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PSYCHOLOGY(8th Edition)David Myers
PowerPoint SlidesAneeq Ahmad
Henderson State University
Worth Publishers, © 2006
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Psychological Disorders
Perspectives on Psychological Disorders Defining Psychological Disorders
Understanding Psychological Disorders
Classifying Psychological Disorders
Labeling Psychological Disorders
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Psychological Disorders
Anxiety Disorders Generalized Anxiety Disorder and
Panic Disorder
Phobias
Obsessive-Compulsive Disorders
Post-Traumatic Stress Disorders
Anxiety Disorder Explanation
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Psychological Disorders
Mood Disorders Major Depressive Disorders
Bipolar Disorder
Mood Disorder Explanation
Schizophrenia Symptoms of Schizophrenia
Subtypes of Schizophrenia
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Psychological Disorders
Schizophrenia Understanding Schizophrenia
Personality Disorders
Rates of Psychological Disorders
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Psychological Disorders
I felt the need to clean my room … spent four to five hour at it … At the time I loved it but then didn't want
to do it any more, but could not stop … The clothes hung … two fingers apart …I touched my bedroom
wall before leaving the house … I had constant anxiety … I thought I might be nuts.
Marc, diagnosed withobsessive-compulsive disorder
(from Summers, 1996)
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Psychological Disorders
People are fascinated by the exceptional, the unusual, and the abnormal. This fascination
may be caused by two reasons:
1. During various moments we feel, think, and act like an abnormal individual.
2. Psychological disorders may bring unexplained physical symptoms, irrational fears, and suicidal thoughts.
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Psychological Disorders
To study the abnormal is the best way of understanding the normal.
1. There are 450 million people suffering from psychological disorders (WHO, 2004).
2. Depression and schizophrenia exist in all cultures of the world.
William James (1842-1910)
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Defining Psychological Disorders
Mental health workers view psychological disorders as persistently harmful thoughts,
feelings, and actions.
When behavior is deviant, distressful, and dysfunctional psychiatrists and psychologists
label it as disordered (Comer, 2004).
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Deviant, Distressful & Dysfunctional
1. Deviant behavior (going naked) in one culture may be considered normal, while in others it may lead to arrest.
2. Deviant behavior must accompany distress.
3. If a behavior is dysfunctional it is clearly a disorder.
In the Wodaabe tribe men wear costumes to attract
women. In Western society this would be considered
abnormal.
Carol B
eckwit h
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Understanding Psychological Disorders
Ancient Treatments of psychological disorders include trephination, exorcism, being caged like
animals, being beaten, burned, castrated, mutilated, or transfused with animal’s blood.
Trephination (boring holes in the skull to remove evil forces)
John W. V
eran o
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Medical Perspective
Philippe Pinel (1745-1826) from France, insisted that madness was not due to demonic possession,
but an ailment of the mind.
Dance in the madhouse.
George W
esley Bellow
s , Dancer in a M
adhouse, 1907. © 1997 T
he Art Institute of C
hicago
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Medical Model
When physicians discovered that syphilis led to mental disorders, they started using medical models
to review the physical causes of these disorders.
1. Etiology: Cause and development of the disorder.
2. Diagnosis: Identifying (symptoms) and distinguishing one disease from another.
3. Treatment: Treating a disorder in a psychiatric hospital.
4. Prognosis: Forecast about the disorder.
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Biopsychosocial Perspective
Assumes that biological, socio-cultural, and psychological factors combine and interact to
produce psychological disorders.
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Classifying Psychological Disorders
The American Psychiatric Association rendered a Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental
Disorders (DSM) to describe psychological disorders.
The most recent edition, DSM-IV-TR (Text Revision, 2000), describes 400 psychological
disorders compared to 60 in the 1950s.
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Multiaxial Classification
Are Psychosocial or Environmental Problems (school or housing issues) also present?Axis IV
What is the Global Assessment of the person’s functioning?Axis V
Is a General Medical Condition (diabetes, hypertension or arthritis etc) also present?Axis III
Is a Personality Disorder or Mental Retardation present?Axis II
Is a Clinical Syndrome (cognitive, anxiety, mood disorders [16 syndromes]) present?Axis I
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Goals of DSM
1. Describe (400) disorders.2. Determine how prevalent the
disorder is.
Disorders outlined by DSM-IV are reliable. Therefore, diagnoses by different professionals are similar.
Others criticize DSM-IV for “putting any kind of behavior within the compass of psychiatry.”
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Labeling Psychological Disorders
1. Critics of the DSM-IV argue that labels may stigmatize individuals.
Asylum baseball team (labeling)
Elizabeth E
ckert , Middletow
n, NY
. From
L. G
a mw
ell and N
. Tom
es, Madness in A
me rica, 1995. C
ornell University P
ress.
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Labeling Psychological Disorders
2. Labels may be helpful for healthcare professionals when communicating with one another and establishing therapy.
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Labeling Psychological Disorders
3. “Insanity” labels raise moral and ethical questions about how society should treat people who have disorders and have committed crimes.
Theodore Kaczynski(Unabomber)
Elaine T
homps on/ A
P P
hoto
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Anxiety Disorders
Feelings of excessive apprehension and anxiety.
1. Generalized anxiety disorders2. Phobias3. Panic disorders4. Obsessive-compulsive disorders
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Generalized Anxiety Disorder
1. Persistent and uncontrollable tenseness and apprehension.
2. Autonomic arousal.3. Inability to identify or avoid the cause of
certain feelings.
Symptoms
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Panic Disorder
Minute-long episodes of intense dread which may include feelings of terror, chest pains, choking, or other frightening sensations.
Anxiety is a component of both disorders. It occurs more in the panic disorder, making
people avoid situations that cause it.
Symptoms
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Phobia
Marked by a persistent and irrational fear of an object or situation that disrupts behavior.
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Kinds of Phobias
Phobia of blood.Hemophobia
Phobia of closed spaces.Claustrophobia
Phobia of heights.Acrophobia
Phobia of open places.Agoraphobia
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Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder
Persistence of unwanted thoughts (obsessions) and urges to engage in senseless rituals
(compulsions) that cause distress.
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A PET scan of the brain of a person with
Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder (OCD). High metabolic activity (red) in the frontal lobe areas
are involved with directing attention.
Brain Imaging
Brain image of an OCD
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Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder
Four or more weeks of the following symptoms constitute post-traumatic stress disorder
(PTSD):
1. Haunting memories2. Nightmares3. Social withdrawal4. Jumpy anxiety
5. Sleep problems
Bettm
ann/ Cor bis
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Resilience to PTSD
Only about 10% of women and 20% of men react to traumatic situations and develop PTSD.
Holocaust survivors show remarkable resilience against traumatic situations.
All major religions of the world suggest that surviving a trauma leads to the growth of an
individual.
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Explaining Anxiety Disorders
Freud suggested that we repress our painful and intolerable ideas, feelings, and thoughts,
resulting in anxiety.
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The Learning Perspective
Learning theorists suggest that fear
conditioning leads to anxiety. This anxiety
then becomes associated with other objects or
events (stimulus generalization) and is
reinforced.
John Coletti/ S tock, B
oston
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The Learning Perspective
Investigators believe that fear responses are inculcated through observational learning.
Young monkeys develop fear when they watch other monkeys who are afraid of snakes.
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The Biological Perspective
Natural Selection has led our ancestors to learn to fear snakes, spiders, and other animals.
Therefore, fear preserves the species.
Twin studies suggest that our genes may be partly responsible for developing fears and
anxiety. Twins are more likely to share phobias.
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The Biological Perspective
Generalized anxiety, panic attacks, and even
OCD are linked with brain circuits like the
anterior cingulate cortex.
Anterior Cingulate Cortexof an OCD patient.
S. Ursu, V
.A. Sten ger, M
.K. Shear, M
.R. Jones, &
C.S . C
arter (2003). Overactive action
monitoring in obs essive-com
pulsive disorder. Psychological Sci ence, 14, 347-353.
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Dissociative Disorder
Conscious awareness becomes separated (dissociated) from previous memories,
thoughts, and feelings.
Symptoms
1. Having a sense of being unreal.2. Being separated from the body.3. Watching yourself as if in a movie.
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Dissociative Identity Disorder (DID)
Is a disorder in which a person exhibits two or more distinct and alternating personalities,
formerly called multiple personality disorder.
Chris Sizemore (DID)
Lois B
ernstein / Gam
ma L
iaso n
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DID Critics
Critics argue that the diagnosis of DID increased in the late 20th century. DID has
not been found in other countries.
Critics’ Arguments
1. Role-playing by people open to a therapist’s suggestion.
2. Learned response that reinforces reductions in anxiety.
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Mood Disorders
Emotional extremes of mood disorders come in two principal forms.
1. Major depressive disorder2. Bipolar disorder
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Major Depressive Disorder
Depression is the “common cold” of psychological disorders. In a year, 5.8% of men
and 9.5% of women report depression worldwide (WHO, 2002).
Chronic shortness of breath
Gasping for air after a hard run
Major Depressive DisorderBlue mood
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Major Depressive Disorder
Major depressive disorder occurs when signs of depression last two weeks or more and are not
caused by drugs or medical conditions.
1. Lethargy and fatigue2. Feelings of worthlessness3. Loss of interest in family & friends4. Loss of interest in activities
Signs include:
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Dysthymic Disorder
Dysthymic disorder lies between a blue mood and major depressive disorder. It is a disorder characterized by daily depression lasting two
years or more.
Major DepressiveDisorder
Blue Mood
DysthymicDisorder
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Bipolar Disorder
Formerly called manic-depressive disorder. An alternation between depression and mania
signals bipolar disorder.
Multiple ideasHyperactive
Desire for action
Euphoria
Elation
Manic Symptoms
Slowness of thoughtTired
Inability to make decisions
Withdrawn
Gloomy
Depressive Symptoms
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Bipolar Disorder
Many great writers, poets, and composers suffered from bipolar disorder. During their
manic phase creativity surged, but not during their depressed phase.
Whitman Wolfe Clemens Hemingway
Bettm
ann/ Corb is
George C
. Beresfo rd/ H
ulton Getty P ictures L
ibrary
The G
ranger Co llection
Earl T
heissen/ Hulton G
etty Pic tures L
ibrary
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Explaining Mood Disorders
Since depression is so prevalent worldwide, investigators want to develop a theory of
depression that will suggest ways to treat it.
Lewinsohn et al., (1985, 1995) note that a theory of depression should explain the following:
1. Behavioral and cognitive changes2. Common causes of depression
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Theory of Depression
4. Depressive episodes self-terminate.5. Depression is increasing, especially in
the teens.
Post-partum depression
Desiree N
avar ro/ Getty Im
ag es
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Suicide
The most severe form of behavioral response to depression is suicide. Each year some 1 million
people commit suicide worldwide.
1. National differences2. Racial differences3. Gender differences4. Age differences5. Other differences
Suicide Statistics
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Biological Perspective
Genetic Influences: Mood disorders run in families. The rate of depression is higher in identical (50%) than fraternal twins (20%).
Linkage analysis and association studies link
possible genes and dispositions for depression.
Jerry Irwin P
ho tography
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Neurotransmitters & Depression
Post-synapticNeuron
Pre-synapticNeuron
Norepinephrine Serotonin
A reduction of norepinephrine and serotonin has been
found in depression.
Drugs that alleviate mania reduce
norepinephrine.
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The Depressed Brain
PET scans show that brain energy consumption rises and falls with manic and depressive
episodes.
Courtesy of L
ewis B
axter an Mi chael E
. P
helps, UC
LA
School of M
edic ine
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Social-Cognitive Perspective
The social-cognitive perspective suggests that depression arises partly from self-defeating
beliefs and negative explanatory styles.
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Depression Cycle
1. Negative stressful events.2. Pessimistic explanatory
style.3. Hopeless depressed state.4. These hamper the way the
individual thinks and acts, fueling personal rejection.
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Schizophrenia
If depression is the common cold of psychological disorders, schizophrenia is the
cancer.
Nearly 1 in a 100 suffer from schizophrenia, and throughout the world over 24 million people
suffer from this disease (WHO, 2002).
Schizophrenia strikes young people as they mature into adults. It affects men and women equally, but men suffer from it more severely
than women.
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Symptoms of SchizophreniaThe literal translation is “split mind.” A group
of severe disorders characterized by the following:
1. Disorganized and delusional thinking.
2. Disturbed perceptions. 3. Inappropriate emotions and
actions.
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Other forms of delusions include, delusions of persecution (“someone is following me”) or
grandeur (“I am a king”).
Disorganized & Delusional Thinking
This morning when I was at Hillside [Hospital], I was making a movie. I was surrounded by movie stars … I’m Marry Poppins. Is this room painted blue to get me upset? My grandmother died four weeks after my eighteenth birthday.”
(Sheehan, 1982)
This monologue illustrates fragmented, bizarre thinking with distorted beliefs called delusions
(“I’m Mary Poppins”).
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Disorganized & Delusional Thinking
Many psychologists believe disorganized thoughts occur because of selective attention
failure (fragmented and bizarre thoughts).
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Disturbed Perceptions
A schizophrenic person may perceive things that are not there (hallucinations). Frequently
such hallucinations are auditory and lesser visual, somatosensory, olfactory, or gustatory.
L. B
erthold, Untitled. T
he Prinzhorn Colle ction, U
niversity of Heidelberg
August N
atter, Witches H
ead. The P
rinzhorn Colle ction, U
niversity of Heidelberg
Photos of paintings by Krannert M
useum, U
nive rsity of Illinois at Urban a-C
hampaign
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Inappropriate Emotions & Actions
A schizophrenic person may laugh at the news of someone dying or show no emotion at all
(apathy).
Patients with schizophrenia may continually rub an arm, rock a chair, or remain motionless
for hours (catatonia).
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Subtypes of Schizophrenia
Schizophrenia is a cluster of disorders. These subtypes share some features, but there are
other symptoms that differentiate these subtypes.
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Positive and Negative Symptoms
Schizophrenics have inappropriate symptoms (hallucinations, disorganized thinking, deluded
ways) that are not present in normal individuals (positive symptoms).
Schizophrenics also have an absence of appropriate symptoms (apathy, expressionless faces, rigid bodies) that are present in normal
individuals (negative symptoms).
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Chronic and Acute Schizophrenia
When schizophrenia is slow to develop (chronic/process) recovery is doubtful. Such
schizophrenics usually display negative symptoms.
When schizophrenia rapidly develops (acute/reactive) recovery is better. Such
schizophrenics usually show positive symptoms.
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Understanding Schizophrenia
Schizophrenia is a disease of the brain exhibited by the symptoms of the mind.
Dopamine Overactivity: Researchers found that schizophrenic patients express higher levels of
dopamine D4 receptors in the brain.
Brain Abnormalities
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Abnormal Brain Activity
Brain scans show abnormal activity in the frontal cortex, thalamus, and amygdala of
schizophrenic patients. Adolescent schizophrenic patients also have brain lesions.
Paul Thom
pson an d Arthur W
. Toga , U
CL
A L
aborato ry of Neuro
Imaging and Judit h L
. Rapport, N
at ional Institute of Mental H
ealth
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Abnormal Brain Morphology
Schizophrenia patients may exhibit morphological changes in the brain like
enlargement of fluid-filled ventricles.
Both Photos: C
ourtes y of Daniel R
. Wein berger, M
.D., N
IH-N
IMH
/ NSC
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Viral Infection
Schizophrenia has also been observed in individuals who contracted a viral infection
(flu) during the middle of their fetal development.
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Genetic Factors
The likelihood of an individual suffering from schizophrenia is 50% if their identical twin has
the disease (Gottesman, 1991).
0 10 20 30 40 50Identical
Both parents
Fraternal
One parent
Sibling
Nephew or niece
Unrelated
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Genetic Factors
The following shows the prevalence of schizophrenia in identical twins as seen in
different countries.
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Psychological Factors
Psychological and environmental factors can trigger schizophrenia if the individual is
genetically predisposed (Nicols & Gottesman, 1983).
Genain Sisters
The genetically identical Genain
sisters suffer from schizophrenia. Two more than
others, thus there are contributing environmental
factors.
Courtesy of G
en ain Fam
ily
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Warning Signs
Early warning signs of schizophrenia include:
Birth complications, oxygen deprivation and low-birth weight.
2.
Short attention span and poor muscle coordination.
3.
Poor peer relations and solo play.6.
Emotional unpredictability.5.
Disruptive and withdrawn behavior.4.
A mother’s long lasting schizophrenia.1.
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Personality Disorders
Personality disorders are characterized by
inflexible and enduring behavior
patterns that impair social functioning. They are usually without anxiety, depression, or
delusions.
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Antisocial Personality Disorder
A disorder in which the person (usually men) exhibits a lack of conscience for wrongdoing, even
toward friends and family members. Formerly, this person was called a sociopath or psychopath.
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Understanding Antisocial Personality Disorder
Like mood disorders and schizophrenia,
antisocial personality disorder has biological
and psychological reasons. Youngsters, before committing a crime, respond with lower levels of stress
hormones than others do at their age.
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Understanding Antisocial Personality Disorder
PET scans of 41 murderers revealed reduced activity in the frontal lobes. In a follow-up study
repeat offenders had 11% less frontal lobe activity compared to normals (Raine et al., 1999; 2000).
Normal Murderer
Courtesy of A
d rian Raine,
University of S
outhern Califo rnia
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Understanding Antisocial Personality Disorder
The likelihood that one will commit a crime doubles when childhood poverty is compounded with
obstetrical complications (Raine et al., 1999; 2000).
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Rates of Psychological Disorders
The prevalence of psychological disorders during the previous year is shown below (WHO, 2004).
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