Chapter 14
Methods for Quality Improvement
Quality, Processes, and Systems
Quality of a good or service – the extent to which it satisfies user needs and preferences
8 Dimensions of Quality•Performance
•Features
•Reliability
•Conformance
•Durability
•Serviceability
•Aesthetics
•Other perceptions that influence judgment of quality
Quality, Processes, and Systems
Process – series of actions or operations
that transforms input into outputs over time
Quality, Processes, and Systems
System – collection of interacting processes
with an ongoing purpose
Quality, Processes, and Systems
Two important points about systems
1. No two items produced by a process are
the same
2. Variability is an inherent characteristic of
the output of all processes
Quality, Processes, and Systems
6 major sources of Process Variation
1. People
2. Machines
3. Materials
4. Methods
5. Measurement
6. Environment
Statistical Control
Control Charts – graphical
devices used for
•monitoring process variation
•Identifying when to take action to
improve the process
•Assisting in diagnosing the
causes of process variation
run chart, or time series
plot
Statistical Control
Run Chart enhanced
by
•Adding centerline
•Connecting plot
points in temporal
order
Enhancements aid
the eye in picking out
any patterns
Statistical Control
Output variable of interest can be described by a
probability distribution at any point in time.
Particular value of output variable at time t can be
thought of as being generated by these probability
distributions
The distribution may change over time, either the
mean, the variance or both.
Distribution of the process – distribution of the
output variable
Statistical Control
A process whose output distribution does not
change over time is said to be in statistical
control, or in control. Processes with changing
distributions are out of statistical control, or out
of control, or lacking stability.
Statistical Control
Patterns of Process Variation Patterns of Process Variation
– changing distributions
Statistical Control
The output of processes that are in
statistical control still have variability
associated with them, but there is no pattern
to this variability. It is random.
Statistical Control
Statistical Process Control – keeping a
process in statistical control or bringing a
process into statistical control through
monitoring and eliminating variation
Common Causes of variation – methods,
materials, machines, personnel and
environment that constitute a process and
the inputs required by the process
Statistical Control
Special Causes of Variation (Assignable Causes) – events or actions that are not part of the process design.
Processes in control still exhibit variation, from the common causes.
Processes out of control exhibit variation from both common causes and special causes of variation
Most processes are not naturally in a state of statistical control
Statistical Control
The Logic of Control Charts
Control charts are used to help differentiate between variation due to common and special causes
When a value falls outside the control limits, it is either a rare event or the process is out of control
Mean when process
is in control
The Logic of Control Charts
Hypothesis testing with
control charts:H0: Process is under
control
Ha: Process is out of
control
Another view:H0: = centerline
Ha: centerline
Ha here indicates that the
mean has shifted
The Logic of Control Charts
Control limits vs. Specification limits
Specification limits – set by customers,
management, product designers. Determined as
“acceptable values” for an output.
Control limits are dependent
on the process,
specification limits are not.
A Control Chart for Monitoring the
Mean of a Process: The x-Chart
- control chart
that plots sample means
•Often used in concert
with R-chart, which
monitors process
variation
•More sensitive to
changes in process
mean than a chart of
individual
measurements
x c h a r t
A Control Chart for Monitoring the
Mean of a Process: The x-Chart
To construct, you need 20 samples of a sample
size of at least 2.
where A2 is found in a Table of Control Chart Constants,
and R is the mean range of the samples
1 2 3 . . .:
kx x x xC e n te r l in e x
k
2:L o w er co n tro l l im it x A R
2:U p p er co n tro l l im it x A R
A Control Chart for Monitoring the
Mean of a Process: The x-Chart
Two important decisions in Constructing an x-chart
1.Determine sample size n
2.Determine the frequency with which samples are to be
drawn
Rational Subgroups – subgroups chosen with sample
size n and frequency to make it likely that process changes
will happen between rather than within samples
Rational Subgrouping strategy maximizes the chance for
measurements to be similar within each sample, and for
samples to differ from each other.
A Control Chart for Monitoring the
Mean of a Process: The x-Chart
Summary of x-chart Construction
1. Collect at least 20 samples with sample size n ≥ 2,
utilizing rational subgrouping strategy
2. Calculate mean and range for each sample
3. Calculate mean of sample means x and mean of
sample ranges R
4. Plot centerline and control limits
5. Plot the k sample means in the order that the samples
were produced by the process
A Control Chart for Monitoring the
Mean of a Process: The x-Chart
Constructing Zone Boundaries These zone
boundaries are used
in conjunction with
Pattern-Analysis rules
to help determine
when a process is out
of control
Using 3-sigma control limits
Upper A-B Boundary: 2
2
3x A R
Lower A-B Boundary: 2
2
3x A R
Upper B-C Boundary: 2
1
3x A R
Lower B-C Boundary: 2
1
3x A R
Using estimate standard deviation of x , 2R d
n
Upper A-B Boundary: 2
2R d
x
n
Lower A-B Boundary: 2
2R d
x
n
Upper B-C Boundary: 2
R dx
n
Lower B-C Boundary: 2
R dx
n
A Control Chart for Monitoring the
Mean of a Process: The x-Chart
Any of the 6 rules being broken suggests an out of control process
A Control Chart for Monitoring the
Variation of a Process: The R-Chart
R-chart used to detect changes in process
variation
R-chart plots and monitors the variation of
sample ranges
A Control Chart for Monitoring the
Variation of a Process: The R-Chart
To construct, you need 20 samples of a sample
size of at least 2.
where D3 and D4 are found in a Table of Control Chart
Constants. When n ≤ 6, there is only an upper control limit
1 2 3. . .
:k
R R R RC e n te r l in e R
k
3:L o w e r c o n tr o l l im i t R D
4:U p p e r c o n tr o l l im i t R D
A Control Chart for Monitoring the
Variation of a Process: The R-Chart
Summary of R-Chart Construction
1. Collect at least 20 samples with sample size n ≥ 2,
utilizing rational subgrouping strategy
2. Calculate the range for each sample
3. Calculate mean of sample ranges R
4. Plot centerline and control limits. When n ≤ 6, there is
only an upper control limit
5. Plot the k sample ranges in the order that the samples
were produced by the process
A Control Chart for Monitoring the Variation
of a Process: The R-Chart
Constructing Zone Boundaries
These zone boundaries are used in conjunction with
Pattern-Analysis rules 1-4 to help determine when a
process is out of control
Upper A-B Boundary: 3
2
2R
R dd
Lower A-B Boundary: 3
2
2R
R dd
Upper B-C Boundary: 3
2
RR d
d
Lower B-C Boundary: 3
2
RR d
d
Note: when n ≤ 6, the R-chart has no lower control limit, but boundaries
can still be plotted if non-negative
A Control Chart for Monitoring the Proportion of
Defectives Generated by a Process: The p-Chart
p-chart used to detect changes in process
proportion when output variable is
categorical
As long as process proportion remains
constant, process is in statistical control
A Control Chart for Monitoring the Proportion of
Defectives Generated by a Process: The p-Chart
Sample-Size determination
Choose n such that
where
n = Sample Size
p0 = an estimate of the process proportion p
0
0
9 1 pn
p
A Control Chart for Monitoring the Proportion of
Defectives Generated by a Process: The p-Chart
Calculations for p-chart Construction
N u m b e r o f d e fe c t iv e i te m s in sa m p lep
N u m b e r o f i te m s in sa m p le
:T o ta l n u m b e r o f d e fe c t iv e i te m s in a l l k s a m p le s
C e n te r l in e pT o ta l n u m b e r o f u n i ts in a l l k s a m p le s
1
: 3
p p
U p p e r c o n tr o l l im i t pn
1
: 3
p p
L o w e r c o n tr o l l im i t pn
A Control Chart for Monitoring the Proportion of
Defectives Generated by a Process: The p-Chart
Summary of p-Chart Construction
1. Collect at least 20 samples utilizing rational
subgrouping strategy and appropriate sample size
2. Calculate proportion of defective units for each sample
3. Plot centerline and control limits.
4. Plot the k sample proportions on the control chart in
the order the samples were produced by the process
A Control Chart for Monitoring the Proportion of
Defectives Generated by a Process: The p-Chart
Constructing Zone Boundaries
These zone boundaries are used in conjunction with
Pattern-Analysis rules 1-4 to help determine when a
process is out of control
Upper A-B Boundary: 1
2
p p
pn
Lower A-B Boundary: 1
2
p p
pn
Upper B-C Boundary: 1p p
pn
Lower B-C Boundary: 1p p
pn
Note: when LCL is negative it should not be plotted. Lower zone
boundaries can be plotted if non-negative
Diagnosing the Causes of Variation
If monitoring phase identifies that problems
exist, diagnosis is needed to determine what
the problems are.
Diagnosing the Causes of Variation
Cause-and-Effect diagrams used to assist in
process diagnosis
Basic Cause-and-Effect diagram:
Diagnosing the Causes of Variation
Cause-and-Effect diagram applied to specific problem:
Capability Analysis
Used when a process
is in statistical control,
but level of variation is
unacceptably high.
Capability Analysis
•A Capability Analysis diagram is used to assess process capability.
•This diagram builds on a frequency distribution of a large sample of individual measurements from the process by adding specification limits and target value
Capability Analysis
From this, 2 approaches
1. Report percentage of outcomes that fall
outside of specification limits
2. Construct a capability index Cp where
6p
S p e c i f i c a t io n s p r e a d U S L L S LC
P r o c e s s S p r e a d
Capability Analysis
Interpretation of CpIf Cp=1, (specification spread = process spread) process is capable
If Cp>1, (specification spread > process spread) process is capable
If Cp<1, (specification spread < process spread) process is not capable
If the process follows a normal distribution
Cp=1.00 means about 2.7 units per 1000 will be unacceptable
Cp=1.33 means about 63 units per million will be unacceptable
Cp=1.67 means about .6 units per million will be unacceptable
Cp=2.00 means about 2 units per billion will be unacceptable
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