C H A P T E R 7
Learning
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Lecture Outline
1. What is Learning?
2. Classical Conditioning
3. Operant Conditioning
4. Observational Learning
5. Factors that Facilitate Learning
6. What Happens in the Brain When We Learn?
7. Learning Disabilities: When Things Go Wrong
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What is Learning?
Lasting change as a result of practice, study, or experience
Learning curve: A graph showing change in performance on a learning task over time
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Two Types of Learning
Nonassociative learning: change resulting from experiences with a single sensory cue
o Habituation
Weakening of response to a stimulus after repeated presentation
o Sensitization
Increase in response to a stimuli after presentation of a strong stimulus
Associative learning: Connections are formed between two or more stimuli
Classical conditioning
Operant conditioning
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Classical Conditioning
The association of two stimuli
Ivan Pavlov
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Classical Conditioning
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Components of Classical Conditioning
Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS): A stimulus that naturally produces a response
o Dog food
Unconditioned Response (UCR): The natural physical response to the stimulus
o Salivation to dog food
Conditioned Stimulus (CS): The stimulus that is originally neutral but after pairings with an unconditioned stimulus becomes meaningful
o Tone
Conditioned Response (CR): The learned physical response to a previously neutral stimulus
o Salivation to tone 2013 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.
Pavlovs Dogs
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Components of Classical Conditioning
Please identify the UCS, UCR, CS, CR in the following examples:
Jonathan loves spicy food! Last week he ate at Tia Mexicana three times and literally perspired from the hot spices. Yesterday, as he drove past the restaurant, Jonathan began to perspire profusely.
Jeremiah is 6 months old. His mother warms his bottles in the microwave. Whenever the bell on the microwave rings, Jeremiah begins to drool.
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Four Major Conditioning Processes
Acquisition: The initial learning of the stimulus-response relationship
Extinction: Diminished responding that happens when the CS (tone) no longer occurs right before UCS (food)
Spontaneous Recovery: CR can recur after a time delay without need for further conditioning
Stimulus generalization: The tendency of a new stimulus, one that is similar to the original CS, to elicit the CR
o Implicated in fear conditioning
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Little Albert
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Classical Conditioning and Fear
Watson conditioned Little Albert to be afraid of a white rat
o He hit a steel bar making a loud, scary noise every time Little Albert reached for the animal
o After repeated pairings, Albert would cry just at seeing the rat
o Generalization: Albert came to fear other white things such as white beards
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Classical Conditioning and Phobias
Phobia
o Exaggerated, irrational fears associated with a particular stimulus
Examples: Snakes, spiders, heights, dark, etc.
Systematic Desensitization
o Repeated introduction to feared stimuli without US
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Classical Conditioning and Taste Aversion
Conditioned Taste Aversion: Associating a specific food with subsequent illness
o Unlike fear conditioning
Taste aversion can occur after only one pairing
Occurs even if several hours have passed between eating and becoming ill
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Operant Conditioning
Also called instrumental conditioning
We learn by reinforcement and punishment
Behaviorism: A branch of psychology insisting on investigating observable behavior
o Edward Thorndike
Law of effect: Behaviors with pleasurable results are likely to continue and those with unpleasant results are less likely to continue
B.F. Skinner
o Operant Conditioning: Similar to law of effect. Thorndike invented operant conditioning; Skinner popularized it and conducted extensive research on it
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Operant Conditioning
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Pigeon-Guided Missiles
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Reinforcement
Reinforcement increases future behavior
Positive reinforcement o Praise, food, money, sex, or anything positive will increase the
likelihood of the behavior happening again
Getting a good grade after studying for a test will increase the likelihood that someone will study for the next test.
Negative reinforcement o Removing a constant painful stimulus (nagging, loud noises, pain,
painful cravings) will increase the likelihood of the behavior happening again
If we put on a seatbelt and it stops the constant beeping, then we are more likely to put the seatbelt on again the next time.
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Punishment
Punishment decreases future behavior
Positive punishment
o Yelling, spanking, putdowns will discourage the behavior from happening again.
o Punishment by application of some stimulus
Negative punishment
o Silent treatment, no car or phone privileges, timeout will discourage the behavior from happening again.
o Punishment by removal of some stimulus
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Positive Reinforcement and Punishment
Positive Reinforcement Giving a dog a treat for listening to your command
Positive Punishment Yelling at the dog for not listening
In both examples, you are adding something (praise or yelling)
But with R, you will increase the likelihood the dog will listen to you and with P, you will decrease the likelihood
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Negative Reinforcement and Punishment
Negative Reinforcement o Constantly nagging your boyfriend until he buys you
flowers, once flowers are bought the nagging stops
Negative Punishment o After your boyfriend buys you flowers, you dont allow
him to watch football
In both examples, you are subtracting something (stopping nagging or withholding football)
But with R, you will increase the likelihood you will get flowers again and with P, you will decrease the likelihood you will get flowers again
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Types of Reinforcers
Primary reinforcers
o Stimulus reinforces behavior without experience or training.
e.g., food, water, comfort
Secondary reinforcers
o Stimulus reinforces behavior because it helps to attain a primary reinforcer.
Working earns money that can be used for food and comfort.
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Schedules of Reinforcement
Continuous reinforcement: Behavior is reinforced every time
Intermittent reinforcement: Behavior is reinforced only some of the time
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Intermittent Reinforcement Schedules
Ratio schedules
o Fixed ratio schedule
Reinforcement occurs after a fixed number of responses.
o Variable ratio schedule
Reinforcement occurs unpredictably or after a fixed average number of responses.
Interval schedules
o Fixed interval schedule
Reinforcement occurs after a fixed time has elapsed.
o Variable interval schedule
Reinforcement occurs at varying time intervals.
Using Operant Conditioning
Behavior modification: A planned effort to change childrens behaviors by reinforcing desirable behaviors and avoiding reinforcement of undesired behaviors
o E.g., Caregivers not responding to a tantrum
Shaping: Rewarding behaviors that are increasingly similar to the desired behavior
o Used frequently with animals
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Learned Helplessness
Learned helplessness
o Through repeated conditioning, people learn that they cannot control certain outcomes in their environment and subsequently fail to do so even when they are able
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Learning and Thinking
Latent learning occurs without reinforcement and is not used until called for.
o Not a result of conditioning.
Spatial navigation learning
Gaining information about the environment while casually exploring
Information (latent learning) is later used to find quickest route
Insight learning
Aha moment
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Observational Learning
Behavior is acquired by observing the actions of others
Modeling: Learning occurs through watching and imitating others
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Observational Learning
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Observational Learning From the Media
Albert Bandura (1977)
o Bobo doll experiment
Children watched one of three versions of a film showing a woman beating an inflatable Bobo doll.
Reinforcement Version: adult given candy after aggression
Punishment Version: adult scolded/spanked
No-Consequences Version
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Bobo Doll Experiment
Bobo Doll Experiment Results
Observing consequences mattered o Children who watched
punishment less likely to imitate aggression
All children able to imitate adults aggression, regardless of film version
Direct reinforcement not essential for learning, but the expectation of reinforcement influences which behaviors are expressed
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Factors that Facilitate Learning
Timing
o Multiple exposures separated by time facilitate learning facts
HINT: Studying material over the course of the semester is more effective than cramming the night before the final exam
Context
Context effect: If you learn information in only one context (e.g., in the classroom), you may be less likely to recall it in a different context (e.g., at a job interview)
Awareness and Attention
o Awareness and attention enhance most types of learning
o Some types of learning can occur without awareness
Non-associative learning
Sleep
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What Happens in the Brain When We Learn?
There is no single learning system in the brain.
o Multiple neural systems trigger different types of learning.
o Neuroscientists believe all learning involves changes in synaptic strength.
o Long-term potentiation (LTP): synaptic change that involves increased activity in the postsynaptic cells after strong, repetitive stimulation
o Donald Hebb
Cells that fire together, wire together
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Learning Disabilities
Learning disability describes a deficit in a specific area of learning while other areas of learning are normal. o Dyslexia
Common disability in learning to read
o Dyscalculia Common disability in learning mathematics
o Attention Deficit Disorder (ADD) Characterized by inability to pay attention
o Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) Characterized by inability to pay attention and excessive activity
2013 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.
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