Chapter 19Part 1
The Agricultural Revolution
17th and 18th Centuries Peasants and artisans had the same
standard of living as they had in the Middle Ages
Most were hungry, lacked adequate housing and clothing
Little change in agricultural techniques since Middle Ages
Agriculture 17th & 18th Centuries
80% of population in Western Europe were farmers
Even higher percentage in Eastern Europe
The only exception: The Netherlands was more urban and mercantile than rural
Agricultural output Was very low compared to modern
standards The “Open Field System” was most
common method of farming
Failed harvests once or twice a decade
People were malnourished so more susceptible to disease
Science Was a branch of theology
Had no practical application to agriculture
…UNTIL AFTER THE SCIENTIFIC REVOLUTION
The Open Field System Common lands were open Strips of land for agriculture were
not divided by fences or hedges
Open fields were farmed as a community
Little change from one generation to the next
The Open Field System Soil exhaustion was a common
problem
1/3 to ½ of lands were allowed to lie fallow so the soil could recover
Villages maintained open meadows for hay and pasture
The Peasant Farmer Peasants were taxed heavily Serfs in Eastern Europe far worse
off than in the West
In the 18th Century: The Dutch, the English, and the French became leaders in the increased agriculture and trade that resulted from the population growth
The Agricultural Revolution Involved:
Increased Crop Production Increased agricultural and animal production
could feed more people New Methods of Cultivation
Crops were grown on wastelands and previously uncultivated common lands
Selective Breeding of Livestock Led to better cultivation (fertilizer) and
healthier animals
Science and technology was applied to
agriculture The Netherlands led the way Increased population (especially
urban growth) made improvements a necessity
Regional specialization: Certain areas for farming Certain areas for fishing and shipping Towns and cities for commerce and
banking
By mid-17th Century The Dutch had: Enclosed fields Rotated Crops Employed heavy use of manure for
fertilizer Planted a wide variety of crops
Free and capitalistic society = incentives for farmers to be productive
The Dutch Drainage: Much of Holland was
marshland covered by ocean waters
The Dutch became world leaders in reclaiming wetlands through drainage
Cornelius Vermuyden was the most famous of the Dutch engineers in drainage techniques
The English will do the same in southern marshlands
England Charles Townsend (aka Charles “Turnip”
Townsend): Was the English ambassador to the Netherlands
He brought Dutch innovations home to England:
Use nitrogen-rich crops (like turnips) to replenish soil so fallowing was not necessary
Drained marshlands in S. England Crop rotation Soil-replenishing crops used to feed
livestock
England Use of manure for fertilizer
Increased #’s of livestock (and additional crops for livestock) meant that all animals did not need to be slaughtered en masse prior to winter….Enough food to keep them alive through the cold months
Now more fresh meat available (less salting needed)
By 1740 many English aristocrats into new techniques
Jethro Tull Developed the Seed Drill Crops were
sown in straight lines instead of scattered by hand
One of the best examples of how the empiricism of the scientific revolution was applied to agriculture
Horses Were used for plowing Replaced the use of oxen
Horses much faster
The holdup was the development of a harness that would not choke the horses
Robert Bakewell Pioneered the selective breeding of
livestock
Larger and healthier animals were the result
Also, increased the availability of meat, wool, leather, soap, and candle tallow
More manure was available for fertilizing
New Foods From the Columbian Exchange: = diversity in diets Most Important: Potatoes and corn Both easy to grow and highly
nutritious
The Enclosure Movementin England
Remember the earlier Enclosure Movement in England (16th century)
Landlords fenced in their lands and raised sheep for wool instead of producing food.
Resulted in hardship for landless farmers who were thrown off of the land
Resulted in higher food prices
The Enclosure Movement of the 18th Century
This enclosure movement was based on agriculture
Landlords consolidated their scattered holdings into compact fields that were fenced
Common pasture lands were also enclosed
Ended the open field system
The Enclosure Movement of the 18th Century
Resulted in the commercialization of agriculture
Large Landowners invested in technology (machinery and new techniques and methods)
This also increased the # of large and middle-sized farms
Parliament Passed over 3,000 Enclosure Acts in
the late 18th and early 19th centuries that benefitted the large landowners
The Corn Laws (1816): High tariffs placed on foreign grain
Drove up the price of grain in England
The Corn Laws The Poor could not afford to buy
grain or bread
Probably the most notorious example of a law that benefitted the wealthy at the expense of the English peasantry
The Impact of the Enclosure Movement on
the Peasants Many peasants were forced off lands
that had once been common
Many had to move to towns or cities in search of work
Many found work in early factories or poorhouses
The Impact of the Enclosure movement on
the poor Many became even more
impoverished
Some survived by pursuing opportunities in cottage industries
Women had no way to raise farm animals on common lands for extra money
Women Were forced off of the land just like
men
Traditionally, women also farmed, raised animals, and supervised household functions
Economic opportunities decreased HUGELY for women as a result of the enclosure movement
Women Many families with daughters were
anxious to get them out of the house…one more mouth to feed
Young women increasingly went to towns or cities looking for domestic work (limited)
Many had to turn to prostitution…few other options
Families Who remained in the countryside often
supplemented their income through the cottage industries
Was sometimes called “putting out work”
Most common: spinning or weaving
Weaver: head of household, Women spun Sometimes needed more spinners…
spinsters
A New Social Hierarchy The Gentry: the large landowners
dominated the economy and politics
Strong and prosperous tenant farmers who rented land from the large landowners
Some peasants owned their own small plots of land
A huge number of peasants became wage earners on farms or in cottage industries
Peasants v Landowners
Game laws were passed preventing peasants from hunting on large landowners’ lands
Severe punishments for peasants caught hunting on another’s property
Traditionally… Historians believed that the
enclosure movement pushed thousands of peasants out of the countryside or resulted in abject poverty for those who remained
This is what Karl Marx believed
More recently Historians now believe that the
negative results of the enclosure movement were exaggerated
Many remained in the countryside working as prosperous tenant farmers, small landowners and wage earners
By 1750 50% of England’s farmland was
enclosed
1700: 2 landless laborers for every one self-sufficient farmer Little change in 1750
By late 17th and early 18th centuries all classes embraced the idea of enclosure in England
Enclosure Did not spread to the rest of Europe
to any noteworthy degree or very quickly
France: Enclosure was not national policy until 1760’s…even then, not widespread
Peasants in the provinces did not support it
Eastern Europe No fundamental change in
agriculture until the 19th Century
The Impact of the Agricultural Revolution
Led to Europe’s population explosion in the 18th century
Altered society in the countryside Common lands were enclosed Huge migration to cities The emergence of the cottage industry Lower food prices meant that folks were
free to buy other consumer goods
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