loam
Sep-99 13.20 20.90 21.20 44.70 Brown sandy loam
Oct-99 18.20 21.10 21.80 38.90 Brown sandy loam
Nov-99 14.51 22.09 21.20 42.20 Brown sandy loam
Dec-99 14.80 19.30 22.70 43.20 Brown sandy loam
Jan-00 16.50 20.20 21.20 42.10 Brown sandy loam
Feb-00 15.40 19.40 21.50 43.70 Brown sandy loam
Mar-00 15.40 16.30 21.60 46.70 Brown sandy loam
Apr-00 13.50 19.10 23.20 44.20 Brown sandy loam
May-00 17.80 19.50 23.20 39.50 Brown sandy loam
Jun-00 16.50 18.60 21.70 43.20 Brown sandy loam
Jul-00 19.30 19.10 21.70 39.90 Brown sandy loam
Aug-00 14.20 22.00 24.60 39.20 Brown sandy loam
Sep-00 15.60 18.50 22.70 43.20 Brown sandy loam
Oct-00 17.50 16.90 23.50 42.10 Brown sandy loam
Nov-00 15.10 17.10 18.60 49.20 Brown sandy loam
Dec-00 13.20 20.10 21.60 45.10 Brown sandy loam
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Table -17
Mechanical Fractions of Kadankulam Tank Soil fromNovember 1998 to December 2000
IMechanical Fraction (%)
Month TextureClay Silt Coarse sand Fine sand
Nov-98 38.50 5.10 27.30 29.10 Brown sandy clay
Dec-98 35.40 7.20 25.10 32.30 Brown sandy clay
Jan-99 32.90 7.50 41.20 18.40 Brown sandy clay
Feb-99 39.20 7.10 45.50 8.20 Brown sandy clay
Mar-99 37.50 6.70 44.60 11.20 Brown sandy clay
Apr-99 36.20 7.80 41.20 14.80 Brown sandy clay
May-99 37.50 7.30 40.20 15.00 Brown sandy clay
Jun-99 32.70 7.50 39.70 20.10 Brown sandy clay
Jul-99 34.00 7.50 40.60 17.90 Brown sandy clay
Aug-99 35.40 9.30 43.20 12.10 Brown sandy clay
Sep-99 36.20 9.20 39.20 15.40 Brown sandy clay
Oct-99 35.60 9.30 38.60 16.50 Brown sandy clay
Nov-99 34.70 6.90 40.20 18.20 Brown sandy clay
Dec-99 35.80 6.60 41.50 16.10 Brown sandy clay
Jan-00 33.70 7.90 42.60 15.80 Brown sandy clay
Feb-00 31.90 7.10 39.50 21.50 Brown sandy clay
Mar-00 33.70 5.90 39.80 20.60 Brown sandy clay
Apr-00 34.10 8.60 40.50 16.80 Brown sandy clay
May-00 32.70 7.70 32.50 27.10 Brown sandy clay
Jun-00 37.10 7.20 31.20 24.50 Brown sandy clay
Jul-00 37.20 5.30 41.20 16.30 Brown sandy clay
Aug-00 35.40 5.40 40.60 18.60 Brown sandy clay
Sep-00 33.50 6.60 42.30 17.60 Brown sandy clay
Oct-00 34.60 7.00 41.50 16.90 Brown sandy clay
Nov-00 31.80 6.80 40.80 20.60 Brown sandy clay
Dec-00 39.60 6.60 39.60 14.20 t Brown sandy clay
ME
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Table-19
Mechanical Fractions of Kadankulam Bank Soil fromNovember 1998 to December 2000
Mechanical Fraction (%)Month Texture
Clay Silt Coarse sand Fine sand
Nov-98 39.10 7.60 23.50 29.80 Brown sandy clay
Dec-98 33.50 6.50 27.60 32.40 Brown sandy clay
Jan-99 32.00 8.50 38.60 20.90 Brown sandy clay
Feb-99 31.50 8.30 44.50 15.70 Brown sandy clay
Mar-99 34.20 8.40 43.20 14.20 Brown sandy clay
Apr-99 35.40 8.00 39.50 17.10 Brown sandy clay
May-99 38.00 8.50 41.20 12.30 Brown sandy clay
Jun-99 33.80 8.60 38.40 19.20 Brown sandy clay
Jul-99 37.30 8.10 39.70 14.90 Brown sandy clay
Aug-99 37.60 8.10 40.50 13.80 Brown sandy clay
Sep-99 33.70 8.70 34.60 23.00 Brown sandy clay
Oct-99 36.90 6.70 37.20 19.20 Brown sandy clay
Nov-99 31.60 7.20 36.50 24.70 Brown sandy clay
Dec-99 37.50 7.10 37.60 17.80 Brown sandy clay
Jan-00 34.80 6.80 31.60 26.80 Brown sandy clay
Feb-00 33.50 7.00 38.60 20.90 Brown sandy clay
Mar-00 33.00 7.20 30.60 29.20 Brown sandy clay
Apr-00 32.60 6.80 38.60 22.00 Brown sandy clay
May-00 31.60 7.80 38.70 21.90 Brown sandy clay
Jun-00 31.30 6.60 33.40 28.70 Brown sandy clay
Jul-00 31.50 6.70 33.20 28.60 Brown sandy clay
Aug-00 33.20 7.20 35.40 24.20 Brown sandy clay
Sep-00 36.50 6.00 36.90 20.60 Brown sandy clay
Oct-00 35.00 7.20 33.90 23.90 Brown sandy clay
Nov-00 38.60 7.40 38.40 15.60 Brown sandy clay
Dec-00 35.20 8.40 37.50 18.90 Brown sandy clay
82
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83
Table - 21
Mechanical Fractions of Kadankulam Village Soil fromNovember 1998 to December 2000
Mechanical Fraction (%)Month Texture
Clay Silt Coarse sand Fine sand
Nov-98 20.20 16.90 28.10 34.80 Brown sandy loam
Dec-98 16.50 24.50 33.50 25.50 Brown sandy loam
Jan-99 18.60 24.10 33.20 24.10 Brown sandy loam
Feb-99 18.50 23.90 41.60 16.00 Brown sandy loam
Mar-99 16.50 28.90 42.50 12.10 Brown sandy loam
Apr-99 13.20 29.50 38.40 18.90 Brown sandy loam
May-99 15.60 29.60 39.60 15.20 Brown sandy loam
Jun-99 17.60 29.60 41.60 11.20 Brown sandy loam
Jul-99 18.10 28.60 41.20 12.10 Brown sandy loam
Aug-99 19.20 27.50 38.60 14.70 Brown sandy loam
Sep-99 16.10 28.70 36.50 18.70 Brown sandy loam
Oct-99 18.80 28.30 31.60 21.30 Brown sandy loam
Nov-99 13.70 26.80 j 33.20 26.30 Brown sandy loam
Dec-99 16.36 23.94 34.50 25.20 Brown sandy loam
Jan-00 17.90 24.40 41.20 16.50 Brown sandy loam
Feb-00 14.20 29.20 32.40 24.20 Brown sandy loam
Mar-00 13.80 29.30 41.20 15.70 Brown sandy loam
Apr-00 18.90 23.80 35.40 21.90 Brown sandy loam
May-00 15.80 28.60 39.50 16.10 Brown sandy loam
Jun-00 12.70 26.50 34.50 26.30 Brown sandy loam
Jul-00 20.60 17.00 34.50 27.90 Brown sandy loam
Aug-00 19.00 23.30 36.70 21.00 Brown sandy loam
Sep-00 17.00 27.60 37.20 18.20 Brown sandy loam
Oct-00 14.70 26.80 34.70 23.80 Brown sandy loam
Nov-00 14.10 27.30 36.50 22.10 Brown sandy loam
Dec-00 14.30 28.40 39.20 18.10 Brown sandy loam
84
Table - 22
Physico-chemical Characteristics of Agricultural Field Soil ofStations I, II and III
Kadankulam
8.4
0.24
0.45
0.9
PE
22.5
Physico-chemical characters -
pH
EC dsm-1
OC%
OM%
CaCO3 status -
CEC C.mol(+)kg-1 -
Available Nutrients (Kg/acre)
Nitrogen -
Phosphorus -
Potassium -
Nitrogen -
Micronutrients (ppm)
Zinc
Copper
Iron
ManganeseExchangeable cations C.mol(+)kg-1
Ca
Mg
Na
BSP
ESP
Ca:Mg Ratio
C:N Ratio
Sand Fraction
Coarse sand %
rFinesand%
TTota'1 sand %Clay %
Silt %
Textural class
Koonthakulam
5.2
0.07
0.78
1.56
NE
10.2
80
2
171
0.16%
1.03
2.89
32.2
7.29
2.75
2
0.51
51.6
1.4:1
88:1
46.7
18.5
65.2
29.2
5.6
Sandy clay loam
Kannankulam
6.6
0.08
0.47
0.94
NE
16.7
73
3.5
261
0.15%
0.49
2.06
12.8
12.6
10.5
3.5
0.22
0.64
89
1.3
3:01
13:1
29.5
7.7
37.2
49.2
13.6
Clay
66
I
294
0.13%
0.63
1.13
3.59
4.63
15.1
4
2.46
0.64
99.6
10.9
3.8:1
46:1
45.8
11.8
57.6
34.2
8.2
Sandy clay loam
85
Table - 23
Calcium: Magnesium of Three Stations fromNovember 1998 to December 2000
Month & Station I Station II Station IIIYear Tank Bank Village Tank Bank Village Tank Bank Village
Nov 1998 2:1.05 4.45:5.85 2.15:1.1 2:1.37 3.23:4.6 2.65:1.45 2.51.73 2.27:2.84 2.77:2.08
Dec 1998 2.11.1 3.03:4.03 2.21.25 2.1:1.93 3.3:4.57 1.35:1.23 1.91.16 2.3:2.51 3.27:1.75
Jan 1999 2.11.1 3:4 2.3:1.3 1.03:1.02 2.02:2.92 1.12:1.08 2.13:1.2 2.07:2.75 2.87:1.08
Feb 1999 2:1.15 3.06:4.37 2.11.55 1.7:2.1 3.67:5.03 1.14:1.24 3.17:1.57 1.11.09 4:1
Mar 1999. 2.11.25 3.23:4.37 2.45:1.4 1.11:1.2 2.16:2.7 1.88:2.15 3.42:1.33 2.86:2.09 4.05:1.08
Apr 1999 2.06:1.06 5.05:7.05 2.55:1.45 1.03:1.07 3.07:4.2 2.2:2.3 5.13:1.25 3.08:2.12 4.21.17
May 1999 2.11.06 3.3:4.87 2.61.35 1.04:1.23 2.15:2.88 2.18:2.63 4.42:1.27 3.12:1.54 6.83:1.33
Jun 1999 2.06:1.1 3.28:4.83 2.71.4 1.05:1.3 3.23:4.4 2.53:3.4 4.72:1.29 3.22:1.21 6.31.32
Jul 1999 2.37:1.37 3.27:5.03 2.65:1.45 1.43:2.15 2.04:2.7 2.15:2.45 3.29:1.07 3.12:1.24 5.79:1.34
Aug 1999 2.31.3 1.03:2.1 1.73:1 3.73:3.07 1.12:2.12 2.05:2.15 2.82:1.06 3.28:1.45 6.31:1.36
Sep 1999 3.5:2.6 1.09:2.09 2.03:1.06 3.1:2.63 1.25:2.1 3.23.07 3.13:1.08 3.88:1.26 6.26:1.43
Oct 1999 1.11.15 1.03:1.97 2.41.03 1.08:1.03 2.07:3.73 2.18:2.3 2.31.13 2.63:1.2 4:1.09
Nov 1999 1.06:1.18 2:3.48 2.91.35 1.03:1.09 2.17:3.6 1:1 1.88:1.18 2.3144 4.25:1.44
Dec 1999 2.06:3.27 2.13:3.5 2.1:0.97 3.07:2.5 2.63.83 2.03:2.4 1.95:1.16 1.03:1.07 2.11.05
Jan 2000 2:3.73 2.08:3.93 3.55:1.4 2.18:1.8 2.07:3.57 2.37:2.9 2.13:1.05 2.17:2.45 2.92:1.17
Feb 2000 1.1:2.52 2.18:3.3 3.25:1.25 1.09 61.04 2.43.2 2.17:2.63 2.57:1.22 1.14:1.05 3.73:1.07
Mar 2000 2.15:7.15 3:4.03 2.81.3 1.01:1.06 2.17:3.25 2.4:2.88 2.84:1.29 1:1 2.15:1.07
Apr 2000 1.13:2.63 1.01:2.53 2.05:1.35 3.23:2.6 2.17:2.83 1.03:1.11 3.19:1.29 1.14:1.04 3.38:1.13
May 2000 3.13:2.7 1:1.57 1.91.1 2.15:1.9 1.43:4.05 1:1 3.42:1.29 2.24:1.06 5.63:1.36
Jun 2000 2.03:2.44 2.43.27 3.65:1.25 2.4:2.3 1.06:1.07 2.03:1.88 4.85:1.29 3.21:1.21 5.79:1.33
Jul 2000 2.07:2.5 2.27:3.27 3.75:1.35 1.24:1.04 1:1 2.41.81 4.42:1.27 3.11:1.16 5.29:1.41
Aug 2000 1.97:1.23 1:2.16 1.81.07 1.88:2.04 3.83:2.55 2.41.89 4.11:1.32 2.91.19 3.77:1.02
Sep 2000 1.7:1.07 2.05:3.58 1.5:1 1.09:1.02 2.07:2.88 2.18:1.97 4.57:1.29 3.08:1.19 3.45:1.06
Oct 2000 2:1.25 3.24:4.17 2.35:1.4 2.8:2.05 2.23:2.5 2.73:2.32 4.77:1.35 3.45:1.24 3.28:1.09
Nov 2000 2.11.1 3:4 2.3:1.3 1.04:1.06 1.3:2.04 1:1 3.44:1.04 2.92:1.19 3.42:1.12
Dec 2000 2.17:3.23 2.05:3.5 3.05:1.48 3.1:2.43 1.38:2.14 2.05:2.38 2.84:1.05 2.59:1.12 3.12:1.2
86
Table -24
Organic Carbon: Nitrogen of Three Stations fromNovember 1998 to December 2000
Month & Station I Station II Station III
Year Tank Bank Village Tank Bank Village Tank Bank Village
Nov 1998 4:3 13:8 10:5 7:8 8:7 6:5 1:1 13:11 17:14
Dec 1998 13:19 15.2:8 10.5:5.5 2:3 7.57 11:10 3:4 4:5 7:12
Jan 1999 7:5 5.03:3 10:5.5 5:9 3:4 9:11 1:13 7:9 1:2
Feb 1999 6:5 13:8 15:5.5 5:9 3:4 1:11 3.21 2:7 1:14
Mar 1999 3:2 6.67:3 10:6 2:5 7:8 9:11 2.51 3:7 7:15
Apr 1999 3:2 10.5:5 10.5:6.5 3.31 7.2:8 8:11 2.51 2.15:1 1:12
May 1999 16:11 10:5 10:6.5 1.13 7.1:8 7:10 7:9 4:5 1:12
Jun 1999 4:3 9.5:5 10.5:6 1:3.5 3:4 7:10 2:3 1:2 17:12
Jul 1999 16:13 10.5:5 11:6 5:8 3:8 3:5 2:3 7:11 5:12
Aug 1999 17:13 10:5 10.5:6 7:8 2:4 5:11 7:9 6:11 7:12
Sep 1999 20.2:2.2 15.5:5 15.5:6 3:8 5:8 6:1 4:3 3:4 8:13
Oct 1999 20.6:2.2 17.5:5 15:5.5 3:8 3:4 7:11 13:10 3:2 7:13
Nov 1999 50:4 20:5 14:6 2:9 4:9 6:11 7:9 1:3 8:13
Dec 1999 40:3 15.5:5 13.5:5.5 3:8 3:4 9:11 4:5 6:11 7:12
Jan 2000 16.29:1.9 10..5:5 12.5:5.5 2:4 7:8 6:11 7:10 3:5 5:13
Feb 2000 15.71:2 10.5:5.5 10.5:5.5 5:9 3:8 2:5 7:9 5:12 6:13
Mar 2000 9:13 5:4 10.5:6 1:8 1:4 3:11 1:10 4:11 1:6
Apr 2000 8:13 6.5:6 1:6 1:4 1:2 3:5 3:10 5:11 2:13
May 2000 5.66:1 6.5:6 9.5:5 1:9 5:8 7:13 3:13 1:4 4:13
Jun 2000 4.33:1 6:5.5 8.5:5 3:8 1:2 6:11 2:3 5:12 4:13
Jul 2000 4.42:1 6.5:5.5 8:5 2:9 1:2 7:12 4:3 5:4 8:7
Aug 2000 18:13 10.5:5E
16:6.5
1:3 5:9 1:2 5:3 17:11 6:5
Sep 2000 8.8:1 14.5:5 2:5 1:3 1:2 9:8 7:11 2:5
Oct 2000 7:5 8:3 13.5:6 3:1 7:9 1:2 2:3 5:11 1:2
Nov 2000 7:5 5.03:3 10:5.5 2:5 1:3 7:11 3:10 2:5 5:14
Dec 2000 13.11 2.91 14:55 5:9 7:8 6:11 3:5 7:10 5-14
Table - 25
Total Sand Percentage of the Three Stations fromNovember 1998 to December 2000
Station I Station II Station IIIMonth & Year
Tank Bank Village Tank Bank Village Tank Bank Village
Nov 1998 60.00 67.70 60.00 55.50 45.20 55.80 56.40 53.30 62.90
Dec 1998 63.00 70.90 60.00 52.80 50.85 58.90 57.40 60.00 59.00
Jan 1999 67.00 68.00 61.60 60.80 53.60 49.90 59.60 59.50 57.30
Feb 1999 68.00 68.00 60.70 56.60 53.50 59.80 53.70 60.20 57.60
Mar 1999 60.30 68.30 60.80 55.00 64.90 67.60 55.80 57.40 54.60
Apr 1999 64.90 69.10 69.70 52.70 57.70 68.10 56.00 56.60 57.30
May 1999 67.10 70.10 71.00 51.90 71.20 68.00 55.20 53.50 54.80
Jun 1999 68.50 70.00 69.30 52.70 65.50 67.20 59.80 57.60 52.80
Jul 1999 67.70 70.30 69.30 56.90 62.50 62.60 58.50 54.60 53.30
Aug 1999 64.20 70.40 68.90 52.80 65.50 66.10 55.30 54.30 53.30
Sep 1999 65.40 67.72 70.13 59.00 61.00 65.90 54.60 57.60 55.20
Oct 1999 66.22 68.76 70.85 55.90 58.60 60.70 55.10 56.40 52.90
Nov 1999 65.90 67.11 69.76 60.10 59.40 63.40 58.40 61.20 59.50
Dec 1999 75.53 70.21 69.61 60.80 68.00 65.90 57.60 55.40 59.70
Jan 2000 73.17 60.23 72.61 58.80 70.00 63.30 58.40 58.40 57.70
Feb 2000 68.49 59.91 72.35 57.80 65.00 65.20 61.00 59.50 56.60
Mar 2000 73.40 69.66 71.01 60.40 66.70 68.30 60.40 59.80 56.90
Apr 2000 74.31 60.60 68.31 59.40 70.30 67.40 57.30 60.60 57.30
May 2000 67.40 62.41 70.16 59.60 65.20 62.70 59.60 60.60 55.60
Jun 2000 72.86 70.11 77.93 60.20 58.40 64.90 55.70 62.10 60.80
Jul 2000 70.80 69.91 78.85 58.20 69.00 61.60 57.50 61.80 62.40
Aug 2000 76.10 71.50 77.20 60.30 62.30 63.80 59.20 59.60 57.70
Sep 2000 74.40 71.70 79.30 1 59.70 67.20 65.90 59.90 57.50 55.40
Oct 2000 78.20 67.10 82.30 60.20 68.30 65.60 58.40 57.80 58.50
Nov 2000 76.90 68.00 62.00 58.00 65.00 67.80 61.40 54.00 58.60
Dec 2000 74.47 70.75 77.90 566.00 66.70 53.80 56.40 57.30
88
Table - 26
Bio-chemical Analysis of Birds Guano of Koonthakulam Bird Sanctuary
S. No. Parameters Studied
1. N 220.500 kg/ha 3.88%
2. P 255.750 kg/ha 0.66%
3. K 428.125 kg/ha 0.343%
4. Ca 260.520 mg/i 0.130%
5. Mg 97.386 mg/I 2.61%
6. Na 162.500 mg/i 0.975%
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