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Page 1: Chapter 11: The French Revolution - Mr. Bednorz · The French Revolution > Revolution The French overthrow their absolute monarchy.Section 1 > Change The National Assembly establishes

Napoleon names himself Emperor of the French.

1804

The Bastille falls.

1789 Louis XVI becomes king.

1774

Treaty of Paris ends Seven Years’ War.

1763

Napoleon loses Battle of Waterloo.

1815

1820180017801760

11C h a p t e r

1700–1830

The FrenchRevolution

> Revolution The French overthrowtheir absolute monarchy. Section 1

> Change The National Assemblyestablishes a constitutional govern-ment. Section 2

> Conflict The new French Republicfaces enemies at home and abroad.Section 3

> Movement Napoleon becomesFrance’s emperor and conquersmuch of Europe. Section 4

> Reaction European leaders try toreestablish the old order. Section 5

SThetoryteller

In 1792 the violence of the French Revolution filled the

streets of Paris, where a young seamstress named Marie-Victoire

Monnard lived and worked. Walking back to her workshop

one afternoon, Marie-Victoire saw six large carts coming

toward her. The 13-year-old girl later wrote in her diary,

“The carts were full of men and women who had just been

slaughtered … legs and arms and heads nodded and dangled

on either side of the carts.”

The next year she wrote again about the carts, “People just

went on working in the shops when they passed by, often not

even bothering to raise their heads to watch or to turn their

backs to avoid the grisly sight.”

What happened during the French Revolution thatallowed people to become accustomed to the bloodied bod-ies? How did the French Revolution alter society in Europe?What lasting effects did it have on the rest of the world?

Historical Significance

334

Chapter Themes

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Your History Journal

Chapter 11 The French Revolution 335

Assault on the Bastille, (artist unknown)Musée National du Chateau de Versailles, Versailles, FranceArt&

History

Imagine living through the tumul-tuous events of the French Revolution.Choose a point of view represented by oneof the following: a Catholic bishop, alanded aristocrat, a wealthy merchant, apoor artisan, or a peasant. From yourchosen viewpoint, describe your reactionsto three major events of the times as youread the chapter.

Chapter Overview

Visit the World History: The Modern Era Web site at worldhistory.me.glencoe.com and click on Chapter 11—Chapter Overview to preview the chapter.

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At its height, the absolute monarchy inFrance controlled the richest andpossibly the most powerful state in

Europe. The French aristocracy set European trendsin literature, clothing, art, and ideas for change. Yetthe majority of the people did not share the wealthor privileges of the aristocracy. Working men andwomen who had few rights yearned for a betterway of life. The success of the American Revolutionfueled their desire for change.

French Society DividedThe source of the unhappiness lay within

France’s class system, which fostered great inequal-ities among the French people. All French peoplebelonged to one of three estates, or orders of soci-ety. The estates determined a person’s legal rightsand status. The Catholic clergy formed the FirstEstate. The nobility formed the Second Estate.Everyone else, 97 percent of the French people,made up the Third Estate.

Members of the Third Estate deeply resentedthe privileges that members of the First and SecondEstates enjoyed. For example, neither the FirstEstate nor the Second Estate was required to paytaxes. The nobility received high positions in theChurch, in the government, and in the army, andthey could also hunt and carry swords. Third Estatemembers enjoyed none of these social and politicalprivileges. No matter how successful and well-edu-cated Third Estate members became, they werealways excluded from the First and SecondEstates—simply because of the families into whichthey were born.

The First EstateThe First Estate consisted of Roman Catholic

clergy and made up about 1 percent of the popula-tion. The First Estate comprised two groups: thehigher clergy and the lower clergy.

336 Chapter 11 The French Revolution

> Terms to Defineestate, tithe, bourgeoisie

> People to MeetLouis XVI, Marie Antoinette

> Places to LocateVersailles, Paris, the Bastille

Louis XVI becomes king of France.

1774 Great Fearbreaks out.

1789 Banks refuseto lend money to the government.

1786

1770 1780 18001790

Fear tightened young Claudette Leroux’sthroat as she waited for the questioning. She couldnot deny that she was smuggling salt. She couldonly explain that the gabelle—the tax on salt—made the cost ten times what it should be. Frenchpeasants simply could not afford the FarmersGeneral’s prices. She wondered who gave thesecorrupt officials the power to store, inspect, tax,register, and force people to buy their salt. Did

anyone understand the peasants’plight?

—adapted from Citizens: AChronicle of the FrenchRevolution, SimonSchama, 1989

S e c t i o n 1

The Old Order

Peasant woman’s burden

Read to Find Out Main Idea France’s class system was acause of the French Revolution.

SThetoryteller

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Bishops and abbots, noblemen by birth, madeup the higher clergy. These powerful men con-trolled between 5 and 10 percent of the land inFrance and enjoyed many privileges. At their dis-posal were the revenues from their land as well asa tithe, or a 10 percent tax on income, from eachchurch member. Although this money was used tosupport schools, aid poor people, and maintainchurch property, it also paid for the grand lifestylesthe higher clergy enjoyed, often at the expense oftheir religious duties.

The lower clergy, made up of parish priests,came from poorer backgrounds and were sociallymore a part of the Third Estate. Many lower clergymembers who carried out religious duties, ranschools, and cared for the poor resented the luxuri-ous lifestyles of the higher clergy.

The Second EstateThe nobility, the Second Estate, formed about 2

percent of the population and owned about 25 per-cent of the land in France. Like the upper clergy, themembers of the Second Estate enjoyed many privi-leges and lived in great style.

The nobility held high posts in the governmentand the military. Some resided in the palace atVersailles. Others lived in lavish homes on inherit-ed land, some of which they rented to peasants tofarm. The Second Estate’s main income came fromthe feudal dues they collected from the peasantswho lived on and worked their land.

The Third EstateThe Third Estate made up the largest social

group in France during the late 1700s. Peasants andartisans, as well as members of the bourgeoisie(BURZH•WAH•ZEE), or middle class, belonged tothe Third Estate. Yet they had very few politicalrights or privileges.

The doctors, lawyers, merchants, and businessmanagers of the bourgeoisie generally lived in thetowns and cities. Educated and well-to-do, theyhad read Enlightenment works and believed infreedom and social justice.

Other members of the Third Estate, such asthousands of poor artisans and their families, alsolived in the cities. Artisans worked for low wagesand in poor working conditions. Many lived in theslums of Paris.

The peasants, the Third Estate’s largest group,lived in rural areas. Although they owned 40 percentof the land, they were very poor because of the pay-ments they had to make to the other estates. Thesepayments included a tithe to the clergy; feudal duesand fines to the nobles; and a land tax to the king.Although members of the Third Estate workedhard, they had no effective voice in the government.

Growing UnrestUnhappy with this unfair social structure, the

people of the Third Estate began to call for change.An Englishman traveling in France saw this grow-ing unrest reflected in a conversation he had with apeasant woman:

Walking up a long hill … I was joined bya poor woman who complained of thetimes, and that it was a sad country; …she said her husband had but a morsel ofland, one cow, and a poor little horse, yetthey had [42 lbs.] of wheat and threechickens to pay as rent to one [lord], and[4 lbs.] of oats, one chicken and 1s.[shilling] to pay to another, besides veryheavy tailles and other taxes.

—Arthur Young, from Travels, 1789

Chapter 11 The French Revolution 337

The City and Port ofTolone (Toulon) by

Joseph Vernet. The Louvre,Paris, France The bourgeoisie inFrench cities enjoyed wealth andleisure, but few political rights.Where had they learned about free-dom and social justice?

Art&History

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As a growing population put increasingdemands on resources, and the cost of living inFrance increased, the peasants’ anger rose. Noblesalso charged the peasants higher fees for the use ofsuch equipment as mills and wine presses.

At the same time, artisans in the cities facedhigher prices while their wages stayed the same.Although members of the bourgeoisie were pros-perous, they wanted more political power. Noblesresented the king’s absolute power and wanted toincrease their political influence in the government.

A growing financial crisis in government onlyadded to the country’s problems. The 1700s hadbegun with debts from Louis XIV’s wars. LouisXV’s extravagant court had enlarged this debt.

In 1774 Louis XVI, the 19-year-old grandson of Louis XV, took the throne. His wife, MarieAntoinette, was a year younger. In spite of his inex-perience, the young king recognized the growingfinancial crisis. Supporting the American Revo-lution had only increased his debt. After initiatinggovernment cost-cutting measures, Louis saw nooption other than taxing the nobility and the clergy.Both groups, however, refused to be taxed.

By 1786 banks began to refuse to lend money tothe ailing government. Crop failures caused breadshortages in 1788 and 1789. When the privilegedclasses refused to aid the government, Louis summoned the Estates-General to Versailles in May1789. Only in this way could he get additional taxes.

Calling the Estates TogetherThe Estates-General, which had not met since

1614, was made up of delegates representing eachestate. The king hoped that the gathering wouldagree to new taxes on the First and Second Estates.The nobles, however, intended to use the Estates-General to protect their privileges, weaken royalpower, and gain control of the government. Becauseeach estate in the Estates-General had a single vote,the nobles hoped that the First and Second Estatestogether could easily dominate the Third Estate.

Members of the Third Estate refused this plan.Claiming that they had more right to represent the

nation than either the clergy or the nobles, ThirdEstate delegates called for a joint meeting of thethree estates, with each delegate voting as an indi-vidual. The Third Estate was as large as the othertwo combined, and many reform-minded noblesand clergymen supported their views. A massmeeting would give the Third Estate a majorityvote. A clergy member who supported the ThirdEstate, the Abbé Sieyès (see•AY•YEHS), wrote:

Therefore, what is the Third Estate?Everything; but an everything shackledand oppressed. What would it be withoutthe privileged order? Everything, but aneverything free and flourishing. Nothingcan succeed without it, everything wouldbe infinitely better without the others.

The king, however, insisted that the estatesmeet separately. Refusing the king’s demands, therepresentatives of the Third Estate, most of whomwere members of the bourgeoisie, were eventuallylocked out of the Estates-General. They namedthemselves the National Assembly and gathered ata nearby indoor tennis court with deputies from theother estates who supported their cause. Here therepresentatives took an oath, known as the TennisCourt Oath, promising not to disband until theyhad written a constitution for France.

The king recognized the danger of letting theThird Estate alone draw up a constitution. Heordered the first two estates to join the Third Estatein the National Assembly. Fearing trouble, he alsocalled for troops to concentrate in areas around Paris.

A Call to RevoltIn the National Assembly, delegates voiced their

unhappiness with the rigid French social order andthe government. While the upper clergy and nobili-ty fought to keep their privileges, some members ofthe Third Estate called for complete social equality.Debates also raged on streets and in cafes.

The king added to the anxiety by gatheringmore troops in Versailles. Fearing that he plannedto dissolve the National Assembly and halt reforms,the citizens reacted. They focused their action on aParis prison called the Bastille (ba•STEEL).

The Fall of the BastilleTo many French people, the Bastille symbolized

the injustices of the monarchy. On July 14, 1789, ahuge mob surrounded the Bastille in an attempt to

338 Chapter 11 The French Revolution

Student Web Activity 11

Visit the World History: The Modern Era Web site at worldhistory.me.glencoe.com and click on Chapter 11—Student Web Activities for an activity relating to the French Revolution.

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steal weapons needed to defend the NationalAssembly. Tensions grew as the angry crowd triedto force its way into the fortress.

The prison commander finally lowered a draw-bridge. The mob, however, angrily pressed forwardinto the main courtyard. Armed with axes, theyfreed the 7 prisoners held in the Bastille. The sol-diers opened fire, killing 98 rioters. The prison com-mander and several soldiers were also killed as therioters took over the prison. This outbreak led to theformation of a revolutionary government in Paris.

Violence in the CountrysideThe storming of the Bastille released a wave of

violence throughout France called the Great Fear.When rumors spread wildly that nobles had hiredrobbers to kill peasants and seize their property, thepeasants armed themselves. No robbers came, butfear fanned the peasants’ anxiety into violence.Peasants drove some landlords off their property,broke into manor houses, robbed granaries, anddestroyed feudal records. The first wave of theFrench Revolution had struck.

Chapter 11 The French Revolution 339

The Oath of the Tennis Court, detail from a painting by L.C.A. Couder The National Assembly, locked out of the meeting hall for three

days, resumed their meeting at an indoor tennis court. What caused members tofear that the National Assembly would be dissolved by force?

Art&History

Main Idea1. Use a web diagram like the one

below to show the causes of theFrench Revolution.

Recall2. Define estate, tithe, bourgeoisie.3. Identify Louis XVI, Marie

Antoinette, National Assembly,Tennis Court Oath.

Critical Thinking4. Analyzing Information

July 14, Bastille Day, is celebratedin France like an independence

day. Why is it an importantnational event?

Understanding Themes5. Revolution When did events

in France, which started as aprotest by the people, becomea revolution? Give specific evidence to support your reasoning.

Causes of theFrench Revolution

SECTION 1 ASSESSMENT

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Sharp differences of political opinion disrupt-ed the Paris opera. At a performance of Iphigeniathe chorus sang “Let us honor our Queen.”Royalists applauded, but the opposing partybooed. Lainez, an actor who remarked that “everygood Frenchman should love the king and queen,”was thrown a laurel wreath. Two days later, therevolutionaries would not let Lainez act until hehad trampled that wreath underfoot.

—adapted from Blood Sisters, TheFrench Revolution in Women’s Memory,Marilyn Yalom, 1993

As violence swept the countryside, theNational Assembly worked to form anew government. This task was com-

plicated by power struggles among royalists, mod-erates, and radicals. Most royalists still favoredabsolute monarchy, but a growing number of mod-erates wanted the king to share power with a newlegislature. Their leader was the Marquis deLafayette, who had aided the colonists in theAmerican Revolution. A radical group, the ParisCommune, won control of Paris’s city governmentand pushed for an end to the monarchy.

End of the Old OrderPeasant unrest and urban violence finally

forced the National Assembly to make reforms. OnAugust 4, 1789, the nobles in that body voted to endtheir privileges. In a session lasting until 2 A.M.,deputies wept and cheered as the last remains offeudalism in France were destroyed. The noblesgave up feudal dues as well as their exemption fromtaxation. They also agreed that all male citizenscould hold government, army, or church office.

The Declaration of RightsWith the old order abolished, the deputies

turned to ensuring the equality of all citizens beforethe law. Inspired by the American Declaration ofIndependence and Constitution, as well as theEnglish Bill of Rights, the National Assembly com-posed the Declaration of the Rights of Man and ofthe Citizen in late August 1789. It is in the FrenchConstitution today.

The Declaration of Rights, which incorporatedthe ideas of Enlightenment writers Locke,Montesquieu, and Rousseau, stated that all peopleare equal before the law. It also guaranteed freedom

> Terms to Defineunicameral legislature, émigré

> People to MeetPope Pius VI

France declareswar on Austria.

1792 New Frenchconstitution is presented to the people.

1791 National Assembly adopts Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen.

1789

1788 1790 17941792

S e c t i o n 2

ConstitutionalGovernment

French social groups

Read to Find Out Main Idea The National Assembly adoptedmany political reforms for France.

SThetoryteller

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of speech, press, and religion, and protected againstarbitrary arrest and punishment.

The Declaration, however, did not grant equalrights to women. When the journalist Olympe deGouges and other women called for equality, revolu-tionary leaders rejected their demands. Women did,however, benefit from reforms that made divorceeasier and allowed them to inherit property.

March to VersaillesThe king refused to accept the new reforms

and the Declaration of Rights. This rejectionraised the fears of the citizens of Paris that hewould take action against the National Assembly.The people wanted Louis to move to Paris fromhis countryside palace in the town of Versailles toshow his support for the Assembly.

In October 1789 thousands of women demand-ing bread marched in the rain to the king’s palace inVersailles. Wielding sticks and pitchforks, the angrymob surrounded the palace, shouting for the kingand queen. As the cries grew louder and armedguards were not able to hold back the surgingcrowd, the king declared at last, “My friends, I willgo to Paris with my wife and children.”

That afternoon, women waving banners andloaves of bread on bayonets surrounded the king’scarriage as it drove from Versailles to Paris. In Paris,fervent anti-royalists watched the king, MarieAntoinette, and their two children. A few days laterthe National Assembly moved to Paris.

A New FranceWith the king and the National Assembly set-

tled in Paris, government affairs began to move for-ward again. The delegates could turn their atten-tion to political reforms.

Political ReformsOne problem faced by the National Assembly

was government financing. With the backing of aliberal bishop, Maurice de Talleyrand, theAssembly in 1790 voted to take and sell churchlands to pay off the huge government debt. Toweaken the power of the Catholic Church, it alsopassed the Civil Constitution of the Clergy, a mea-sure that placed the French Church under govern-ment control and turned the clergy into elected,salaried officials. The Civil Constitution created adeep rift between the Church and the Revolution.Pope Pius VI condemned the legislation, and manyclergy refused to accept it. Other opponents of theCivil Constitution were many conservative peas-ants in the provinces.

The Constitution of 1791In 1791 the National Assembly presented a new

constitution to the people. The constitution kept themonarchy but limited royal powers. It set up a uni-cameral legislature, or one-house assembly, whosemembers were to be chosen by voters. Althoughequal rights were declared for all, the suffrage, or

Chapter 11 The French Revolution 341

Louis XVIArrested at

Varennes (engraving) Afteran attempted escape inJune 1791, the royal familywas watched closely inParis. Why did revolutionaryleaders declare war onAustria?

HistoryVisualizing

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the right to vote, was limited to only males whopaid a minimum tax.

To the moderates, the Constitution of 1791 hadachieved their goals. It guaranteed basic rights andcreated a limited monarchy largely controlled bythe wealthy middle class and freed from the powerof the Church and the nobles. However, manyFrench people were not happy with theConstitution. For some, the reforms had gone toofar; for others, not far enough. Delegates in thenewly elected Legislative Assembly were seatedaccording to their political beliefs: the reactionaryroyalists on the right; the moderates in the center;and the radicals, who wanted a republic, on the left.Today political scientists use the terms right, center,and left to describe similar political positions.

As political groups became more divided,France entered one of the most tumultuous periods in its history. Disagreements led to unrestand violence. Many upper-class people feared thebreakdown of law and order.

Decline of the MonarchyLiving in Paris, Louis XVI and Marie Antoinette

were aware of the unrest. In June 1791 they decidedto flee to Austria, where the queen’s brother wasemperor. Disguised as ordinary people, the royalfamily left Paris in a carriage late at night.

A bystander recognized the king at a road stopin Varennes, a town east of Paris. Soldiers immedi-ately arrested the royal family, returning them toParis. A virtual prisoner, Louis reluctantly acceptedthe limited monarchy established by the NationalAssembly. The limited monarchy, though, had littlechance of success, for the people distrusted the kingand were leaning toward a republic.

As news of the revolt against the Frenchmonarchy spread, German and Austrian monarchsbegan to worry about the stability of their own gov-ernments. French émigrés (EH•mih•GRAY), nobleswho had fled France, hoped to restore Louis XVI tofull power. The émigrés tried to convince the lead-ers of these governments that their own rule wouldbe threatened unless they halted the revolution.

Meanwhile French revolutionary leaders, fear-ing that Austria would try to reinstate Louis,declared war on Austria in 1792. Austria was soonsupported by other monarchies, including Prussiaand Sardinia.

War threw France into total upheaval. InAugust 1792, Paris crowds attacked the king’spalace and killed many royal guards. Seeking pro-tection, the king and his family fled to theLegislative Assembly. There they were given nosafety; instead the radicals voted for their impris-onment. A month later, Paris mobs carried out the “September massacres,” killing imprisonednobles and priests accused of political crimes.Meanwhile, the radicals took over the Assemblyand called for a National Convention to create anew constitution. They also extended the vote to allmales, whether or not they owned property.

342 Chapter 11 The French Revolution

Main Idea1. Use a diagram like the one

below to list the politicalreforms adopted by the FrenchNational Assembly.

Recall2. Define unicameral legislature,

émigré.3. Identify the Declaration of

the Rights of Man and of the Citizen, Civil Constitution ofthe Clergy, Pope Pius VI.

Critical Thinking4. Analyzing Information

What type of government didFrench moderates and radicalseach want?

Understanding Themes5. Change How did the Civil

Constitution of the Clergy affectchurch-government relations?

Saint Domingue

Revolution inSaint Domingue

August 12, 1791The French National Assembly, supporting human rights, decided to give the vote to enslaved Africans and people of mixed race in the French colony of Saint Domingue (Haiti). When the planters on the island refused to comply, a major controversy broke out. Enslaved Africans rose in revolt against the plantation owners. Nearly 100,000 of the colony’shalf million enslavedpeople participated in the rebellion.

AROUND THE

Political Reforms of National Assembly

SECTION 2 ASSESSMENT

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Chapter 11 The French Revolution 343

In September 1792 the French revolution-ary leaders faced the result of their declaration of war on Austria and

Prussia. Prussian troops had taken the majorFrench fort of Verdun, and the road to Paris wasnow open for them. As fear gripped the country,Georges-Jacques Danton, a revolutionary orator,exclaimed: “All are burning with a desire to fight!We need boldness … and France will be saved.”

In response to Danton’s words, thousands ofvolunteers came forward to defend the revolution.A week later, thoughts of defeat vanished when theFrench army won an astonishing victory at Valmy,less than 100 miles (161 km) from Paris. The Frenchcommander later wrote in his diary:

Our soldiers were badly clothed, theyhad no straw to sleep on, no blankets,they sometimes went two days withoutbread. I never once saw them complain.…The tiredness and hardship they havesuffered have been rewarded. The enemyhas [yielded] to the season, misery, andillness. Its formidable army is in flight,its numbers halved….

—Commander Dumouriez, 1792

The victory at Valmy boosted the spirits of therevolutionaries. French forces had halted the pow-erful armies of Europe’s monarchs and had savedthe revolution for the time being.

The French RepublicAs cannons thundered at Valmy, the National

Convention met in Paris to create a new govern-ment for France. Shouts of “Long live the Nation!”echoed through the chamber as the delegates endedthe monarchy and made France a republic.

King Louis XVI is beheaded on the guillotine.

1793 The Directory comes to power in France.

1795 Napoleonhelps to overthrowthe Directory.

1799

1792 1794 17981796 1800

S e c t i o n 3

Dawn of a New Era

> Terms to Defineconscription, coup d’état

> People to MeetJacobins, Girondists, Napoleon Bonaparte

> Places to LocatePrussia, Valmy

Paul Lemieux was both excited and anxious.At age 16 he had just received a notice that hewould be one of the 3,000 young citizens to attend the new School of Mars. The Committee ofPublic Safety created the new school for learningand public military instruction. He read theCommittee’s report, “Loyalty to your own familiesmust end when the great family calls you. TheRepublic leaves to parents the guidance of yourfirst years, but as soon as your intelligence devel-

ops, it loudly pro-claims the right it hasover you. You areborn for the Republicand not to be the prideof family despotism orits victims.…” Paulwondered how thischoice would affect hislife.

—from The Era of theFrench Revolution,1789-1799, LeoGershoy, 1957

A sans-culotte

Read to Find Out Main Idea The French Revolution led towar between France and its neighbors.

SThetoryteller

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The National Convention met from 1792 to1795. Its members—who were all male and mostlylawyers, doctors, and other middle-class profes-sionals—passed into law a number of democraticreforms. The Convention wrote France’s firstdemocratic constitution. The constitution placedpolitical power in a single national legislaturebased on universal male suffrage, meaning thatevery man could vote, whether or not he ownedproperty. Convention members also replaced themonarchy’s confusing system of weights and mea-sures with the metric system still used throughoutthe world today.

The National Convention also adopted a newcalendar, naming September 22, 1792—the date ofthe republic’s creation—as the first day of the YearI of Liberty. The year was divided into months withsuch names as Nivôse (“the snowy month”),Germinal (“seed time”), and Thermidor (“the warmmonth”). Although this calendar did not last, it andthe other democratic reforms expressed the Frenchpeople’s hope that the republic would be the dawnof a new era of freedom.

Death of a KingBefore it could enter the republican era, the

Convention had to deal with the legacy of the past.Its first task was to decide Louis XVI’s fate. InNovember 1792 a large iron box holding Louis’ssecret correspondence with foreign monarchs wasfound in the royal palace. Although the letters pro-vided little evidence against Louis, the radicals suc-cessfully used them to discredit the royal family.

In December 1792 Louis was tried before theConvention and convicted of having ”conspiredagainst the liberty of the nation.“ In January 1793 hewas beheaded on the guillotine—a killing machinethe revolutionaries had adopted as a humanemeans of execution. As he faced execution, the kingreportedly said:

I forgive my enemies; I trust that my deathwill be for the happiness of my people,but I grieve for France and I fear that shemay suffer the anger of the Lord.

Parisian crowds joyously celebrated the king’sdeath. For them, it meant that there was no turningback; the republic would remain.

Toward the FutureIn the days that followed, republican enthusiasm

swept the country. Parisians were the most fervent.The sans-culottes—Paris’s shopkeepers, artisans, andworkers—saw themselves as heroes and heroinesand demanded respect from the upper classes.

Soon even wealthy Parisians addressed eachother as “citizen” or “citizeness” rather than “mis-ter” or “madame.” They rejected elaborate clothesand powdered wigs in favor of simple styles. Menwore long trousers instead of knee-length breeches(hence the name sans-culottes, meaning “withoutbreeches”); women wore long dresses in the style ofancient Rome.

While the nation celebrated the republic, debateover the revolution’s future erupted in theConvention. There, supporters of the sans-culottesand extreme radicals called the Jacobins (JA•kuh•

buhns) formed the Mountain, so called because itsmembers sat on high benches at the rear of the hall.Under leaders such as Maximilien Robespierre,Georges-Jacques Danton, and Jean-Paul Marat, theMountain saw itself as the defender of the revolutionand as the voice of the people.

Across the aisle was a group of moderatesknown as Girondists (juh•RAHN•dihsts), becausemany of them came from the Gironde, a region insouthwestern France. The Girondists felt that therevolution had gone far enough and wanted to

344 Chapter 11 The French Revolution

Marie Antoinette in the Park of Trianon byAntoine Vestier Because of her extrava-

gance, the people referred to the queen as “MadameDeficit.” How did Parisians show their feelings about elabo-rate clothes?

Art&History

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protect the wealthy middle class from radicalattacks. They organized support to resist the grow-ing strength of the Mountain in Paris.

Seated between these two rivals on the mainfloor was a group called the Plain. It was made upof undecided deputies who were a majority of theConvention. As the influence of the sans-culottesincreased during 1793, members of the Plain cameto support the Mountain. Together, they helpedmake the revolution more radical, more open toextreme and violent change.

Spreading the RevolutionMeanwhile, Europe’s monarchs viewed events

in France with horror. After Louis’s execution, theyfeared democratic revolutions could spread fromFrance and endanger their thrones and their lives.In January 1793 the monarchs of Great Britain, theNetherlands, Spain, and Sardinia joined those ofAustria and Prussia in an alliance against the revo-lutionary government of France.

French ExpansionAt the same time, France’s leaders were deter-

mined to overthrow royalty everywhere. Early in1793 Danton declared that “the kings in alliance tryto frighten us, [but] we hurl at their feet, as a gageof battle, the French king’s head.” He then calledupon French forces to expand France’s territories totheir natural frontiers: the Alps, the Pyrenees, theRhine River, and the Mediterranean Sea.

In response to this call, an army made up ofvolunteers poured outward from France, eager toseize the natural frontiers and to bring “liberty,equality, and fraternity” to Europe’s peoples.Although poorly trained, the French forces oftencaught the enemy off guard and won many battles.The enemy’s professional soldiers, however, sooninflicted on the French a string of defeats. Indespair, the French commander in chief abandonedhis troops and surrendered.

As French forces retreated, the NationalConvention took steps to repel the foreign invasion.It formed the Committee of Public Safety to directthe entire war effort. In the summer of 1793 theCommittee adopted conscription, or the draft, call-ing up all men between the ages of 18 and 45 formilitary service. It also called upon the skills andresources of all civilians, both men and women. TheCommittee turned the conflict into what has beencalled the world’s first “people’s war.”

The Revolution in CrisisWhile waging war, France’s revolutionaries

had to struggle with problems at home. A fiercecivil war raged in western France as royalist peas-ants revolted against the revolutionaries. Theywere angered by the drafting of their sons to fight awar they opposed. Mobs in French cities rioted toprotest rising food prices and food shortages.

Meanwhile, the government itself wasembroiled in a political crisis. The Girondistsaccused the Jacobins of seeking the favor of themob. The Jacobins responded by charging that theGirondists were secretly royalists. The Jacobins inthe Mountain won control of the Convention andarrested Girondist delegates.

In retaliation Girondist supporters rebelledagainst the Jacobins in the Convention. During theuprising Charlotte Corday, a loyal Girondist sup-porter, killed the Jacobin leader Marat and was sentto the guillotine.

Chapter 11 The French Revolution 345

Left Center Right

Open to minor change in policy

Favors maintaining the status quo

Favors a return to past policies

ReactionaryConservativeModerate

ChartChartStudyStudy

Spectrum of Political Opinion

Favors some change in policy

Liberal

Favors extreme change in policy

Radical

The Wax MuseumA young Swiss woman living in Paris immortalized

the revolution’s leaders by making wax models ofthem. She escaped to London, where she openeda museum—Madame Tussaud’s Exhibition—that isopen today.

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The Reign of TerrorOverwhelmed by enemies at home and abroad,

the Jacobins set out to crush all opposition withinFrance. This effort, known as the Reign of Terror,lasted from July 1793 to July 1794.

Crushing OppositionDuring the Terror, neighborhood watch com-

mittees hunted down suspected traitors and turnedthem over to the courts. Pressured by mobs, thecourts carried out swift trials and handed downharsh sentences. Innocent people often suffered—many of them sentenced because of false statementsmade by hostile neighbors. Among the victims ofthe Terror was Marie Antoinette, Louis XVI’s wife.Royalty and aristocrats, however, were only a few ofthose killed. Historians estimate that about 85 percent of the 40,000 people who died were probably commoners—merchants, laborers, andpeasants. The Committee of Public Safety ruledFrance, and Robespierre ruled the committee.

Republic of VirtueMeanwhile, the Jacobin-controlled Committee

of Public Safety went about setting up the “Republicof Virtue.” By this the Jacobins meant a democraticrepublic made up of good citizens. Toward this end,the Committee opened new schools and promotedthe idea of universal elementary education. In eco-nomic matters, it issued pamphlets to teach farmersagricultural skills and introduced temporary wageand price controls to halt inflation. In the area ofhuman rights, it abolished slavery in France’scolonies and encouraged religious toleration.

Radical revolutionaries, however, bitterlyopposed Catholicism because of its traditional linkswith monarchy and its claim to be the sole source of religious truth. They closed churches orturned them into “temples of reason.” Fearing afurther loss of support for the revolution amongbelievers, the Committee opposed these actions.Robespierre himself sponsored the worship of aSupreme Being in an effort to unite Catholics,deists, and nonbelievers.

of theof the

Revolutionary LifeAlthough the causes of the French Revolution

had existed for years, the events of 1789 sparked the beginning of the revolution.

After a failed harvest causedbread prices to increase, about6,000 Parisian women marchedon Versailles.

346

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End of the TerrorBy the spring of 1794, the French had taken the

offensive in the war. With the republic out of dan-ger, Danton and his supporters called for an end tothe Terror. Robespierre, however, accused them oftreason and had them sent to the guillotine. Fearingfor their own safety, other leaders then turnedagainst Robespierre and had him executed. The dayafter the execution, a Paris newspaper expressedthe relief that everyone felt: “We are all throwingourselves into each other’s arms.”

After Robespierre’s death, the Jacobins lost powerand the Terror came to an end. A reaction againstJacobin ideas began, and the wealthier middle classtook control of the Convention. Fashions changedas people rebelled against the “Republic of Virtue.”Once again, people wore knee breeches, luxuriousdresses, and wigs. Price controls were relaxed, andprices rose sharply, causing hardship for the poor.Riots broke out, but the leaderless lower classes wereeasily put down by the army. By mid-1794, manypeople even favored a restoration of the monarchy.

The DirectoryAfter Robespierre’s fall the Convention briefly

carried on as France’s government. In 1795 it wrote anew constitution. Universal male suffrage wasended; only citizens who owned property couldvote. This constitution, in effect, brought the govern-ment under the control of the wealthy middle class.The constitution also set up an executive council offive men called directors. The Directory, as the coun-cil was called, ruled with a two-house legislature.

Once in power the Directory faced many ene-mies. Despite the Terror, enough royalists remainedto threaten a takeover. Even more alarming was thegrowing discontent of the radical sans-culottes,angered by food shortages and rising prices. Duringits rule from 1795 to 1799, the Directory used thearmy to put down uprisings by both groups.

Meanwhile, the Directory made little effort toresolve a growing gap between the rich and thepoor people of France. It was having its own prob-lems: the revolutionary government was on the

REFLECTING ON THE TIMES

1. Why would these images cause Europeanmonarchs to react in horror?

2. How might peasants in neighboring Europeancountries react?

347

Symbols of the revolutioncarried the message of liberty,equality, and fraternity—ordeath.

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348 Chapter 11 The French Revolution

This dreaded machine, pictured here in eerie stillness, embodies the violence andupheaval of the French Revolution. Yet thisdevice used to chop off heads represents not

only the terror of the revolution but also its reforms.The guillotine was adopted as a more humane form ofcapital punishment, a civilized advance over hangingor the executioner’s ax. The swift, sharp blade was,according to its French inventor, Dr. Joseph-Ignace

Guillotin, “a cool breath on the back of the neck.”A saga of social and political upheaval, the French

Revolution transformed the people of France fromsubjects of an absolute monarch to citizens of anation. The revolution marked the beginning of themodern age in Europe. “It roused passions,” said 19th-century French writer Alexis de Tocqueville, that“revolutions had never before excited.” In France peo-ple still argue over its importance and meaning. �

Guillotine

PICTURING HISTORY

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. Sta

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brink of bankruptcy, and the directors were besetby financial and moral scandals in their personallives. As the Directory appeared more and moreinept, French people of all classes looked to thepower of the army to save France from ruin.

Napoleon Takes OverAs the Directory faced growing unpopularity

at home, the French army won victories in the con-tinuing war with the European monarchies. One ofthe many able French military leaders who attract-ed public attention was a young general namedNapoleon Bonaparte.

Napoleon’s Early FameDuring the French Revolution, Napoleon’s

great military skills won him quick promotion tothe rank of general. In 1795, at age 26, he crushed anuprising against the Directory. Napoleon placed hisartillery so that he cleared the streets of Paris “witha whiff of grapeshot.”

A year later Napoleon married Josephine deBeauharnais, a leader of Paris society. UsingJosephine’s connections, he won command of theFrench army that was fighting the Austrians inItaly. Upon arriving, Napoleon improved the sol-diers’ conditions and mustered their support.

Massing French forces at weak points on theenemy’s line, Napoleon defeated the Austrians andforced them to give France most of northern Italy.Napoleon, France’s leading general, was now readyto influence events at home.

Napoleon’s Bold MoveIn 1799 Napoleon seized his opportunity. For

more than a year, he had been fighting the Britishin Egypt, hoping to cut off Britain’s trade with theMiddle East and India. Napoleon won victories onland against Egyptian forces. However, the British

navy under Admiral Horatio Nelson destroyedthe French fleet that was located at a harbor eastof Alexandria. French forces were left strandedamong the Pyramids. Hearing of the troubledpolitical situation back home, Napoleon aban-doned his army in Egypt and returned to France.

Napoleon landed unannounced on theFrench Mediterranean coast in October 1799. Hewas greeted in Paris by cheering crowds. Quickly,Napoleon joined leaders in a coup d’état, or aquick seizure of power, against the Directory.

Chapter 11 The French Revolution 349

Main Idea1. Use a diagram like the one

below to show how the FrenchRevolution led to war betweenFrance and its neighbors.

Recall2. Define conscription, coup d’état.3. Identify Jacobins, Girondists,

Reign of Terror, NapoleonBonaparte.

Critical Thinking4. Applying Knowledge

Describe how one revolu-tionary leader succeeded—

or failed—in carrying out theideals of “liberty, equality, andfraternity.”

Understanding Themes5. Conflict What conditions led

to the Reign of Terror? Whydid the French revolutionariesuse such violent and drasticmeasures?

Napoleon Crossing the Great St. Bernard by Jacques-Louis David. Chateau de

Malmaison, Ruiel-Malmaison, France Known for hisclassical style, David was the leading artist of theFrench Revolution. How does David portray Napoleon?

Art&History

French Revolution

SECTION 3 ASSESSMENT

War Between France and Neighbors

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In 1804 Napoleon named himself Emperorof the French. At the brilliant coronationceremony in Paris, the people witnessed

an astonishing act. Napoleon took the crown fromthe pope’s hands and placed it on his own head.Napoleon’s action spoke loudly of his intention tobe a strong ruler. How had the French governmentbeen transformed from a democracy to an empirein five short years?

The ConsulateAfter his successful overthrow of the Directory

in 1799, Napoleon had proclaimed a new constitu-tion, which theoretically established a republic. Theconstitution actually set up a dictatorship, a gov-ernment headed by an absolute ruler. The executivebranch was a committee of three members, calledconsuls, who took their title from ancient Rome.Napoleon, however, became First Consul andquickly concentrated power in his own hands.

Restoring OrderNapoleon wanted to bring order to the country.

One of his first goals was to restructure the govern-ment. Although he tried to keep many of the revo-lutionary reforms, Napoleon replaced elected localofficials with men he appointed himself. He alsoplaced education under the control of the nationalgovernment, creating technical schools, universi-ties, and secondary schools. The secondary schools,called lycées (lee•SAY), were designed to providewell-educated, patriotic government workers.Although students who attended the lycées camemostly from wealthy families, some poorer stu-dents received scholarships. In this way the Frenchschools were a step toward a public school systemopen to all children.

Napoleon also changed the country’s financialsystem. He created the Bank of France and requiredthat every citizen pay taxes. The collected taxes

> Terms to Definedictatorship, plebiscite, nationalism

> People to MeetDuke of Wellington, Alexander I, Louis XVIII

> Places to LocateTrafalgar, Moscow, Waterloo

France signs Treaty of Amiens with Great Britain.

1802 Napoleoninvades Russia.

1812 Napoleonnames himself Emperor of the French.

1804 Duke of Wellingtonwins Battle of Waterloo. 1815

1800 18201810

Carl von Clausewitz, a military theoretician,analyzed the French disaster in Russia: “[Napoleon]had hoped from that centre [Moscow],to influence by opinion [St.]Petersburg and thewhole of Russia.… He reached Moscow with90,000 men, he should have reached it with200,000. This would have been possible if he hadhandled his army with more care and forbearance.But these were qualities unknown to him.… It is,

moreover, to be considered as a greatneglect … to have made so little preparation as he did

for retreat.”

—translated from Campaignof 1812 in Russia, Carl von

Clausewitz, 1835

S e c t i o n 4

Napoleon’s Empire

Napoleon Bonaparte

Read to Find Out Main Idea Napoleon built and then lostan empire.

SThetoryteller

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were deposited in the bank and used by the gov-ernment to make loans to businesses. Thesechanges gradually brought inflation and highprices under control.

Napoleon’s many supporters welcomed hisstrong government and the peace and order itbrought. In 1802 Napoleon named himself Consulfor life. This move was overwhelmingly approvedby a plebiscite, or popular vote.

The Napoleonic CodeMany historians say that Napoleon made his

greatest impact on French law. Old feudal and royallaws were often contradictory and confusing. Tomake French law clear and consistent, Napoleon hada new law code written. Commonly known as theNapoleonic Code, it was based on Enlightenmentideas, such as the equality of all citizens before thelaw, religious toleration, and advancement basedon merit. However, the Code placed the state abovethe individual. For example, it limited freedom ofspeech and press by allowing the censorship ofbooks, plays, and pamphlets. Women also lost

many of the rights they had gained during the rev-olution. Male heads of households were givenextensive authority over wives and minor children.

The ChurchNapoleon also made peace with the Catholic

Church. Realizing that French Catholics had object-ed to the Civil Constitution of the Clergy, he nego-tiated an agreement called the Concordat of 1801with Pope Pius VII. In this agreement Napoleonacknowledged that Catholicism was the religion ofthe majority of French people but affirmed religioustoleration for all. Napoleon did, however, retain theright to name all bishops, who had to swear alle-giance to the state. The pope agreed to accept theloss of church lands; in return the state agreed topay salaries to the Catholic clergy.

Building an EmpireAlthough Napoleon proved that he was an able

administrator, he was more interested in building

Chapter 11 The French Revolution 351

The Consecration of Emperor Napoleon I and the Coronation of the EmpressJosephine (detail) by Jacques-Louis David. The Louvre, Paris, France

In imitation of Pepin and Charlemagne, Napoleon seized the crown from Pope Pius VIIand placed it on his own head in 1804. A virtual dictator, Napoleon had the support ofmost people in France. How had Napoleon earlier made peace with the Catholic Church?

Art&History

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an empire. Soon after becoming First Consul,Napoleon commanded the French forces thatdefeated both Italy and Austria. He also persuadedRussia to withdraw from the war. ThoughNapoleon was not able to defeat the British navy,the British were ready for peace because their com-merce had suffered during the war. The two pow-ers signed the Treaty of Amiens in March 1802.

Over the next few years Napoleon combinedhis talents as a masterful military leader and bril-liant diplomat to build an empire. In 1804 he namedhimself Emperor of the French and soon set hisarmies on the road to conquest.

The Battle of TrafalgarDespite his successes on the continent of

Europe, Great Britain remained Napoleon’s mosttenacious enemy. By 1805 Napoleon felt he wasready to invade Great Britain from the EnglishChannel; his fleet never made it that far, however.In October 1805 at the Battle of Trafalgar, off thesouthern coast of Spain, the British admiral LordNelson soundly defeated the French navy, remov-ing once and for all the possibility of a French inva-sion of Great Britain.

Economic BlockadesAfter Trafalgar, Napoleon decided to use eco-

nomic warfare against the British. He believed hecould defeat Great Britain by destroying its eco-nomic lifeline—trade. In a plan called theContinental System, Napoleon ordered allEuropean nations he had conquered to stop tradewith the British. In another decree he forbade Britishimports entry to the European ports that he con-trolled. Napoleon also required Russia and Prussiato go along with the blockade of British goods.

Meanwhile, Great Britain responded to thetrade blockade with a counterthreat: Any ship onits way to a European port had to stop first at aBritish port. Napoleon responded that he wouldseize any ship that did so.

This conflict put the United States and otherneutral nations in a difficult position. The UnitedStates relied heavily on its trade with both GreatBritain and France. If the United States ignored theBritish threat, American ships would be seized bythe British navy. If the United States obeyed theBritish, the French navy would seize its ships. Thisconflict on the seas was one of the causes that even-tually led to the War of 1812 between the UnitedStates and Great Britain.

Despite the blockades, the aggressive Britishnavy did maintain control of the seas, andNapoleon’s Continental System failed. French trade

suffered, and the French economy worsened. YetNapoleon’s empire kept growing as he continuedto win battles on land.

Napoleonic EuropeBy 1812 Napoleon controlled most of Europe.

France’s boundaries now extended to the Russianborder. Through successful French military con-quests, Napoleon became king of Italy, his brotherJoseph became king of Naples and later Spain, andhis other brother, Louis, became king of Holland.Napoleon then abolished the Holy Roman Empireand created the Confederation of the Rhine, a looseorganization of the German states. This move ledPrussia to declare war on France, but the Frencheasily crushed the weak Prussian army.

The people who lived in the countries underNapoleon’s rule resented paying taxes to Franceand sending soldiers to serve in Napoleon’s armies.This resentment ignited in the conquered people afeeling of nationalism, the yearning for self-ruleand restoration of their customs and traditions.Nationalism helped stir revolts against French rulethroughout Europe.

The first signs of trouble appeared in Spain,where Spanish forces carried out guerrilla warfare, or hit-and-run attacks, on French forces. In 1812, aided by British troops under the com-mand of Arthur Wellesley (later named Duke ofWellington), the Spaniards overthrew their Frenchoccupiers. They reinstated their old king under a system of limited monarchy. Prussia also joined in the revolt against Napoleon, as nationalist leaders rebuilt its army and amassed political support in the hope of ridding themselves ofFrench rule.

Downfall of the EmpireWhen Russia joined the movement against

Napoleon, it signaled the end of the empire. CzarAlexander I of Russia viewed Napoleon’s controlof Europe as a threat to Russia. Additionally,Napoleon’s Continental System had hurt theRussian economy. In 1811 Alexander withdrewfrom the Continental System and resumed tradewith Great Britain.

The Invasion of RussiaAlexander’s withdrawal outraged Napoleon,

leading him to invade Russia. Napoleon assembleda massive army of 600,000 soldiers from countries

352 Chapter 11 The French Revolution

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throughout Europe. The long French march towardMoscow began in May 1812. The Russians, howev-er, refused to yield to Napoleon’s threat. Theyretreated to central Russia, adopting a “scorched-earth policy” in which they burned everything asthey went. On September 14, one of Napoleon’smen finally saw the city of Moscow from a nearbyhill. But the day after the French entered Moscow, agiant fire, probably started by Russian patriots,destroyed most of the city.

Shortly afterward the harsh Russian winterbegan to set in, and the French army could notremain in Russia without shelter. Despite the difficult conditions, Napoleon delayed beforeordering a retreat. When the French troops finallydid withdraw, the Russians relentlessly attackedthem. Amid the extreme conditions the retreatbecame a rout. Of the 600,000 soldiers who enteredRussia, about 400,000 died of battle wounds, starvation, and exposure.

DefeatThe Russian blow to Napoleon’s power ruined

him. Russians, Prussians, Spaniards, English, andAustrians sent armies against him. Russia and Prussiaannounced a War of Liberation. Joined by Austria,they defeated Napoleon at Leipzig in Saxony, part ofpresent-day Germany, in October 1813.

By March 1814 the allies were in Paris, forcingNapoleon to surrender and abdicate as emperor.The victors restored the French throne to LouisXVIII, the brother of Louis XVI. Napoleon wasexiled to Elba, an island off the coast of Italy. Theboundaries of France were reduced to those of 1792.

Still determined to rule, Napoleon returned toFrance on March 1, 1815, and easily won support.The troops of Louis XVIII deserted to their formercommander when Napoleon announced, “Yourgeneral, summoned to the throne by the prayer ofthe people and raised upon your shields, is nowrestored to you; come and join him.” In a period

Chapter 11 The French Revolution 353

SWEDEN

NORWAY

RUSSIA

FRANCE

DENMARK

SPAIN

POR

TU

GA

L

POLAND

GREATBRITAIN

ITALIANSTATES

AUSTRIANEMPIRE

Greece

Vienna

ConstantinopleOTTOMAN

EMPIRE

Warsaw

LeipzigLondon

Rome

Paris

Waterloo

Madrid

Sicily

Sardinia

Corsica

Elba

Cape Trafalgar

Moscow

Prussi

a

Napoleon’s empireUnder Napoleon’s controlNapoleon’s alliesNapoleon’s campaignin Russia

N

E

S

W

NETHER-LANDS

Lambert Conic Conformal Projection

0 150

150

300 mi.

0 300 km

ATLANTICOCEAN

NorthSea

Rhine R

.

BalticSea

Mediterranean Sea

Black Sea

30°E20°E10°E0°10°W20°W

50°N

40°N

40°E

Europe at Height of Napoleon’s Power 1812

MapMapStudyStudy

Before he invaded Russia, Napoleon dominated most of Europe.1. Location What geographic factors helped to protect Great Britain and Russia from conquest by Napoleon's armies?2. Movement How far would a foot soldier have traveled walking from Paris to Moscow?

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CON

NECTIONSC

ON

NECTIONS

Examine ways in which revolution-ary music can be used to motivate people. Can you think of cases todaywhere music is used to unite people?

known as the Hundred Days, Napoleon againreigned as emperor. To avoid war he announcedthat France wanted no more territory.

The European governments, however, fearedthat Napoleon might regain his former strength.Determined to stop him, the armies of Prussia,Great Britain, and the Netherlands advancedtoward France under the command of the Duke ofWellington. Napoleon met them at Waterloo in theAustrian Netherlands in June 1815; the Frenchtroops were decisively defeated. Napoleon wasplaced under house arrest on the island of SaintHelena in the South Atlantic. He died there in 1821.

Napoleon’s LegacyNapoleon did not allow true representative

government. He did, however, secure the revolu-tion in France and spread throughout Europe ideassuch as equality before the law, religious toleration,and advancement by merit rather than by birth.Napoleon’s rule also set uniform standards of gov-ernment, reformed tax systems, promoted educa-tion, and improved agriculture and industry. Afterthe collapse of Napoleon’s empire, manyEuropeans still wanted to keep these benefits fromthe French Revolution. They especially did not for-get their taste of freedom from absolute monarchy.

354 Chapter 11 The French Revolution

Main Idea1. Use a diagram like the one

below to identify reasons forthe rise and fall of Napoleon’sempire.

Recall2. Define dictatorship, plebiscite,

nationalism.3. Identify the Napoleonic Code,

the Continental System, Dukeof Wellington, Alexander I,Louis XVIII, Waterloo.

Critical Thinking4. Making Comparisons

Compare Napoleon’s rule

after the French Revolution to Cromwell’s rule after the English Civil War.

Understanding Themes5. Movement How did the

principles of the French Revolu-tion spread throughout Europeand contribute to the rise ofnationalism in other countries?

Music of Revolutions

The French Revolution found its voicein a rousing march written in 1792 by JosephRouget de Lisle, a young captain in the armyengineers. The march, later known as “TheMarseillaise,” rallied French citizens:

To arms, citizens!Form your battalions,Let us march, let us march!

“The Marseillaise” becamethe French national anthem in1795. Because of its revolution-ary character, it was bannedunder the reigns of Napoleon,Louis XVIII, and Napoleon III. Itonce again became the nationalanthem in 1879.

Rouget de LisleSinging “TheMarseillaise” atDietrich’s byIsidore Pils

The best-known and most enduringsong of the American Revolution was “Yan-kee Doodle.” The British had originally usedthe term “yankee” as an insult. Singing “Yan-kee Doodle” as they marched, the Britishshowed scorn for the American soldiers. TheAmerican colonists, however, turned theinsult into a battle cry for freedom.

Revolutionary and protest groups todayuse music to gain public support. For exam-ple, since the 1960s, “We Shall Overcome”has been a unifying force in movements forfreedom throughout the world.

Napoleon’s Rise and Fall

FallRise

SECTION 4 ASSESSMENT

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Chapter 11 The French Revolution 355

When you divide a pizza among fourpeople, it is easy to estimate where thecircle should be sliced. A circle graph

is similar to a round pizza. Circle graphs are use-ful for showing percentages, such as 25 percent ofa pizza. A line or bar graph, however, can be usedto show changes over a period of time.

Most graphs also use words to identify orlabel information. These steps will help you inter-pret graphs.

• Read the title.• Read the captions and text.• Determine the relationships among all

sections of the graph.

Learning the SkillThe circle on the right visually compares the

time periods from the information about revolu-tion and empire in France between 1789 and 1815.

1. Estates-General and National AssemblyMay 1789–September 1791Limited constitutional monarchy

2. Legislative AssemblyOctober 1791–September 1792New constitution; delegates seatedaccording to political beliefs

3. National ConventionSeptember 1792–October 1795King executed; Reign of Terror

4. DirectoryOctober 1795–November 1799New constitution with bicameral legislature, five executive directors;Napoleon seizes control

5. Consulate December 1799–May 1804New constitution sets up three consuls;Napoleon rules

6. EmpireMay 1804–June 1815Napoleon I, emperor until overthrown

Practicing the SkillStudy the graph and answer the following:

1. What was the longest of the six periods of theFrench Revolution?

2. What was the shortest of the six periods?3. About what percentage of the total time did

Napoleon rule France (during the Consulateand Empire)?

4. About what percentage of the time did theDirectory rule?

Applying the SkillDraw a circle graph showing the major

divisions of your day.

For More PracticeTurn to the Skill Practice in the Chapter

Assessment on page 365.

Interpreting Graphs

5. Consulate

6. Empire4. Directory

1. Estates-General and National Assembly

3. National Convention

2. Legislative Assembly

Revolution and Empire 1789–1815

Social StudiesSocial Studies

The Glencoe SkillbuilderInteractive Workbook, Level 2provides instruction and practice in key social studies skills.

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Walking along the streets of Vienna,Austria, in the autumn of 1814 werethe kings, princes, and diplomats

who had gathered for a peace conference known asthe Congress of Vienna. With Napoleon in exile, thedelegates had come to Vienna to restore order andstability in Europe after nearly 25 years of war.

The Congress met from September 1814 to June1815. Nearly every European nation sent delegates,but the Congress’s main work was done by Austria’sPrince Klemens von Metternich of Austria, Russia’sCzar Alexander I, and Great Britain’s Lord RobertCastlereagh (KAS•uhl•ray). Prince Maurice de Talley-rand, once a bishop, represented defeated France.

The Congress of ViennaAustria’s chief minister, Prince Klemens von

Metternich, served as host to the Congress andpresided over it. Metternich believed that in orderto establish European stability, Europe should berestored to the way it was before the FrenchRevolution. To achieve his goal, Metternich main-tained that settlements reached at Vienna would beguided by three principles: compensation, legitima-cy, and balance of power. Compensation meant thatall countries should be repaid for the expenses theyincurred while fighting the French. By legitimacy,Metternich meant restoring to power the royal fam-ilies who had ruled before Napoleon. Finally, bal-ance of power meant that no country should everagain dominate continental Europe.

Redrawing the MapAs the victors of the war claimed their rewards,

they redrew the map of Europe. France was forcedto give up its recently gained territory and to pay alarge indemnity, or compensation, to other coun-tries for war damages. Although Great Britain didnot gain land in continental Europe, it took fromFrance most of its remaining islands in the West

356 Chapter 11 The French Revolution

> Terms to Definebuffer state, reactionary, liberalism

> People to MeetPrince Klemens von Metternich

> Places to LocateVienna

Congressof Vienna meets.

1814 Greek nationalists revolt against Turkish rule.

1821 CarlsbadDecrees impose censorship in Prussia.

1819

1810 1815 18251820

Vienna, native city of Haydn, home of Brahms,and host to Europe’s greatest musicians, was knownfor its opera and its pageantry. The medieval streetsof the old city, dominated by the tall Gothic tower ofSt. Stephen’s Cathedral, were once occupied byNapoleon’s troops. Now Vienna would host the vic-

torious assembled aris-tocracies. The czar ofRussia, the kings ofPrussia, Denmark,Bavaria, and Saxony,and the nobility dinedat forty lavish tables inthe Hofburg. Colorfulmilitary parades, fire-works, balls in theGrand Hall, andBeethoven’s concerts all

served to disguise the serious dis-cussions that would establishEurope’s “balance of power.”

—adapted from WesternCivilization, an Urban Perspective,F. Roy Willis, 1973

S e c t i o n 5

Peace in Europe

The Old Universityin Vienna

Read to Find Out Main Idea The plans of the reaction-aries to thwart the spread of liberalism inEurope were fairly successful.

SThetoryteller

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Indies. Austria gained the Italian provinces ofLombardy and Venetia as well as territory on theeastern coast of the Adriatic Sea.

At the conference Prussia and Russia also madeit known that they wanted to expand their bordersby seizing formerly French-held lands. Yet GreatBritain and Austria feared that increased Prussianand Russian influence in central Europe would leadto an imbalance of power on the continent. To putpressure on Prussia and Russia, Great Britain andAustria made an agreement with France. The agree-ment bound the three powers—Great Britain,Austria, and France—to resist any further Prussianor Russian territorial expansion in Europe byarmed force if it was necessary.

In the end a compromise was reached. Prussiareceived extensive territories along the Rhine Riverand almost half the kingdom of Saxony for its com-pensation. Russia received most of the Polish

territory formerly held by Prussia and Austria. Thisincreased the Polish territory held by Russia. A newkingdom of Poland was then formed under the czar.

Restoring the MonarchiesOnce the territorial compensation was settled,

delegates at the Congress of Vienna turned to stabi-lizing European governments. Believing thatdivine-right monarchy was necessary for properorder, the delegates made settlements based onlegitimate claims to the throne and restored theabsolute monarchs who ruled Europe beforeNapoleon. The Congress reestablished royal dynas-ties in France, Spain, Portugal, Naples, Sardinia,and Sicily. In France the Congress officially recog-nized the Bourbon heir Louis XVIII as the legiti-mate, or legal, ruler.

To safeguard other ruling dynasties, theCongress placed further controls on France. It

Chapter 11 The French Revolution 357

SWEDEN

NORWAY

PRUSSIA

RUSSIA

GERMANSTATES

FRANCE

DENMARK

SPAIN

POR

TU

GA

L

POLAND

ITALIANSTATES

AUSTRIANEMPIRESWITZER-

LAND

NETHERLANDS

Greece

Vienna

Troppau

ConstantinopleOTTOMAN

EMPIRE

German Confederation

0 200

200

400 mi.

0 400 km Lambert Conic Conformal Projection

N

E

S

W

GREATBRITAIN

ATLANTICOCEAN

NorthSea Baltic

Sea

Mediterranean Sea

Black Sea

10°W 0° 10°E 20°E 30°E 40°E20°W

50°N

40°N

Rhin e R.

MapMapStudyStudy

European powers at the Congress of Vienna divided much of Napoleon’s territorywithout regard to the national interests of the people living there. Compare the map on page 353 showing Europe at the height of Napoleon’s power.1. Place1. Place How did the new boundaries created at the Congress of Vienna affect Polish hopes for a united nation?2. Region2. Region What was the purpose of the new alliance formed in 1815?

Europe After Congress of Vienna 1815

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reduced French borders to those of 1790 and estab-lished buffer states, or neutral territories, aroundFrench territory. To the north of France, theAustrian Netherlands and the Dutch Netherlandsbecame one country under the Dutch ruler. Thirty-nine independent German states formed theGerman Confederation, headed by Austria.Switzerland regained its neutrality and indepen-dence as a federal league of states. The Italian king-dom of Piedmont united with the Mediterraneanisland of Sardinia.

Forces Changing EuropeThe diplomats responsible for most of the

agreements made at the Congress of Vienna werereactionaries, people who opposed change andwanted to return things to the way they had been inearlier times. They strongly felt that Europe couldmaintain peace only by returning to the tradition ofstrong absolute monarchies in effect before theFrench Revolution.

The reactionaries hoped that their plans wouldthwart the spread of liberalism, a political philoso-phy influencing European peoples in the 1800s. Theliberals accepted the ideas of the Enlightenmentand the democratic reforms of the FrenchRevolution. Believing in individual freedom, liber-als supported ideas such as freedom of speech, free-dom of the press, and religious freedom—whichhad led to revolution.

The reactionaries also hoped to crush the rise ofnationalism throughout Europe. When they redrewnational boundaries, the delegates reflected thewishes of the rulers rather than those of the peoplethey governed. The new boundaries thwarted thenationalistic hopes of many European groups. For

example, the boundaries crushed the Polish peo-ple’s hopes for a united nation of their own.Instead, their land was parceled out among theirneighbors: Austria, Prussia, and Russia.

AlliancesThe diplomats knew that nationalistic desires

for independence, democratic rule, and nationalunity could well lead to revolution, and revolutionthreatened everything they believed in. To preventdemocratic revolutions, they agreed to form newalliances. Great Britain, Austria, Prussia, and Russiajoined in the Quadruple Alliance to maintain thesettlements of Vienna. The four powers concludedthe alliance in November 1815. France was admit-ted three years later, when the members of thealliance met for the first time at Aix-la-Chapelle.

According to the alliance agreement, represen-tatives of the great powers were to meet periodical-ly to discuss the security of Europe. Their goalsincluded preservation of territorial boundaries setat the Congress of Vienna, exclusion of NapoleonBonaparte and his heirs from French rule, and pre-vention of any revolutionary movements from tak-ing hold in Europe.

With the goals of securing international orderbased on “Justice, Christian Charity, and Peace,”Czar Alexander I of Russia created the HolyAlliance. Issued in the name of the czar, the Prussianking, and the Austrian emperor, the Holy Alliancecalled for Christian rulers in Europe to cooperate asa union of monarchs. Metternich dismissed the ideaas “a loud-sounding nothing.” Nevertheless, all theinvited rulers joined the Holy Alliance except PopePius VII and the British government. The pope hadsaid that “from time immemorial the papacy hadbeen in possession of Christian truth and needed nonew interpretation of it.” The British government

The seriouswork of the

Congress of Vienna was nearlyovershadowed by lavish entertainment—plays, musi-cals, and balls. What didMetternich want to achieve by abalance of power?

HistoryVisualizing

358

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excused itself on the grounds that, without approvalby Parliament, such an alliance would violate theBritish constitution.

The Concert of EuropeThe two alliances encouraged European nations

to work together to preserve the peace. The membersdecided to have regular meetings, which becameknown as the Concert of Europe. This system helpedto avoid major European conflicts by resolving localproblems peaceably.

For nearly 30 years, Metternich used the systemset up by the Congress of Vienna to achieve his ownpolitical goals: to oppose liberalism and nationalismand to defend absolute monarchies in Europe. Hisbeliefs came to be known as the Metternich system.

Metternich’s political goals and the Concert ofEurope did not go unchallenged, however. InGermany university students demonstrated for liberal reforms and national unity. In responseMetternich persuaded King Frederick William III ofPrussia to pass a series of repressive measures in1819. These Carlsbad Decrees imposed strict cen-sorship on all publications and suppressed freedomof speech. Metternich managed to end agitation inGermany, but new challenges arose in other areas.

Liberal reformers in Spain, for example, forcedtheir monarch to agree to constitutional governmentin 1820. Metternich pressured members of theQuadruple Alliance to intervene in European coun-tries and their territories to prevent the spread of lib-eralism. Great Britain, with a tradition of liberalismin government, opposed the action and broke fromthe alliance. Metternich’s system did prevail, how-ever, as French troops restored the Spanish king tofull power. But the spirit of revolt did not die, forSpanish colonies in Latin America successfullyrevolted against Spanish control during the 1820s.

The Greeks also fought for their independencein 1821 against Turkish rule. Metternich intervenedby attempting to stop other countries from aidingthe rebellion. The British and the French assistedthe Greek nationalists despite Metternich’s threats.Greece finally won independence in 1829.

The stable political system Metternich envi-sioned throughout Europe would soon be underattack. The nationalistic spirit fostered by theFrench Revolution would not die in Europe.

Chapter 11 The French Revolution 359

Main Idea1. Use a chart like the one below

to list ways in which reactionar-ies wanted to stop liberalism’sspread in Europe.

Recall2. Define buffer state,

reactionary, liberalism.3. Identify the Congress of

Vienna, Prince Klemens vonMetternich, Quadruple Alliance.

Critical Thinking4. Making Comparisons

Compare and contrast the political philosophies of a

liberal and a reactionary in the 1800s.

Understanding Themes5. Reaction Why was the

Congress of Vienna made upmostly of reactionaries? Whateffect did their views and policies have on the spread of liberalism and nationalismthroughout Europe?

Metternich pushed for the creationof the Quadruple Alliance. What was

the alliance’s major role?

HistoryVisualizing

Ways to Stop Liberalism

SECTION 5 ASSESSMENT

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360 Chapter 11 The French Revolution

As we have seen, litera-ture can be a bridge tothe past, transporting

us to a world that may seem strange orobscure at first, but that has much incommon with our own. Across the gapbetween then and now we can see facesthat we recognize, situations that arefamiliar, hopes that we share. The selec-tion that follows was written by one ofFrance’s most celebrated writers, VictorHugo. Hugo lived from 1802 to 1885, atime of dramatic and violent change forFrance. In this scene, MonsieurGillenormand snoops through thebelongings of his grandson, Marius.Assisting the grandfather is Marius’saunt. Marius’s father has recently died.

LesMisérables

by Victor Hugo

from

M .Gillenormand, who had risen earlylike all the elderly who are in good

health, had heard [Marius] come in, and hurriedas fast as he could with his old legs, to climb tothe top of the stairs where Marius’s room was,to give him a kiss, question him while embrac-ing him, and find out something about wherehe had come from.

But the youth had taken less time to godown than the old man to go up, and whenGrandfather Gillenormand went into the garretroom, Marius was no longer there.

The bed had not been disturbed, and on itwere trustingly laid the coat and the black ribbon.

“I like that better,” said M. Gillenormand.And a moment later he entered the drawing

room [room for receiving guests] where Mlle.Gillenormand the elder was already seated,embroidering her carriage wheels.

The entrance was triumphant.In one hand M. Gillenormand held the coat

and in the other the neck ribbon, and cried out,“Victory! We are about to penetrate the mystery!We shall know the end of the mystery, unravelthe wanton ways of our rascal! Here we areright to the core of the romance. I have the por-trait!”

In fact, a black shagreen box, rather like amedallion, was fastened to the ribbon.

The old man took this box and looked at itfor some time without opening it, with that airof desire, delight, and anger, with which a poor,

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Chapter 11 The French Revolution 361

hungry devil sees an excellent dinner pass rightunder his nose, when it is not for him.

“For it is clearly a portrait. I know all aboutthese things. They are worn tenderly against theheart. What fools they are! Some abominablefloozy, probably enough to bring on the shud-ders! Young people have such bad taste nowa-days!”

“Let’s see, father,” said the old maid.The box opened by pressing a spring. They

found nothing in it but a piece of paper carefullyfolded.

“More and more predictable,” said M.Gillenormand, bursting with laughter. “I knowwhat that is. A love letter!”

“Ah! Then let’s read it!” said the aunt.And she put on her spectacles. They unfold-

ed the paper and read this:“For my Son.—The emperor made me a

baron on the battlefield of Waterloo. Since theRestoration contests this title I have bought withmy blood, my son will take it and bear it. I neednot say that he will be worthy of it.”

The feelings of the father and daughter arebeyond description. Theyfelt chilled as by thebreath of a death’s head[skull]. They did notexchange a word. M.Gillenormand, however,said in a low voice, and asif talking to himself, “It isthe handwriting of thatbandit.”

The aunt examinedthe paper, turned it overevery which way, thenput it back in the box.

At that very moment,a little rectangular pack-age wrapped in bluepaper fell out of the coatpocket. MademoiselleGillenormand picked itup and unwrapped theblue paper. It wasMarius’s hundred

[calling] cards. She passed one of them to M.Gillenormand, who read: Baron MariusPontmercy.

The old man rang. Nicolette [the chamber-maid] came. M. Gillenormand took the ribbon,the box, and the coat, threw them all on the floorin the middle of the drawing room, and said:

“Take those things away.”A full hour passed in complete silence. The

old man and the old maid sat with their backsturned to one another, and were probably eachindividually thinking over the same things. Atthe end of that hour, Aunt Gillenormand said,“Pretty!”

A few minutes later, Marius appeared. Hewas just coming home. Even before crossing the

A French salon displays the wealth of the bourgeoisie. With

the end of the revolution, the return of social classdistinctions accompanied the restoration of themonarchy. Why was Monsieur Gillenormand angryabout Marius’s calling cards?

HistoryVisualizing

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362 Chapter 11 The French Revolution

threshold of the drawing room, he saw hisgrandfather holding one of his cards in his hand; the old man, on seeing him, exclaimedwith his crushing air of sneering bourgeois supe-riority, “Well! Well! Well! Well! Well! So you are abaron now. My compliments. What does thismean?”

Marius blushed slightly, and answered, “Itmeans I am my father’s son.”

M. Gillenormand stopped laughing, andsaid harshly, “Your father; I am your father.”

“My father,” resumed Marius with downcasteyes and stern manner, “was a humble and

heroic man, who served the Republic and Francegloriously, who was great in the greatest historythat men have ever made, who lived a quarter ofa century in the camps, under fire by day, and bynight in the snow, in the mud, and the rain, whocaptured colors [flags], who was twenty timeswounded, who died forgotten and abandoned,and who had but one fault; that was to have toodearly loved two ingrates [ungrateful persons],his country and me.”

This was more than M. Gillenormand couldbear. At the word, “Republic,” he rose, or rather,sprang to his feet. Every one of the words

A republican club meets in Paris in 1848. Victor Hugo’s concern for the common people underlies much of his

writing. Social commentary and support for democratic movements mark hisworks in the 1850s and 1860s. How does the character of Monsieur Gillenormand portray aristocracy?

HistoryVisualizing

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Chapter 11 The French Revolution 363

Marius had just spoken, produced on the oldroyalist’s face the effect of a blast from a bellowson a burning coal. From dark he had turned red, from red to purple, and from purple to flaming.

“Marius!” he exclaimed, “abominable child!I don’t know what your father was! I don’t wantto know! I know nothing about him and I don’tknow him! But what I do know is that there wasnever anything but miserable wretches amongthem! That they were all beggars, assassins,thieves, rabble in their red bonnets! I say all ofthem! I say all of them! I don’t know anybody! Isay all of them! Do you hear, Marius? Look here,you are as much a baron as my slipper! Theywere all bandits, those who served Robespierre!All brigands who served Bu-o-na-parté! All trai-tors who betrayed, betrayed, betrayed! Theirlegitimate king! All cowards who ran from thePrussians and English at Waterloo! That’s what Iknow. If your father is among them I don’t knowhim, I’m sorry, so much the worse. Your humbleservant, sir!”

In turn, it was Marius who now became thecoal, and M. Gillenormand the bellows. Mariusshuddered in every limb, he had no idea what todo, his head was burning. He was the priest whosees all his wafers thrown to the winds, the fakir[member of a Muslim religious order] seeing apasserby spit on his idol. He could not allowsuch things to be said before him. But whatcould he do? His father had just been troddenunderfoot and stamped on in his presence, butby whom? By his grandfather. How could heavenge the one without outraging the other? It

was impossible for him to insult his grandfather,and it was equally impossible for him not toavenge his father. On one hand a sacred tomb,on the other a white head. For a few moments hefelt dizzy and staggering with all this whirlwindin his head; then he raised his eyes, lookedstraight at his grandfather, and cried in a thun-dering voice: “Down with the Bourbons, andthat great hog Louis XVIII!”

Louis XVIII had been dead for four years;but that made no difference to him.

Scarlet as he was, the old man suddenlyturned whiter than his hair. He turned toward abust of the Duc de Berry that stood on the man-tel and bowed to it profoundly with a sort ofpeculiar majesty. Then he walked twice, slowlyand in silence, from the fireplace to the windowand from the window to the fireplace, coveringthe whole length of the room and making theparquet creak as if an image of stone were walk-ing over it. The second time, he bent toward hisdaughter, who was enduring the shock with thestupor of an aged sheep, and said to her with asmile that was almost calm, “A baron likeMonsieur and a bourgeois like myself cannotremain under the same roof.”

And all at once straightening up, pallid,trembling, terrible, his forehead swelling withthe fearful radiance of anger, he stretched hisarm towards Marius and cried out, “Be off!”

Marius left the house.The next day, M. Gillenormand said to his

daughter, “You will send sixty pistoles [old goldcoins] every six months to that blood drinker,and never speak of him to me again.”

1. What political conflict of the period does theheated clash between Marius and his grandfa-ther represent?

2. What sort of person is MonsieurGillenormand?

3. If Marius’s father had not been a hero at theBattle of Waterloo, do you think Marius still

would have become a revolutionary? Explainyour answer.

4. Supporting an Opinion Was the era of the French Revolution and Napoleon “the greatest history that men have evermade,” as Marius claims? Support youranswer with evidence.

RESPONDING TO LITERATURE

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Using Your History JournalNapoleon’s army lost 400,000 soldiers

in the retreat from Russia. Many moredied in other battles. Were the reforms ofthe French Revolution worth its cost?Answer this question from the viewpointof the character you chose at the begin-ning of the chapter in an opinion articlefor a French newspaper to be publishedupon the death of Napoleon in 1821.

Reviewing Facts1. History Use a chart like the one below to

identify the causes and effects of the FrenchRevolution.

2. History Explain why Louis XVI was executed.3. Government List three accomplishments of the

French National Assembly.4. Citizenship Describe the role of women,

peasants, and urban workers in the FrenchRevolution.

5. History Describe the Concert of Europe.

Critical Thinking1. Apply Why was the creation of a French repub-

lic a significant turning point in history?2. Apply What Enlightenment ideas affected the

French Revolution?3. Synthesize What circumstances, if any,

justify a violent revolution? What other meanscould be used to change an unfair or tyrannicalsystem of government?

4. Evaluate In your opinion, did Napoleon’s thirstfor power help or hurt France? Europe?

Using Key TermsWrite the key term that completes each sentence.Then write a sentence for each term not chosen.

a. bourgeoisie h. liberalismb. buffer states i. nationalismc. conscription j. plebiscited. coup d’état k. reactionariese. émigrés l. tithef. estate m. unicameral legislatureg. dictatorship

1. Napoleon Bonaparte’s move to become Consul for life was supported by a ______ , orpopular vote.

2. Intense feelings of ______ caused people to fight for self-rule and a return to their traditionalcustoms.

3. French revolutionaries resorted to ______ , ordrafting civilians, in their fight against Europeanpowers.

4. ______ wanted to return absolute monarchs toEurope after the collapse of Napoleon’s empirein 1814.

5. Before the revolution the Catholic Church inFrance was supported by a ______ , or a 10 percent tax on income.

364 Chapter 11 The French Revolution

CHAPTER 11 ASSESSMENT

Causes Effects

Developing a MultimediaPresentation Use acomputerized card catalog orthe Internet to find information about the FrenchRevolution and the American Revolution. Usingimages from the Internet, create a short multime-dia presentation comparing the two revolutions.Include a plan describing the type of multimediapresentation you would like to develop and thesteps you will take to ensure its success.

Technology Activity

Self-Check Quiz

Visit the World History: The Modern Era Web site at worldhistory.me.glencoe.com and click on Chapter 11—Self-Check Quiz to prepare for the Chapter Test.

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Chapter 11 The French Revolution 365

FRANCE

SPAIN

GREATBRITAIN

SWITZER-LAND

Paris

London

Madrid

Lisbon

AmsterdamBerlin

Rome

Versailles

Corsica Elba

Sardinia

POR

TU

GA

L

0 150

150

300 mi.

0 300 km Lambert ConicConformal Projection

N

E

S

W

ATLANTICOCEAN

NorthSea

Mediterranean Sea

10°W

40°N

50°N

0° 10°E

English ChannelStr

ait of

Dov

er

Western Europe 1789

CHAPTER 11 ASSESSMENT

June 1791–the National Assembly calls out 100,000 volunteers

Spring 1792–additionof 75,000 by volunteers

and lottery system

Spring 1793–NationalConvention conscripts

300,000 soldiers

August 1793–National

Convention decrees all

Frenchmen in permanent requisition;

adds 225,000

Understanding Themes1. Revolution What similarities and differences

do you see between the American and theFrench Revolutions?

2. Change What specific rights did theDeclaration of Rights apply to French citizens?How did the Declaration and other revolution-ary events affect the position of French women?

3. Conflict How did violence and fear among theFrench people contribute to Napoleon’s seizureof power?

4. Movement How did the desire to expand hisEuropean empire help to bring about the downfall of Napoleon?

5. Reaction How did the Congress of Vienna

Geography in History1. Location Refer to the map below. What is the

global address of Paris?2. Place What role did agriculture play in starting

the French Revolution?3. Movement Why did Napoleon want to

prevent British ships from trading at variousEuropean ports?

show itself to be a strong reaction to revolution-ary ideals?

1. Napoleon tried to use military force to uniteEurope under his rule. What attempts havebeen made in this century to forcibly bringEurope or large areas of Europe under oneform of government?

2. Unity remains a goal of many Europeans.What recent efforts are peacefully unitingthe countries of Europe?

Skill PracticeThe diagram below shows the growth of the French

army in the early years of the French Revolution. Thegraph is divided into sizes relative to the additionsmade to the army between 1791 and 1793. Study thediagram and answer the following questions.

1. How large was the French army in the summerof 1792?

2. How many troops were added to France’s armyin 1793?

3. What was the total number of French troopscalled into service during this period?

4. If this information were on a bar graph, the hor-izontal axis (line) would list the dates. The verti-cal axis would have labels in units of 100,000each. What would each bar represent?

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366 Unit 3 Age of Revolution

Unit 3

Chapter 9

William Harvey

In the 1600s William Harvey, the Englishanatomist, discovered that blood circulates through thehuman body, pumped by the heart and returningthrough the veins. This discovery, which disprovedancient medical theories, was at first ridiculed butlater accepted by the scientific world. O.L. Dick, afriend of Harvey, wrote this personal account of thegreat doctor.

I have heard him say, that after his Bookeof the Circulation of the Blood came out, thathe fell mightily in his Practize, and that ‘twasbeleeved by the vulgar that he was crack-brained; and all the Physitians were againsthis Opinion, and envyed him; many wroteagainst him. With much ado at last, in about20 or 30 yeares time, it was received in all theUniversities in the world; and Mr. Hobbessays in his book De Corpore, he is the onlyman, perhaps, that ever lived to see his owneDoctrine established in his life-time. . . .

Between 1600 and the early

1800s, Western civilization was

transformed by scientific discov-

eries and new political ideas. In

the 1600s, members of the

English Parliament took radical

measures to restrict the power of

the monarchy, while in the 1800s

the growing desire for democracy

led to political revolution in

America and in France.

VOCABULARY PREVIEWthe vulgar: the uneducated

vindicating: justifying or defending

scaffold: a platform on which executiontakes place

For more primary sources to accompany this unit, use the World History Primary Source Document Library CD-ROM.

Illustration from Harvey’s bookCirculation of the Blood

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Unit 3 Age of Revolution 367

Chapter 10

The English Bill of Rights

In 1688, Parliament deposed the autocratic kingJames II and replaced him with William and Mary. In the following year, Parliament passed the Bill ofRights, which guaranteed certain individual rights.

And thereupon the said lords spiritual andtemporal, and commons, pursuant to theirrespective letters and elections, being nowassembled in a full and free representative ofthis nation, taking into their most seriousconsideration the best means for attainingthe aforesaid; do in the first place (as theirancestors in like case have usually done) forthe vindicating and asserting their ancientrights and liberties, declare:

1. That the pretended power of suspend-ing of laws, or the execution of laws, by regalauthority, without consent of parliament, isillegal.

2. That the pretended power of dispensingwith laws, or the execution of laws, by regalauthority, as it hath been assumed and exer-cised of late, is illegal. . . .

5. That it is the right of the subjects to peti-tion the King, and all committments andprosecutions for such petitioning are illegal.

6. That the raising or keeping a standingarmy within the kingdom in time of peace,unless it be with consent of parliament, isagainst the law . . . .

8. That election of members of parliamentought to be free.

9. That the freedom of speech, and debatesor proceedings in parlia-ment, ought not to beimpeached or questionedin any court or place outof parliament.

10. That excessive bailought not to be required,nor excessive finesimposed; nor cruel andunusual punishmentsinflicted. . . .

11.. What was the initial reaction to Dr. Harvey’s discovery?22.. What are some freedoms granted by the English Bill of Rights?33.. How did King Louis XVI of France behave in his last moments?44.. CRITICAL THINKING: How would you explain the “awful silence”

after the king’s execution?

Applications ActivityCreate a political cartoon that represents your feelings about the description of the beheading of King Louis XVI.

Interpreting Primary Sources

Chapter 11

The Execution of Louis XVI

During the French Revolution, King Louis XVIwas executed on charges of conspiring with foreignpowers. This eyewitness account was written byHenry Essex Edgeworth de Firmont, a priest in theroyal household.

I saw [the king] cross with a firm foot thebreadth of the whole scaffold; silence, by hislook alone, fifteen or twenty drums . . . ; andin a voice so loud, . . . I heard him pronouncedistinctly these memorable words: “I die in-nocent of all the crimes laid to my charge; I pardon those who have occasioned mydeath; and I pray to God that the blood youare going to shed may never be visited onFrance.”

Many voices were at the same time heardencouraging the exe-cutioners. Theyseemed reanimatedthemselves, in seizingwith violence the mostvirtuous of Kings, theydragged him under the axe of the guillotine, which with one stroke severed his head from his body. . . . At firstan awful silence prevailed; at length somecries of “Vive la République!” [Long Livethe Republic] were heard. . . . this cry . . .became the universal shout of the multitude. . . .

Execution ofLouis XVI

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368 Unit 3 Age of Revolution

Standardized Test Practice

1. The work of Copernicus and Galileoquestioned which of the followingbeliefs inherited from the Middle Ages?

A The superiority of Europeancivilization

B The earth as the center of the universeC The evolution of humankindD The role of religion in society

2. The 1700s in Europe was an Age ofEnlightenment. In what way were theideas of the Enlightenment similar to the ideas of the Renaissance?

F Both periods stressed the worth of theindividual.

G Both periods increased the opportu-nities and liberties of women.

H Church leaders were influentialthinkers during both periods.

J Ideas were promoted by enlighteneddespots during both periods.

Use the graph below to answer question 3.

3. In 1750, the difference between importsand exports was

A more than 400 pounds sterling.B more than 4000 pounds sterling.C more than 40,000 pounds sterling.D more than 400,000 pounds sterling.

Directions: Choose the best answer to each of the followingmultiple choice questions. If you have trouble answering aquestion, use the process of elimination to narrow your choices.Write your answers on a separate piece of paper.

Test-Taking Tip: This question requiresyou to remember a fact about these twoscientists. However, there are also clues in thequestion that can help you to eliminate wronganswers. For example, the question specifiesthat the belief was inherited from the MiddleAges. Since evolution was not a belief heldduring that time, answer C must be incorrect.

Test-Taking Tip: This question asks for a comparison between two time periods.Make sure that your answer choice is true forboth eras. Since answer J is true only for theEnlightenment, but not for the Renaissance, it can be eliminated.

Test-Taking Tip: Make sure that youlook carefully at the labels on both axes of abar graph. The horizontal axis (bottom) showsdifferent dates, while the vertical axis (side)shows numbers in thousands of poundssterling. At first glance, the difference betweenimports and exports would seem to be about400 pounds sterling (answer A), but since thisnumber represents thousands of poundssterling, it must be multiplied by 1000.

0

300

600

900

1,200

1,500

1700 1710 1720 1730 1740 1750

(In

th

ou

san

ds

of

po

un

ds

ster

ling)

Source: Historical Statistics of the United States: Colonial Times to 1970

Year

Exports Imports

Value of American Exports and Importswith England, 1700–1750

Page 36: Chapter 11: The French Revolution - Mr. Bednorz · The French Revolution > Revolution The French overthrow their absolute monarchy.Section 1 > Change The National Assembly establishes

Unit 3 Age of Revolution 369

Standardized Test Practice

4. The English Bill of Rights and the AmericanBill of Rights grant citizens certain rightsand set specific limits on the powers ofgovernment. Which of the following pro-visions is contained in the English, butNOT the American, Bill of Rights?

F Citizens have freedom of speech.G People accused of crimes have the right

to a jury trial.H The government is not allowed to impose

cruel or unusual punishments.J The king is not allowed to suspend laws.

5. The purpose of the Declaration ofIndependence was to

A outline colonists’ reasons for separatingfrom Great Britain.

B establish the first royal government inNorth America.

C set forth the rights and duties of thePresident.

D grant religious freedom to all citizens.

Use the map below to answer question 6.

6. According to the map above, which of thefollowing is true?

F The battle at Moscow was unsuccessfulfor Napoleon.

G Napoleon controlled most of the nationswest of the Prime Meridian.

H Napoleon did not conquer Great Britain.J The Ottoman Empire included Sardinia.

FRENCHFRENCHEMPIREEMPIRE

RUSSIAUSSIA

SWEDENSWEDENKINGDOMKINGDOM

OFOFDENMARKDENMARK

AND NORAND NORWAY

SPSPAINAIN

ITITALALY

CORSICACORSICA

SARDINIASARDINIA

SICILSICILY

ELBAELBA

SWITZERLANDSWITZERLAND

NAPLESNAPLES

GRAND DUCHYGRAND DUCHYOFOF

WARSAARSAW

WESTPHALIAWESTPHALIA

PRPRUSSIAUSSIA

CONFEDERACONFEDERATIONTIONOFOF

THE RHINETHE RHINE

UNITED KINGDOMUNITED KINGDOMOF GREAOF GREAT BRITT BRITAINAIN

AND IRELANDAND IRELAND

Pararisis AusterlitzAusterlitzWaterlooaterloo

PO

RTU

GA

L

AUSTRIANUSTRIANEMPIREEMPIRE

OTTTTOMANOMANEMPIREEMPIRE

North Sea

ATLANTIC

OCEAN

Mediterranean Sea

FRENCHEMPIRE

RUSSIA

SWEDENKINGDOM

OFDENMARK

AND NORWAY

SPAIN

ITALY

CORSICA

SARDINIA

SICILY

ELBA

SWITZERLAND

NAPLES

GRAND DUCHYOF

WARSAW

WESTPHALIA

PRUSSIA

CONFEDERATIONOF

THE RHINE

UNITED KINGDOMOF GREAT BRITAIN

AND IRELAND

Rome

Paris AusterlitzWaterloo

Trafalgar

PO

RTU

GA

L

AUSTRIANEMPIRE

OTTOMANEMPIRE

0° 15°E 30°E15°W55°N

45°N

35°N

French Empire

Allied with Napoleon

Subject to Napoleon

Independent

Battle site

Napoleonic Europe

Lambert Conic Conformal Projection

0 200

200

400 mi.

0 400 km

Test-Taking Tip: This question requiresa comparison, but unlike question 2, it islooking for a difference, not a similarity. Sincefree speech is a provision in the American Billof Rights, it cannot be the correct answer. Lookfor the answer that relates only to England.

Test-Taking Tip: Think about the mean-ing of the words Declaration of Independence.Eliminate answer choices that don’t matchthe meaning of these words. Since answer C does not directly relate to declaring inde-pendence, it should be eliminated.

Test-Taking Tip: Look at the map key tounderstand how the map is organized. Can yousee which countries are allied with Napoleon?Which countries are independent? Make surethat your answer choice is supported by infor-mation on the map. Do not rely only on yourmemory for this type of question.