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cartographycartography,the art and science of graphically representing a geographical area, usually on aflat surface such as amapor chart; it may involve the superimposition of political, cultural, or
other nongeographical divisions onto the representation of a geographical area.
A brief treatment of cartography follows. For full treatment,seemap.
Cartography is an ancient discipline that dates from the prehistoric depiction ofhuntingandfishingterritories. The Babylonians mapped the world in a flattened, disk-shaped form, but
Ptolemyestablished the basis for subsequent efforts in the 2nd century ad with an eight-volume
work on geography that showed a spherical Earth. Maps produced during theMiddle Agesfollowed Ptolemys guide, but they used Jerusalem as the central feature and placed East at thetop. These representations are often calledT-mapsbecause they show only three continents
(Europe, Asia, and Africa), separated by the T formed by theMediterranean Seaand the NileRiver. More accurate geographical representation began in the 14th century when portolan(seamens) charts were compiled for navigation.
The discovery of the New World led to the need for new techniques in cartography, particularlyfor the systematic representation on a flat surface of the features of a curved surface (see
projection;Mercator projection). The 17th and 18th centuries saw a vast outpouring of printed
maps of ever-increasing accuracy and sophistication. Noteworthy among the scientific methods
introduced later was the use of thetelescopefor determining the length of a degree of longitude.Modern cartography largely involves the use of aerial photographs as a base for any desired map
or chart; the procedures for translating photographic data into maps are governed by the
principles ofphotogrammetryand yield a degree of accuracy previously unattainable. Satellitephotography has made possible the mapping of features of the Moon and of several planets and
their satellites.
Cartography
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
"Cartographer" redirects here. For the album by E.S. Posthumus, seeCartographer (album).
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A medieval depiction of theEcumene(1482, Johannes Schnitzer, engraver), constructed after the
coordinates in Ptolemy'sGeographyand using his second map projection. The translation into Latin and
dissemination of Geographyin Europe, in the beginning of the 15th century, marked the rebirth of
scientific cartography, after more than a millennium of stagnation
Cartography(fromGreek kharts, "map"; and graphein, "write") is the studyand practice of makingmaps.Combining science,aesthetics,and technique, cartography builds
on the premise that reality can be modeled in ways that communicate spatial informationeffectively.
The fundamental problems of traditional cartography are to:[citation needed]
Set the map's agenda and select traits of the object to be mapped. This is the concern of mapediting. Traits may be physical, such as roads or land masses, or may be abstract, such as
toponymsor political boundaries.
Represent the terrain of the mapped object on flat media. This is the concern ofmapprojections.
Eliminate characteristics of the mapped object that are not relevant to the map's purpose. Thisis the concern ofgeneralization.
Reduce the complexity of the characteristics that will be mapped. This is also the concern ofgeneralization.
Orchestrate the elements of the map to best convey its message to its audience. This is theconcern ofmap design.
Modern cartography is largely integrated withgeographic information science(GIScience) andconstitutes many theoretical and practical foundations ofgeographic information systems.
History
Main articles:History of cartographyandList of cartographers
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Copy (1472) ofSt. Isidore'sTO mapof the world.
The earliest known map is a matter of some debate, both because the definition of "map" is notsharp and because some artifacts speculated to be maps might actually be something else. A wallpainting, which may depict the ancient Anatolian city ofatalhyk(previously known as Catal
Huyuk or atal Hyk), has been dated to the late 7th millennium BCE.[1][2]
Other known maps
of the ancient world include theMinoan"House of the Admiral" wall painting from c. 1600
BCE, showing a seaside community in an oblique perspective and an engraved map of the holyBabyloniancity ofNippur,from theKassiteperiod (14th12th centuries BCE).[3]The oldestsurviving world maps are theBabylonian world mapsfrom the 9th century BCE.
[4]One shows
Babylonon theEuphrates,surrounded by a circular landmass showingAssyria,Urartu[5]
and
several cities, in turn surrounded by a "bitter river" (Oceanus), with seven islands arrangedaround it.
[6]Another depicts Babylon as being further north from the center of the world.
[4]
Theancient GreeksandRomanscreated maps, beginning at latest withAnaximanderin the 6th
century BC.[7]
In the 2nd century AD,Ptolemyproduced histreatiseon cartography,
Geographia.[8]
This containedPtolemy's world map- the world then known to Western society(Ecumene). As early as the 8th century, Arab scholars were translating the works of theGreek
geographersinto Arabic.[9]
Inancient China,geographical literature spans back to the 5th century BC. The oldest extant
Chinese maps come from theState of Qin,dated back to the 4th century BC, during theWarring
States period.In the book of theXin Yi Xiang Fa Yao, published in 1092 by theChinesescientist
Su Song,astar mapon the equidistant cylindrical projection.[10][11]
Although this method of
charting seems to have existed in China even prior to this publication and scientist, the greatestsignificance of the star maps by Su Song is that they represent the oldest existent star maps in
printedform.
Early forms ofcartography of Indiaincluded the locations of thePole starand other
constellations of use.[12]
These charts may have been in use by the beginning of theCommon Erafor purposes of navigation.
[12]
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Mappa mundiare the Medieval European maps of the world. Approximately 1,100 mappae
mundi are known to have survived from theMiddle Ages.Of these, some 900 are found
illustrating manuscripts and the remainder exist as stand-alone documents.[13]
TheTabula Rogeriana,drawn byMuhammad al-IdrisiforRoger II of Sicilyin 1154
TheArab geographerMuhammad al-Idrisiproduced his medieval atlasTabula Rogerianain1154. He incorporated the knowledge ofAfrica,theIndian Oceanand theFar East,gathered byArab merchantsand explorers with the information inherited from the classical geographers to
create the most accurate map of the world up until his time. It remained the most accurate world
map for the next three centuries.[14]
Europa reginainSebastian Mnster's "Cosmographia", 1570
In theAge of Exploration,from the 15th century to the 17th century,Europeancartographersboth copied earlier maps (some of which had been passed down for centuries) and drew their
own based on explorers' observations and newsurveyingtechniques. The invention of the
magnetic compass,telescopeandsextantenabled increasing accuracy. In 1492,Martin Behaim,a
German cartographer, made the oldest extant globe of the Earth.[15]
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mappa_mundihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mappa_mundihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Middle_Ageshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Middle_Ageshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Middle_Ageshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cartography#cite_note-13http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cartography#cite_note-13http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cartography#cite_note-13http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tabula_Rogerianahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tabula_Rogerianahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tabula_Rogerianahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muhammad_al-Idrisihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muhammad_al-Idrisihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muhammad_al-Idrisihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roger_II_of_Sicilyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roger_II_of_Sicilyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roger_II_of_Sicilyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geography_in_medieval_Islamhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geography_in_medieval_Islamhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muhammad_al-Idrisihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muhammad_al-Idrisihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muhammad_al-Idrisihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tabula_Rogerianahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tabula_Rogerianahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tabula_Rogerianahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Africahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Africahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Africahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indian_Oceanhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indian_Oceanhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indian_Oceanhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Far_Easthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Far_Easthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Far_Easthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islamic_economics_in_the_worldhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islamic_economics_in_the_worldhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cartography#cite_note-Scott-14http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cartography#cite_note-Scott-14http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cartography#cite_note-Scott-14http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Europa_reginahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Europa_reginahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sebastian_M%C3%BCnsterhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sebastian_M%C3%BCnsterhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sebastian_M%C3%BCnsterhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cosmographia_%28Sebastian_M%C3%BCnster%29http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cosmographia_%28Sebastian_M%C3%BCnster%29http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cosmographia_%28Sebastian_M%C3%BCnster%29http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Age_of_Explorationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Age_of_Explorationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Age_of_Explorationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Europehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Europehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Europehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Surveyinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Surveyinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Surveyinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magnetic_compasshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magnetic_compasshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telescopehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telescopehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telescopehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sextanthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sextanthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sextanthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Martin_Behaimhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Martin_Behaimhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Martin_Behaimhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cartography#cite_note-15http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cartography#cite_note-15http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cartography#cite_note-15http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Europe_As_A_Queen_Sebastian_Munster_1570.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Europe_As_A_Queen_Sebastian_Munster_1570.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:TabulaRogeriana_upside-down.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:TabulaRogeriana_upside-down.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Europe_As_A_Queen_Sebastian_Munster_1570.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Europe_As_A_Queen_Sebastian_Munster_1570.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:TabulaRogeriana_upside-down.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:TabulaRogeriana_upside-down.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Europe_As_A_Queen_Sebastian_Munster_1570.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Europe_As_A_Queen_Sebastian_Munster_1570.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:TabulaRogeriana_upside-down.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:TabulaRogeriana_upside-down.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Europe_As_A_Queen_Sebastian_Munster_1570.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Europe_As_A_Queen_Sebastian_Munster_1570.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:TabulaRogeriana_upside-down.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:TabulaRogeriana_upside-down.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cartography#cite_note-15http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Martin_Behaimhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sextanthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telescopehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magnetic_compasshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Surveyinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Europehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Age_of_Explorationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cosmographia_%28Sebastian_M%C3%BCnster%29http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sebastian_M%C3%BCnsterhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Europa_reginahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cartography#cite_note-Scott-14http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islamic_economics_in_the_worldhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Far_Easthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indian_Oceanhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Africahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tabula_Rogerianahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muhammad_al-Idrisihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geography_in_medieval_Islamhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roger_II_of_Sicilyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muhammad_al-Idrisihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tabula_Rogerianahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cartography#cite_note-13http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Middle_Ageshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mappa_mundi8/21/2019 cartography wiki
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Johannes Wernerrefined and promoted theWerner projection.In 1507,Martin Waldseemller
produced a globular world map and a large 12-panel world wall map (Universalis
Cosmographia)bearing the first use of the name "America".PortuguesecartographerDiegoRiberowas the author of the first known planisphere with a graduated Equator (1527).Italian
cartographerBattista Agneseproduced at least 71 manuscript atlases of sea charts.
Due to the sheer physical difficulties inherent in cartography, map-makers frequently lifted
material from earlier works without giving credit to the original cartographer. For example, one
of the most famous early maps of North America is unofficially known as the "Beaver Map",published in 1715 byHerman Moll.This map is an exact reproduction of a 1698 work by
Nicolas de Fer.De Fer in turn had copied images that were first printed in books byLouis
Hennepin,published in 1697, andFranois Du Creux,in 1664. By the 18th century, map-makers
started to give credit to the original engraver by printing the phrase "After [the originalcartographer]" on the work.
[16]
Technological changes
A pre-Mercator nautical chart of 1571, from Portuguese cartographerFerno Vaz Dourado(c. 1520c.
1580). It belongs to the so-calledplane chartmodel, where observed latitudes and magnetic directions
are plotted directly into the plane, with a constant scale, as if the Earth were a plane (Portuguese
National Archives of Torre do Tombo, Lisbon).
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johannes_Wernerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johannes_Wernerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Werner_projectionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Werner_projectionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Werner_projectionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Martin_Waldseem%C3%BCllerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Martin_Waldseem%C3%BCllerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Martin_Waldseem%C3%BCllerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Universalis_Cosmographiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Universalis_Cosmographiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Universalis_Cosmographiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Universalis_Cosmographiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portugalhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portugalhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portugalhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diego_Riberohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diego_Riberohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diego_Riberohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diego_Riberohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Italyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Italyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Italyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battista_Agnesehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battista_Agnesehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battista_Agnesehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Herman_Mollhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Herman_Mollhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Herman_Mollhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nicolas_de_Ferhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nicolas_de_Ferhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Hennepinhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Hennepinhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Hennepinhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Hennepinhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Fran%C3%A7ois_Du_Creux&action=edit&redlink=1http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Fran%C3%A7ois_Du_Creux&action=edit&redlink=1http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Fran%C3%A7ois_Du_Creux&action=edit&redlink=1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cartography#cite_note-16http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cartography#cite_note-16http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cartography#cite_note-16http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fern%C3%A3o_Vaz_Douradohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fern%C3%A3o_Vaz_Douradohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fern%C3%A3o_Vaz_Douradohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Structureforet.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Structureforet.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Fern%C3%A3o_Vaz_Dourado_1571-1.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Fern%C3%A3o_Vaz_Dourado_1571-1.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Structureforet.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Structureforet.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Fern%C3%A3o_Vaz_Dourado_1571-1.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Fern%C3%A3o_Vaz_Dourado_1571-1.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Structureforet.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Structureforet.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Fern%C3%A3o_Vaz_Dourado_1571-1.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Fern%C3%A3o_Vaz_Dourado_1571-1.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Structureforet.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Structureforet.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Fern%C3%A3o_Vaz_Dourado_1571-1.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Fern%C3%A3o_Vaz_Dourado_1571-1.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fern%C3%A3o_Vaz_Douradohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cartography#cite_note-16http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Fran%C3%A7ois_Du_Creux&action=edit&redlink=1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Hennepinhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Hennepinhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nicolas_de_Ferhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Herman_Mollhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battista_Agnesehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Italyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diego_Riberohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diego_Riberohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portugalhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Universalis_Cosmographiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Universalis_Cosmographiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Martin_Waldseem%C3%BCllerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Werner_projectionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johannes_Werner8/21/2019 cartography wiki
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Mapping can be done withGPSandlaser rangefinderdirectly in the field (for example byField-Map
technology). Real-time map construction improves productivity and quality of mapping. Image shows
mapping of forest structure (position of trees, dead wood and canopy).
In cartography, technology has continually changed in order to meet the demands of new
generations of mapmakers and map users. The first maps were manually constructed withbrushes and parchment; therefore, varied in quality and were limited in distribution. The adventof magnetic devices, such as thecompassand much later,magnetic storagedevices, allowed for
the creation of far more accurate maps and the ability to store and manipulate them digitally.
Advances in mechanical devices such as theprinting press,quadrantandvernier,allowed for the
mass production of maps and the ability to make accurate reproductions from more accurate
data. Optical technology, such as thetelescope,sextantand other devices that use telescopes,
allowed for accurate surveying of land and the ability of mapmakers and navigators to find theirlatitudeby measuring angles to theNorth Starat night or thesunat noon.
Advances in photochemical technology, such as thelithographicandphotochemical processes,have allowed for the creation of maps that have fine details, do not distort in shape and resist
moisture and wear. This also eliminated the need for engraving, which further shortened the time
it takes to make and reproduce maps.
Advancements in electronic technology in the 20th century ushered in another revolution incartography. Ready availability ofcomputers and peripheralssuch as monitors, plotters, printers,
scanners (remote and document) and analytic stereo plotters, along with computer programs for
visualization, image processing, spatial analysis, and database management, have democratized
and greatly expanded the making of maps. The ability to superimpose spatially located variablesonto existing maps created new uses for maps and new industries to explore and exploit these
potentials. See also:digital raster graphic.
These days most commercial-quality maps are made usingsoftwarethat falls into one of three
main types:CAD,GISand specialized illustrationsoftware.Spatial information can be stored in
adatabase,from which it can be extracted on demand. These tools lead to increasingly dynamic,interactivemapsthat can be manipulated digitally.
With thefield rugged computers,GPSandlaser rangefinders,it is possible to perform mappingdirectly in the terrain. Construction of a map in real time, for example by usingField-Map
technology, improves productivity and quality of the result.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GPShttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GPShttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GPShttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laser_rangefinderhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laser_rangefinderhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laser_rangefinderhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Field-Map&action=edit&redlink=1http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Field-Map&action=edit&redlink=1http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Field-Map&action=edit&redlink=1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Compasshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Compasshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Compasshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magnetic_storagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magnetic_storagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magnetic_storagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Printing_presshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Printing_presshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Printing_presshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quadrant_%28instrument%29http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quadrant_%28instrument%29http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quadrant_%28instrument%29http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vernier_scalehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vernier_scalehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vernier_scalehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telescopehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telescopehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telescopehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sextanthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sextanthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sextanthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Latitudehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Latitudehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/North_Starhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/North_Starhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/North_Starhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sunhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sunhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sunhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lithographyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lithographyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lithographyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Photographyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Photographyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Photographyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_hardwarehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_hardwarehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_hardwarehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_raster_graphichttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_raster_graphichttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_raster_graphichttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Softwarehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Softwarehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Softwarehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer-aided_designhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer-aided_designhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer-aided_designhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geographic_information_systemhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geographic_information_systemhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geographic_information_systemhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Softwarehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Softwarehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Softwarehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Databasehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Databasehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Databasehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maphttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maphttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maphttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rugged_computerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rugged_computerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rugged_computerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GPShttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GPShttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GPShttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laser_rangefinderhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laser_rangefinderhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laser_rangefinderhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Field-Map&action=edit&redlink=1http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Field-Map&action=edit&redlink=1http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Field-Map&action=edit&redlink=1http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Field-Map&action=edit&redlink=1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laser_rangefinderhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GPShttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rugged_computerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maphttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Databasehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Softwarehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geographic_information_systemhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer-aided_designhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Softwarehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_raster_graphichttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_hardwarehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Photographyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lithographyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sunhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/North_Starhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Latitudehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sextanthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telescopehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vernier_scalehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quadrant_%28instrument%29http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Printing_presshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magnetic_storagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Compasshttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Field-Map&action=edit&redlink=1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laser_rangefinderhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GPS8/21/2019 cartography wiki
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Map types
General vs. thematic cartography
Small section of an orienteering map.
Topographic map ofEaster Island.
Relief mapSierra Nevada
In understanding basic maps, the field of cartography can be divided into two general categories:general cartography and thematic cartography. General cartography involves those maps that are
constructed for a general audience and thus contain a variety of features. General maps exhibit
many reference and location systems and often are produced in a series. For example, the
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Easter_Islandhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Easter_Islandhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Easter_Islandhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sierra_Nevada_%28Spain%29http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sierra_Nevada_%28Spain%29http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sierra_Nevada_%28Spain%29http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Maps-for-free_Sierra_Nevada.pnghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Maps-for-free_Sierra_Nevada.pnghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Easter_Island_map-en.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Easter_Island_map-en.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Orienteringskort_bygholm_2005_detail.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Orienteringskort_bygholm_2005_detail.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Maps-for-free_Sierra_Nevada.pnghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Maps-for-free_Sierra_Nevada.pnghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Easter_Island_map-en.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Easter_Island_map-en.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Orienteringskort_bygholm_2005_detail.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Orienteringskort_bygholm_2005_detail.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Maps-for-free_Sierra_Nevada.pnghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Maps-for-free_Sierra_Nevada.pnghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Easter_Island_map-en.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Easter_Island_map-en.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Orienteringskort_bygholm_2005_detail.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Orienteringskort_bygholm_2005_detail.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Maps-for-free_Sierra_Nevada.pnghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Maps-for-free_Sierra_Nevada.pnghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Easter_Island_map-en.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Easter_Island_map-en.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Orienteringskort_bygholm_2005_detail.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Orienteringskort_bygholm_2005_detail.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Maps-for-free_Sierra_Nevada.pnghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Maps-for-free_Sierra_Nevada.pnghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Easter_Island_map-en.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Easter_Island_map-en.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Orienteringskort_bygholm_2005_detail.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Orienteringskort_bygholm_2005_detail.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Maps-for-free_Sierra_Nevada.pnghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Maps-for-free_Sierra_Nevada.pnghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Easter_Island_map-en.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Easter_Island_map-en.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Orienteringskort_bygholm_2005_detail.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Orienteringskort_bygholm_2005_detail.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sierra_Nevada_%28Spain%29http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Easter_Island8/21/2019 cartography wiki
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1:24,000 scale topographic maps of theUnited States Geological Survey(USGS) are a standard
as compared to the 1:50,000 scale Canadian maps. The government of the UK produces the
classic 1:50,000 (replacing the older 1 inch to 1 mile) "Ordnance Survey"maps of the entire UKand with a range of correlated larger- and smaller-scale maps of great detail.
Thematic cartographyinvolves maps of specific geographic themes, oriented toward specificaudiences. A couple of examples might be adot mapshowing corn production in Indiana or a
shaded area map of Ohio counties, divided into numericalchoroplethclasses. As the volume of
geographic data has exploded over the last century, thematic cartography has becomeincreasingly useful and necessary to interpret spatial, cultural and social data.
Anorienteeringmap combines both general and thematic cartography, designed for a veryspecific user community. The most prominent thematic element is shading, that indicates degrees
of difficulty of travel due to vegetation. The vegetation itself is not identified, merely classified
by the difficulty ("fight") that it presents.
Topographic vs. topological
Atopographic mapis primarily concerned with thetopographicdescription of a place, including
(especially in the 20th and 21st centuries) the use ofcontour linesshowing elevation.Terrainor
relief can be shown in a variety of ways (seeCartographic relief depiction).
Atopological mapis a very general type of map, the kind you might sketch on a napkin. It often
disregards scale and detail in the interest of clarity of communicating specific route or relationalinformation.Beck'sLondon Underground mapis an iconic example. Though the most widely
used map of "The Tube," it preserves little of reality: it varies scale constantly and abruptly, it
straightens curved tracks, and it contorts directions. The only topography on it is theRiver
Thames,letting the reader know whether a station is north or south of the river. That and thetopology of station order and interchanges between train lines are all that is left of the geographic
space.[17]
Yet those are all a typical passenger wishes to know, so the map fulfils its purpose.[18]
Map design
Illustrated map.
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Map purpose and selection of information
Arthur H. Robinson,an American cartographer influential in thematic cartography, stated that amap not properly designed "will be a cartographic failure." He also claimed, when considering
all aspects of cartography, that "map design is perhaps the most complex."[19]
Robinson codified
the mapmaker's understanding that a map must be designed foremost with consideration to theaudience and its needs.
From the very beginning of mapmaking, maps "have been made for some particular purpose orset of purposes".
[20]The intent of the map should be illustrated in a manner in which the
percipient acknowledges its purpose in a timely fashion. The termpercipientrefers to the person
receiving information and was coined by Robinson.[21]
The principle offigure-groundrefers tothis notion of engaging the user by presenting a clear presentation, leaving no confusion
concerning the purpose of the map. This will enhance the user's experience and keep his
attention. If the user is unable to identify what is being demonstrated in a reasonable fashion, the
map may be regarded as useless.
Making a meaningful map is the ultimate goal.Alan MacEachrenexplains that a well designed
map "is convincing because it implies authenticity" (1994, pp. 9). An interesting map will nodoubt engage a reader. Information richness or a map that is multivariate shows relationships
within the map. Showing several variables allows comparison, which adds to the meaningfulness
of the map. This also generates hypothesis and stimulates ideas and perhaps further research. Inorder to convey the message of the map, the creator must design it in a manner which will aid the
reader in the overall understanding of its purpose. The title of a map may provide the "needed
link" necessary for communicating that message, but the overall design of the map fosters the
manner in which the reader interprets it (Monmonier, 1993, pp. 93).
In the 21st century it is possible to find a map of virtually anything from the inner workings ofthehuman bodyto thevirtual worldsofcyberspace.Therefore there are now a huge variety ofdifferent styles and types of map - for example, one area which has evolved a specific and
recognisable variation are those used bypublic transportorganisations to guidepassengers,
namelyurban rail and metro maps,many of which are loosely based on 45 degree angles asoriginally perfected byHarry BeckandGeorge Dow.
Naming conventions
Most maps use text tolabelplaces and for such things as the map title, legend and other
information. Although maps are often made in one specific language, place names often differ
between languages. So a map made in English may use the name Germanyfor that country,while a German map would useDeutschlandand a French mapAllemagne. A non-native term
for a place is referred to as anexonym.
In some cases the correct name is not clear. For example, the nation of Burma officially changed
its name toMyanmar,but many nations do not recognize the ruling junta and continue to useBurma. Sometimes an official name change is resisted in other languages and the older name
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may remain in common use. Examples include the use of SaigonforHo Chi Minh City,Bangkok
forKrung ThepandIvory CoastforCte d'Ivoire.
Difficulties arise whentransliterationortranscriptionbetweenwriting systemsis required. Some
well-known places have well-established names in other languages and writing systems, such as
RussiaorRulandfor ,but in other cases a system of transliteration or transcription isrequired. Even in the former case, the exclusive use of an exonym may be unhelpful for the mapuser. It will not be much use for an English user of a map of Italy to show Livorno onlyas
"Leghorn" when road signs and railway timetables show it as "Livorno". In transliteration, thecharacters in one script are represented by characters in another. For example, theCyrillicletter
is usually written asRin theLatin script,although in many cases it is not as simple as a one-
for-one equivalence. Systems exist for transliteration ofArabic,but the results may vary. For
example, the Yemeni city ofMochais written variously in English as Mocha, Al Mukha, al-Mukh, Mocca and Moka. Transliteration systems are based on relating written symbols to oneanother, while transcription is the attempt to spell in one language the phonetic sounds of
another. Chinese writing is now usually converted to the Latin alphabet through thePinyin
phonetic transcription systems. Other systems were used in the past, such asWade-Giles,resulting in the city being spelledBeijingon newer English maps andPekingon older ones.
Further difficulties arise when countries, especially former colonies, do not have a strong
national geographic naming standard. In such cases, cartographers may have to choose between
various phonetic spellings of local names versus older imposed, sometimes resented, colonial
names. Some countries have multiple official languages, resulting in multiple officialplacenames. For example, the capital of Belgium is bothBrusselandBruxelles. In Canada,
English and French are official languages and places have names in both languages.British
Columbiais also officially named la Colombie-Britannique. English maps rarely show theFrench names outside of Quebec, which itself is spelled Qubecin French.
[22]
The study of placenames is calledtoponymy,while that of the origin and historical usage ofplacenames as words isetymology.
In order to improve legibility or to aid the illiterate, some maps have been produced usingpictograms to represent places. The iconic example of this practice isLance Wyman'searly plans
for theMexico City Metro,on which stations were shown simply as stylized logos. Wyman also
prototyped such a map for theWashington Metro,though ultimately the idea was rejected. Othercities experimenting with such maps areFukuoka,GuadalajaraandMonterrey.
[23]
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Map symbology
A map of the southwest coast ofIrelandcreated in the early 18th century. Notice the north arrow at the
bottom of the map. Also, colors are used in the map to distinguish different geographical areas.
The quality of a map's design affects its reader's ability to extract information and to learn fromthe map. Cartographicsymbologyhas been developed in an effort to portray the world accurately
and effectively convey information to the map reader. A legend explains the pictorial language
of the map, known as its symbology. The title indicates the region the map portrays; the map
image portrays the region and so on. Although every map element serves some purpose,convention only dictates inclusion of some elements, while others are considered optional. A
menu of map elements includes the neatline (border),compass roseor north arrow, overview
map,bar scale,map projection and information about the map sources, accuracy and publication.
When examining a landscape, scale can be intuited from trees, houses and cars. Not so with a
map. Even such a simple thing as a north arrow is crucial. It may seem obvious that the top of amap should point north, but this might not be the case.
Map coloringis also very important. How the cartographer displays the data in different hues cangreatly affect the understanding or feel of the map. Different intensities of hue portray different
objectives the cartographer is attempting to get across to the audience. Today, personal
computers can display up to 16 million distinct colors at a time. This fact allows for a multitudeof color options for even for the most demanding maps. Moreover, computers can easily hatch
patterns in colors to give even more options. This is very beneficial, when symbolizing data in
categories such as quintile and equal interval classifications.
Quantitative symbols give a visual measure of the relative size/importance/number that a symbolrepresents and to symbolize this data on a map, there are two major classes of symbols used for
portraying quantitative properties. Proportional symbols change their visual weight according toa quantitative property. These are appropriate for extensive statistics.Choropleth mapsportray
data collection areas, such as counties or census tracts, with color. Using color this way, the
darkness and intensity (or value) of the color is evaluated by the eye as a measure of intensity orconcentration.
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Map generalization
Main article:Cartographic generalization
A good map has to compromise between portraying the items of interest (orthemes)in the rightplace on the map, and the need to show that item using text or a symbol, which take up space on
the map and might displace some other item of information. The cartographer is thus constantlymaking judgements about what to include, what to leave out and what to show in aslightlyincorrect place. This issue assumes more importance as the scale of the map gets smaller (i.e. the
map shows a larger area) because the information shown on the map takes up more space on the
ground. A good example from the late 1980s was theOrdnance Survey's first digital maps,
where the absolutepositions of major roads were sometimes a scale distance of hundreds ofmetres away fromground truth,when shown on digital maps at scales of 1:250,000 and
1:625,000, because of the overriding need to annotate the features.
Map projections
Main article:map projection
The Earth being spherical, any flat representation generates distortions such that shapes and areascannot both be conserved simultaneously, and distances can never all be preserved.
[24]The
mapmaker must choose a suitable map projectionaccording to the space to be mapped and the
purpose of the map.
Cartographic errors
Some maps contain deliberate errors or distortions, either aspropagandaor as a "watermark"tohelp the copyright owner identify infringement if the error appears in competitors' maps. The
latter often come in the form of nonexistent, misnamed, or misspelled "trap streets".[25]
Other
names and forms for this arepaper townsites,fictitious entries,and copyrighteaster eggs.[26]
Another motive for deliberate errors is cartographic "vandalism": a mapmaker wishing to leave
his or her mark on the work. Mount Richard, for example, was a fictitious peak on theRockyMountains'continental dividethat appeared on aBoulder County, Coloradomap in the early
1970s. It is believed to be the work of draftsman Richard Ciacci. The fiction was not discovered
until two years later.
Sandy Island (New Caledonia)is an example of a fictitious location that stubbornly survives,
reappearing on new maps copied from older maps while being deleted from other new editions.
The time and reason for its original placement on maps is unknown.
References
1. Robert Kunzig (May 1999)."A Tale of two obsessed archeologists, one ancient city, and naggingdoubts about whether science can ever hope to reveal the past".Discover Magazine.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cartographic_generalizationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cartographic_generalizationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cartographic_generalizationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thematic_maphttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thematic_maphttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thematic_maphttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ordnance_Surveyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ordnance_Surveyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ordnance_Surveyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ground_truthhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ground_truthhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ground_truthhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Map_projectionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Map_projectionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Map_projectionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cartography#cite_note-Albrecht_2005-24http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cartography#cite_note-Albrecht_2005-24http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cartography#cite_note-Albrecht_2005-24http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cartographic_propagandahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cartographic_propagandahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cartographic_propagandahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watermarkhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watermarkhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watermarkhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trap_streetshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trap_streetshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cartography#cite_note-25http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cartography#cite_note-25http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cartography#cite_note-25http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paper_townsitehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paper_townsitehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paper_townsitehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fictitious_entryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fictitious_entryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fictitious_entryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Easter_egg_%28media%29http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Easter_egg_%28media%29http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cartography#cite_note-26http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cartography#cite_note-26http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cartography#cite_note-26http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rocky_Mountainshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rocky_Mountainshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rocky_Mountainshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rocky_Mountainshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Continental_dividehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Continental_dividehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Continental_dividehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boulder_County,_Coloradohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boulder_County,_Coloradohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boulder_County,_Coloradohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sandy_Island_%28New_Caledonia%29http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sandy_Island_%28New_Caledonia%29http://discovermagazine.com/1999/may/archeologisthttp://discovermagazine.com/1999/may/archeologisthttp://discovermagazine.com/1999/may/archeologisthttp://discovermagazine.com/1999/may/archeologisthttp://discovermagazine.com/1999/may/archeologisthttp://discovermagazine.com/1999/may/archeologisthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sandy_Island_%28New_Caledonia%29http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boulder_County,_Coloradohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Continental_dividehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rocky_Mountainshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rocky_Mountainshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cartography#cite_note-26http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Easter_egg_%28media%29http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fictitious_entryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paper_townsitehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cartography#cite_note-25http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trap_streetshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watermarkhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cartographic_propagandahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cartography#cite_note-Albrecht_2005-24http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Map_projectionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ground_truthhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ordnance_Surveyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thematic_maphttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cartographic_generalization8/21/2019 cartography wiki
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2. Stephanie Meece (2006). "A bird's eye view - of a leopard's spots. The atalhyk 'map' and thedevelopment of cartographic representation in prehistory".Anatolian Studies56: 116.
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5. Catherine Delano Smith (1996). "Imago Mundi's Logo the Babylonian Map of the World". ImagoMundi48: 209211.doi:10.1080/03085699608592846.JSTOR1151277.
6. Finel, Irving (1995). "A join to the map of the world: A notable discovery". British MuseumMagazine23: 2627.
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Johannes Andersen. Highlights of Astronomy11B. Norwell:Kluwer Academic Publishers.p. 714.
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11.Needham, Joseph (1971). Part 3: Civil Engineering and Nautics. Science and Civilization in China4.Cambridge University Press.p. 569.ISBN978-0-521-07060-7.
12.Sircar, D. C. C. (1990). Studies in the Geography of Ancient and Medieval India. MotilalBanarsidass Publishers. p. 330.ISBN81-208-0690-5.
13.Woodward, p. 286[citation needed]14.S. P. Scott (1904), History of the Moorish Empire, pp. 461-462.15.Globes and Terrain Models -- Geography and Maps: An Illustrated Guide,Library of Congress16."Map Imitation" inDetecting the Truth: Fakes, Forgeries and Trickery[dead link], a virtual museum
exhibition at Library and Archives Canada
17.Ovenden 2007,p. 2218.Devlin, Keith (2002). The Millennium Problems. New York, New York: Basic Books. pp. 162163.
ISBN978-0-465-01730-0.19.Robinson, A.H. (1953). Elements of Cartography. New York: John Wiley & Sons.ISBN0-471-
72805-5.
20.Robinson, A.H. (1982). Early Thematic Mapping: In the History of Cartography. Chicago: TheUniversity of Chicago Press.ISBN0-226-72285-6.
21.MacEachren, A.M.(1995). How Maps Work. New York: The Guilford Press.ISBN1-57230-040-X.22.This section based on: "Transliteration Systems". Illustrated Atlas of the World, Quantum
Electronics25.Rand McNally.1992. pp. 8789.Bibcode:1995QuEle..25...87..
doi:10.1070/QE1995v025n01ABEH013084.ISBN0-528-83492-4.
23.Ovenden 2007,pp. 60, 131, 132, 13524. [[[1]|Albrecht, Jochen]] Check |authorlink=value (help)."Maps projections".Introduction to
Mapping Sciences, 2005.Retrieved 2013-08-13.
25.Monmonier, Mark (1996). 2nd., ed. How to Lie with Maps. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.p. 51.ISBN0-226-53421-9.
26.Openstreetmap.org Copyright Easter EggsBibliography
Ovenden, Mark(2007). Transit Maps of the World. New York, New York:Penguin Books.ISBN978-0-14-311265-5.
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cartography wiki
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Further reading
Mapmaking
MacEachren, A.M. (1994). Some Truth with Maps: A Primer on Symbolization & Design.University Park: The Pennsylvania State University.ISBN0-89291-214-6.
Monmonier, Mark (1993). Mapping It Out. Chicago:University of Chicago Press.ISBN0-226-53417-0.
Kraak, Menno-Jan and Ormeling, Ferjan (2002). Cartography: Visualization of Spatial Data.Prentice Hall.ISBN0-13-088890-7.
Peterson, Michael P. (1995). Interactive and Animated Cartography. Upper Saddle River, NewJersey: Prentice Hall.ISBN978-0-13-079104-7.
Slocum, T. (2003). Thematic Cartography and Geographic Visualization. Upper Saddle River, NewJersey: Prentice Hall.ISBN0-13-035123-7.
History
Ralph E Ehrenberg (October 11, 2005).Mapping the World: An Illustrated History ofCartography.National Geographic. p. 256.ISBN0-7922-6525-4. J. B. HarleyandDavid Woodward(eds) (1987). The History of Cartography Volume 1:
Cartography in Prehistoric, Ancient, and Medieval Europe and the Mediterranean. Chicago and
London: University of Chicago Press.ISBN0-226-31633-5.
J. B. Harley and David Woodward (eds) (1992). The History of Cartography Volume 2, Book 1:Cartography in the Traditional Islamic and South Asian Societies. Chicago and London: University
of Chicago Press.ISBN0-226-31635-1.
J. B. Harley and David Woodward (eds) (1994). The History of Cartography Volume 2, Book 2:Cartog
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