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TEACHER REACTION TO AND
UNDERSTANDING OF A TASK-BASED,EMBEDDED SYLLABUS
by
Candice Sparks(BA BEd University of Queensland)
School of Humanities and Human Services
Centre for Social Change Research
Submitted for Masters Degree
Queensland University of Technology
December 2006
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List of keywords- task-based instruction, embeddedness, Queensland French syllabus,
French teaching, teacher understanding, learner centredness, teacher role, teacher
change.
ABSTRACTThis thesis investigates where the Years 4-10 Queensland French Syllabus is receiving
support, by investigating groups of teachers with shared characteristics. In doing so, it
aims to shed some light on why teachers have not embraced this new syllabus. Specific
issues pertaining to the syllabus are investigated, such as the use of task-based
instruction as the chosen methodology and of embedded content, as well as contextual
issues, such as employment sector and levels taught. Teachers reactions to change have
also been investigated in relation to the introduction of this syllabus. In addition to this,
the process involved in acceptance of an innovation has been explored which led to an
examination of teacher understanding of the current syllabus. This study is divided into
five chapters. Chapter one outlines the syllabus and context, as well as hypotheses for
this study and rationale. Chapter two is a literature review which brings together
previous research and links it to the current study. The chosen methodology is covered
by chapter three, with chapter four being a detailed explanation of results received from
the data collection. The final chapter, chapter five, discusses these results and the
implications of these findings.
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
Chapter One- Introduction
1.0 Introduction 11.1 Recent History of French syllabuses in Queensland 2
1.2 Methodology of 2000 French syllabus 31.3 Description of Queensland French context 81.4 Aim of the study 10
Chapter Two- Literature Review
2.0 Introduction 152.1 Task-based instruction 15
2.2 Embeddedness 31
2.3 Teacher proficiency/qualifications 332.4 Teachers and change 35
2.5 Conclusion 41
Chapter Three- Methodology
3.0 Introduction 42
3.1 The survey 42
3.2 Details of survey questions 463.3 Focus groups 50
3.4 Conclusion 54
Chapter Four- Survey Results
4.0 Introduction 55
4.1 Teacher and school details 56
4.2 Who is using the syllabus 684.3 Strengths and weaknesses of the syllabus 76
4.4 Task-based instruction 774.5 Embeddedness 94
4.6 Time 108
4.7 Resources 111
4.8 Teacher role 1214.9 Physical space/ideal classroom 122
4.10 Professional development 123
4.11 Conclusion 124
Chapter Five- Discussion5.0 Introduction 1275.1 School sector 127
5.2 Adaptability/resistance to change 128
5.3 Syllabus specific issues 132
5.4 Scope and limitations of the study 1485.5 Recommendations 148
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Appendices
Appendix 1A- Example module 154Appendix 1B- Example of a resource 155
Appendix 2A- Survey 156
Appendix 2B- Teacher Information letter and consent 162
Appendix 3- Ethics clearance 164Appendix 4- Focus group information and consent 166
Bibliography 168
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List of diagrams and tables
Diagram 1 The Teachers Life Cycle (taken from Huberman, Thompson & Weiland
1997)
Diagram 2 Possible pathways through the survey
Table 4.1-Male/female
Table 4.2-In which system are you currently employed?
Table 4.3- Primary/secondary
Table 4.4- French as percentage of teaching load
Table 4.5- Please indicate in which age group you belong.
Table 4.6-How many years have you been teaching?
Table 4.7-Native/background/neither
Table 4.8-Have you spent a time greater than 2 months in a French speaking country?
Table 4.9-Listening proficiency
Table 4.10- Speaking proficiency
Table 4.11-Reading proficiency
Table 4.12- Writing proficiency
Table 4.13- Overall scores for macroskills
Table 4.14- Proficiency levels of participants by levels taught
Table 4.15-Did you use the 1988 Queensland French syllabus?
Table 4.16-Do you currently follow the year 4-10 Queensland French Syllabus?
Table 4.17- Use of syllabus in EQ and IE schools
Table 4.18- Use of syllabus by levels taught
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Table 4.19- Proficiency levels of participants versus use of the syllabus
Table 4.20-EQ teachers use of the syllabus by proficiency level
Table 4.21- Years of experience versus use of syllabus
Table 4.22-Experience versus use of syllabus in EQ
Table 4.23- Students are enthusiastic about task-based education
Table 4.24-Level taught versus student reaction to TBI
Table 4.25-I enjoy teaching a task-based syllabus
Table 4.26- Primary and secondary teachers enthusiasm for TBI
Table 4.27- Proficiency levels versus enthusiasm for TBI
Table 4.28- Years experience versus enthusiasm for TBI
Table 4.29- The move to a more learner-centered syllabus is beneficial for students
Table 4.30- Primary and secondary opinions on benefits of learner centredness
Table 4.31-My students have the necessary skills to deal with learner-centredness
Table 4.32- When working on tasks, students spend the majority of time engaged in work
Table 4.33- Primary and secondary responses to time spent on task
Table 4.34- When working on tasks, many students are frequently off task unless they
are being individually monitored
Table 4.35- Primary versus secondary opinions on whether students are frequently off
task
Table 4.36- Teacher opinion on focus on form in the 2000 syllabus
Table 4.37- Years experience versus opinion on focus on form
Table 4.38- Overall, I feel the 2000 Syllabus is working well in my situation
Table 4.39- Primary vs secondary opinions on whether syllabus is working well
Table 4.40- Years experience versus overall support for syllabus
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Table 4.41-I have sufficient general knowledge to teach the topics in the 2000 Syllabus
Table 4.42- Conferring with other KLA teachers
Table 4.43- Primary vs secondary responses to conferring with other KLA teachers
Tables 4.44- The suggested topics in the syllabus are interesting for students
Table 4.45- Primary vs secondary results to interest of topics for students
Table 4.46-A task-based, embedded syllabus, such as the current Qld 4-10 French
syllabus, puts a higher demand on teachers language skills than a textbook course
Table 4.47-Do you feel that a high French proficiency is necessary to be able to
effectively teach the current syllabus?
Table 4.48- Proficiency level vs opinion on necessity of high French proficiency to teach
syllabus
Table 4.49-Do you ever refer to the suggested teacher language supplied on the
syllabus CDs?
Table 4.50-Do you feel that a teacher with limited proficiency would be able to
successfully teach the 2000 syllabus using the materials and sample language supplied
on the CD?
Table 4.51- Proficiency versus opinion on whether low proficiency teacher could
effectively teach syllabus using supplied resources
Table 4.52-Has your use of French in the classroom increased since implementing the
2000 syllabus?
Table 4.53- Proficiency versus increase in use of French in the classroom
Table 4.54- The time allocated to LOTE in my school allows enough time for me to teach
the current syllabus
Table 4.55-Do you use the resources supplied on the syllabus CDs?
Table 4.56- The resources are level appropriate
Table 4.57- Proficiency versus opinion on level appropriateness of resources
Table 4.58- The resources engage the students
Table 4.59-I need to add many additional resources to what is supplied
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Table 4.60-I have access to sufficient resources to teach the 2000 syllabus
Table 4.61-Have you been informed of the existence of the resource kits created to
complement the modules of the syllabus which are available from the Qld LOTE Centre?
Table 4.62-Do you use the aforementioned LOTE centre kits?
Table 4.63-I feel that I am adequately prepared for my role as facilitator in the 2000
syllabus
Table 4.64-Have you had any training in the implementation of the Years 4-10 French
syllabus, including pre-service education?
Table 4.65-If professional development sessions in the implementation of the 2000
French Syllabus were offered, would you be interested in attending?
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AcknowledgementsI would like to acknowledge the assistance of my supervisors, Dr Barbara Hanna and Dr
Beatrice Atherton and thank them for their unrelenting support which enabled me tocontinue studying with my daughter by my side. I would also like to acknowledge the
patience of my daughter, Mia, when Mummy had work to do.
Statement of Original Authorship
The work contained in this thesis has not been previously submitted to meet
requirements for an award at this or any other higher education institution. To the best ofmy knowledge and belief, the thesis contains no material previously published or written
by another person except where due reference is made.
Signature: ____________________Date: ____________________
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CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
1.0 IntroductionSix years have passed since the current Queensland Years 4-10 French syllabus first
appeared in schools, so teachers have had ample time to work with it and discover both
the positive aspects and the limitations in their individual contexts. Prior to the
commencement of this thesis, based on my teaching experience and informal discussions
with other Queensland Language Other Than English (LOTE) teachers, my
understanding was that, in many cases, this syllabus was not being implemented as
intended, nor was it receiving the support expected when it was introduced.
At the time of its introduction, the Queensland 2000 Years 4-10 French Syllabus
represented a radical shift away from what most teachers were currently doing in their
classrooms. Based on the latest research on second language acquisition, the approach
taken by this syllabus combined a strong version of task-based instruction (TBI) with
embedded content from other key learning areas (KLAs) of the curriculum, a rare, if not
unique, combination. Due to decreasing interest in LOTE, there was a need to change
approach in an attempt to attract a greater number of students into the language
classroom. A task-based syllabus was seen to be the most effective way of achieving
this, blended with the choice of embedded content, being topics from other KLAs.
This chapter commences by tracing the history of French syllabus change in Queensland
and how a task-based, embedded syllabus came to be the methodology of choice.
Following this, the syllabus is described and its various, and often unique, components
are outlined. Hypotheses for this study are then made explicit and a brief discussion of
the relevance of the project concludes this chapter.
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1.1 Recent history of French syllabuses in Queensland
Prior to the current 2000 Years 4-10 Queensland French Syllabus, the last junior French
syllabus is dated 1988. However, in the interim an attempt at the creation of a new
syllabus was made, but the document was never completed. In lieu of a formal, written
document, many teachers came to rely on the boxed Stage A, B and C Kits (Department
of Education Queensland, 1996), adapted from Distance Education materials, and also
on a non-language specific sourcebook entitled In other Words (Department of
Education Queensland, 1989).
Gradually language education in Queensland has been moving away from a synthetic
approach to an analytic approach. The 1988 syllabus encouraged teachers to direct
attention away from the concept of language as an abstract system to be learnt towards
the uses of language why and how it is used (BSSS, 1988:1), which in reality, is
closer to an analytic syllabus. However teachers were still expected to set out in detail
the situations, topics, functions, grammar, learning experiences and cultural components
to be included in the units of work for each semester (BSSS, 1988:19), making this
syllabus a typically synthetic one when it came to practice. A traditional PPP
(presentation-practice-production) approach was still the expected methodology in thiscase. As discussed in Ellis (2003:29), PPP views language as a series of products that
can be acquired sequentially. However SLA research has shown that learners do not
acquire language in this way. Rather they construct a series of systems, known as
interlanguages, which are gradually grammaticized and restructured as learners
incorporate new features. This final remark relating to the construction of
interlanguages is one that is crucial to understanding the workings of a task-based
syllabus. Skehan (1996a) summarises the differences between PPP and TBI stating,
A PPP approach looks on the learning process as learning a series of discrete
items and then bringing these items together in communication to provide further
practice and consolidation. A task-based approach sees the learning process as
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one of learning through doing- it is primarily by engaging in meaning that the
learners system is encouraged to develop. (p. 20)
A task-based approach is meaning focused and involves learners in doing something
rather than simply manipulating language out of context. TBI also seeks to have real
world significance which, in the Queensland case, is done by linking the content to other
subject areas in the curriculum. This will be discussed in greater detail in section 1.2.1.
The task-based approach to instruction moves away from the traditional transmission
approach, to one where the teacher acts more as a facilitator and allows students to
discover their own knowledge which is precisely why TBI is viewed as controversial
(Siu-yin Tong, Adamson, & Man-wai Che, 2000). Teachers attitudes towards the shift
in teacher role in task based education is another factor which was investigated in this
study . Naturally, with the move to teacher as facilitator, the learner also takes on a
different role, a more active one, so teacher reaction towards increased learner
centredness is also investigated.
Within TBI programs there is considerable variation in implementation. The following
section outlines the practical aspects of this syllabus as defined in the syllabus
document.
1.2 Methodology of 2000 French syllabus
The 2000 French syllabus spans grades 4-10 and as such has been arranged into three
bands of schooling: middle primary (Years 4 and 5), upper primary (Years 6 and 7) and
lower secondary (Years 8, 9 and 10). At the time of its introduction, it was expected that
LOTE in Queensland would be compulsory for all students in years 4-10, however this
is not the case. Currently in Education Queensland (EQ) students in years 6-8 should
experience compulsory language classes, though there are reportedly a number of
schools where this does not occur. The syllabus caters for students at different stages of
language learning by acknowledging that at any point in time, regardless of band of
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schooling, there could be students in the classroom at any of the four stages of language
learning these being beginner, elementary, lower intermediate and intermediate (QSCC
2000a:10).
The syllabus is available in two forms: one is a paper copy, and the other is a CD. The
CD version contains a significant amount of material not included in the paper copy of
the syllabus. There are many example modules which teachers can adapt to suit their
own contexts. Within these modules are provided a multitude of resources and task
ideas, as well as suggested teacher language to assist those who need it.
1.2.1 Task-based methodology
The methodology adopted by the 2000 syllabus is a strong task-based approach, where
tasks form the basis around which the syllabus is organized. The syllabus discusses the
task-based approach stating:
Tasks engage learners in using real language for real or lifelike purposes. They
are sequenced to achieve some central purpose within a context that has
relevance for students in terms of their social, school and personal lives. Students
become involved themselves and are able to invest personal meanings into what
they comprehend and compose (QSCC 2000a:8).
The points mentioned above are equally applicable to the choice of content, which is
embedded content being content taken from other subject areas. This is discussed in
greater detail in the following section.
1.2.2 Learner centredness
Learner centredness is a key feature of the 2000 syllabus. The roles of teacher and
student are described in the syllabus when it describes learning as the active
construction of meaning, and teaching as the act of guiding and facilitating learning
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(QSCC 2000a:11). Students are encouraged to be active participants in the learning
process and, as mentioned previously, it is believed that by engaging with the language,
ones interlanguages are restructured. The syllabus states
Through feedback and continued experimentation and deliberate and
subconscious processes of acquisition, learners constantly refine and extend their
internal grammars. A task-based language approach within an embedded
program encourages learners to apply their mastery of another language to
actively pursue knowledge and understanding about their world and the cultures
within it (p. 4).
While advocating a program based around tasks, the syllabus also acknowledges the
important role of focus on form in language acquisition. It suggests that sessions of
integrated form-focused instruction will accelerate language acquisition (p.11).
1.2.3 A three phase approach
In terms of unit planning, the 2000 Syllabus was loosely modeled on the Language Arts
Syllabus in Queensland from 1991, employing the same terms to label the different
phases of task completion. Explanation of the different phases in each of the syllabuses
is quite similar, although obviously in practice, there are differences when a second
language is being taught, as opposed to a first language. There are three phases outlined
in the modules in the 2000 French syllabus CDs, these being the orientating, enhancing
and synthesizing phases. The orientating phase is comprised of preliminary activities
and explanations about what will take place in the unit and discussion of the major
task(s). The enhancing phase concerns itself with acquainting learners with what they
will need to complete the final task, which is realized through smaller tasks that may
form part of the larger end task, through completion of similar tasks or possibly viewing
a completed version of the task. Basically the aim of the enhancing phase is to give the
learners the tools to be able to successfully achieve the final task. The synthesizing
phase, as the name suggests, aims to synthesize what has been learnt throughout the unit
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by giving students the opportunity to demonstrate their understanding through the
realization of an individual creative task. Interestingly, there is neither mention nor
explanation of these phases in the syllabus document. Information concerning the three
phases appears only on the syllabus CDs and can be located in the section entitled
sequence for teaching and learning in LOTE.
To further clarify the above explanation, I propose the following examples of tasks
forming part of the module appearing on the syllabus CDs entitled No Dodos.
Suggested tasks for the orientating phase involve the learners in hearing the names of
endangered animals and locating their country of origin on a world map. Identifying
other endangered animals also forms part of the orientating phase, as well as reading
brief case studies and identifying the concepts of rare, vulnerable, endangered and
extinct. Included amongst the examples of the enhancing phase of this module are tasks
such as listening to or reading about endangered species and recording the information
on a class sheet, describing why different animals are endangered and identifying groups
that help threatened animals, as well as making suggestions about what can be done to
assist in the protection of these animals. The example given as a possible synthesizing
task is the presentation of a promotional poster, story or report which suggests ways to
help an endangered or threatened species.
1.2.4 Embedded content
The 2000 French Syllabus is considerably different from previous syllabuses in that it is
an embedded syllabus, meaning that an embedded program [] involves content based
on concepts and topic areas in other key learning areas while always allowing for
content to be interpreted as appropriate for language learning (QSCC 2000a:8). Nunan
suggests sources for possible subject matter in a content based course might be defined
in terms of situations, topics, themes, or following Widdowson (1978; 1979) other
academic or school subjects (1988:38), which is the approach taken by the current
Queensland French syllabus. In practice, this translates into modules of work with titles
such as Moon Residence (see Appendix 1a) and Waterwise, where clearly the
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content has been taken from other school subjects and French language thus becomes the
means for learning about the content, rather than solely an end in itself. Nunan (1988)
discusses the use of content from other subject areas, stating that The stimulus for
content based syllabuses is the notion that, unlike science, history, or mathematics,
language is not a subject in its own right, but merely a vehicle for communicating about
something else (p. 38). Therefore, in order for the lesson to be a French lesson, the
lesson itself really needs to be conducted in French, otherwise, it would seem that there
is little difference between a French lesson and a science or study of society lesson,
given that the content is very similar. Teacher attitude towards teaching in the target
language is an issue which was investigated in this study. In addition to this, teachers
were also asked whether they felt they were equipped with sufficient general knowledge
to be able to teach content derived from other subject areas, which may well be derived
from an area where the teacher has little or no experience, such as science or history.
Content that teachers can cover in their classrooms is not strictly prescribed, although
there are many suggestions of modules accessible on the syllabus CDs. Topics covered
need to fall into any of six broad fields, these being:
personal and community life leisure and recreation the natural world the built world the international world the imaginative world
The use of embedded content is a key feature that sets the Queensland program apart
from other task-based syllabuses. The rationale behind this choice of content is the belief
that embedded content provides a link to the real world as students are familiar with the
content from other subject classes. This differs from many other task-based syllabuses
where a real world link is created in other ways, such as by simulations of tasks that may
occur in the target country. As reported by a teacher involved in the syllabus
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development, the use of embedded content is more relevant to students. At this point in
their lives, many students cannot yet visualize visiting the target country so units created
around the idea of completing day to day tasks for life in French may not hold real world
significance for students. Included in the appendices are the overview of a module
(Appendix 1A) and an example of one of the included resources (Appendix 1B).
1.3 Description of Queensland French context
The following section aims to give a brief presentation of the Queensland background.
French is taught in a diverse range of contexts in Queensland, hence there is no one
defining description that can be given. Instead this section will aim to show a snapshot
of LOTE in Queensland. Firstly, there are three sectors of schooling: Education
Queensland Schools (Government run), Independent Education (operated by
Independent bodies, often different church associations, such as the Anglican Church)
and Catholic Education (which has its own education office). Within the Catholic system
there are two branches: that run by the dioceses and independent Catholic schools.
French is taught across all three of these sectors and while each sector has its
differences, so too do individual schools within each sector.
Geographically, a significant portion of Queensland schools are identified as rural by
Education Queensland providing a very different context to teaching in metropolitan
areas, such as Brisbane, Cairns or Rockhampton. Language teachers frequently report
lack of support for language programs in country areas and as such, there are diverse
issues at play in terms of success of LOTE programs in the rural context.
LOTE is compulsory from years six through to eight, meaning that both primary and
secondary students study compulsory LOTE. Primary school students (Prep - 7)
generally have one principal teacher who takes the class for majority of the week, with
several specialist teachers attending to particular subjects, such as LOTE and music. In
the high school context (year 8-12), on the other hand, LOTE teachers are just one of the
teachers students encounter in their day. In primary schools, the LOTE teacher most
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often will conduct the lesson in the students regular classroom while the classroom
teacher is released for non contact time. In contrast, many high school LOTE teachers
are fortunate enough to have a room or building designated to LOTE where students
come for the lesson. This varies greatly among schools and it could be argued that the
allocation of specialized LOTE space seems to relate to the attitude towards LOTE in
the school.
The current mandated minimum time for LOTE in the compulsory years (years 6, 7 and
8) is 90 minutes a week and it is up to the school how the 90 minutes is divided into
lessons. While 90 minutes is expected of all schools, there exist differences between
schools, with some not even reaching the minimum time allowance, and others greatly
exceeding the minimum amount.
It is preferred that students study the same language across the three compulsory years
of LOTE education, however frequently this is not possible in practice as students
change districts or sectors from primary into high school, into a school where a different
language is taught. As a result, students in a year eight French classroom may exhibit a
range of ability levels and the French teacher is expected to cater to these mixed ability
groups. There are also some schools where the French program is commenced prior to
year six, putting these students at a different level again, as they have received a
considerably larger number of hours of instruction than others commencing in year six.
Resources available to teachers vary greatly among schools and even among sectors.
Some schools place great importance in their LOTE program, and have access to
sufficient funding and resources for LOTE, while others function with minimal
resources and funding. Again, it seems to depend on the attitude towards LOTE within
each school.
The LOTE Centre1 Kits have been created as a set of resources to complement many of
the modules in the 2000 Syllabus. They are language specific and contain authentic
1The Queensland LOTE Centre is a government funded library housing resources from a variety of
languages and is open to teachers from all sectors.
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resources relating to the topics, such as posters in the target language that can be used in
the classroom, brochures, articles and videos, as well as resources created especially,
such as card games and board games. These kits are available for loan for the duration of
one term to enhance the implementation of the syllabus and give teachers access to
resources not always easily obtainable here in Australia.
In terms of LOTE teachers, there is a wide variety of qualifications and levels 2. Among
the teachers in this study, there was a range of language study and education
qualifications. Teachers reported qualifications ranging from a one year diploma of
education to a Bachelors degree or post graduate training in education. Language
qualifications were equally varied ranging from those who had only completed senior
school French, to those with post graduate language study in French and native speakers.
Needless to say, there is significant difference in teacher proficiency from school to
school. While there is a regulation of new graduates proficiency as they enter the
Education Queensland system, tested by a LOTE Proficiency Interview, it seems there
are many teachers who have no such rating.
1.4 Aim of the study
The purpose of this study is to investigate teachers reactions to the 2000 French
syllabus following its introduction six years ago. This research concerns itself with
determining the key features of the syllabus that teachers find problematic and in turn,
also explores how teachers integrate an innovation into their practice.
This study focuses on teacher-identified issues by using teacher input at every stage of
data collection. It is hoped that these results will be accessible and relevant to teachers
upon completion. As expressed by Barnes, Thomson, & Watson (1978), to make the
research available it requires more than better communication, more than popular
books; it requires different research which addresses itself to teachers' issues and offers
2In order to preserve teacher anonymity, detailed presentation of individual qualifications has been
excluded.
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explanatory accounts which teachers can map on to their own vocabulary of motives
(p.23). The work of Barnes et al has influenced my approach to this research, in that
teachers are asked to report on practice and results have then been, presented using much
of the teachers own words as taken from the survey and focus group sessions. Barnes et
al. discuss such research stating that, this can most readily be done through research in
which teachers are participants, and not merely subjects (p.23). Further to this, they
add that an important task for researchers in planning under such conditions would be
finding ways of helping teachers to make explicit to themselves aspects of the
vocabulary of motives which have formerly remained unreflected upon and unstated
(p.23). I have aimed to facilitate the clear expression of teacher opinion in my study
through the use of both open ended and multiple choice questions written in language
that is accessible to teachers to stimulate accurate reflection on practice The overall goal
of my research is to explore barriers to the successful implementation according to
teachers. The discussion of the results goes beyond a superficial view of what is
happening, attempting to isolate the key factors pertaining to the successful
implementation of the syllabus.
1.4.1 Issues investigated by this study
There are two broad questions that were investigated in this study, the first being who is
using the syllabus, in order to determine if there are consistencies amongst groups; the
second question seeks to identify the teacher-defined problematic issues in regards to the
syllabus.
In attempting to answer the first question, the following were identified as potential
factors which might influence use or non-use of the syllabus.
1. Sector
It was hypothesized, based on personal experience and informal contact with
teachers, that sector would play a major role in determining whether a teacher used
the syllabus. As the syllabus is not mandated in the private sector, it was expected
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that there would be a much lower number of teachers who claimed to be using it than
in Education Queensland schools, where teachers are expected to use the syllabus.
2. Levels taught (primary or secondary)
Due to the nature of the content in this syllabus, it was hypothesized that primary
teachers would be more supportive of it as it is more akin to what is happening in
their regular classroom, where subject boundaries are not so clearly defined. It was
also expected that primary teachers would express greater ease with conferring with
other subject area teachers as there are significantly fewer barriers to this happening
in the primary context. This is due to the arrangement of the primary school where
specialist teachers frequently encounter classroom teachers and there are no subject
specific staffrooms, instead there is a common room shared by all staff.
3. Stage in career
Based on the literature on teacher career cycle and on informal observation, it was
hypothesized that more experienced teachers would be more reluctant in their
support of this syllabus than their less experienced counterparts. It was expected that
more experienced teachers would be more resistant to any change as it represents
moving away from what they have established through their years of experience and
from what is familiar and comfortable.
4. Language proficiency of teachers
Prior to beginning this project I had spoken to many teachers about the supplied
resources and a resounding theme that emerged was the inappropriately difficult
level of the language. I hypothesized that perhaps teachers with limited language
proficiency would be less supportive of the syllabus because of the challenge
presented by the high language level and specialist language coming from the
embedded content.
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5. Knowledge of teaching methodologies
From my own conversations with teachers I noticed that there seemed to be various
interpretations of task-based instruction which also became a focal issue in my study.
I hypothesized that perhaps rejection of the syllabus might be due to lack of
understanding of TBI as a methodology.
6. Issues with TBI as a methodology
The choice of task-based instruction and the issues it raises were also investigated to
determine if the task-based methodology could be responsible for the lack of support
for this syllabus. The change in teacher role to that of facilitator and the move to a
more learner centred syllabus, as well as teacher reaction to the place of form were
all explored as contributing to teachers lack of support for the syllabus. The impact
of time allocations was also investigated, both in terms of time in the classroom and
teacher preparation time.
As discussed previously, the Queensland Years 4-10 French Syllabus uses embedded
content taken from the other KLAs which raises several issues. Teachers reaction to
embedded content is investigated, as well as whether the topics are motivating for
students (according to teachers), and also the availability of appropriate resources to
assist with the content. Based on informal discussion, it was expected that the issue of
embeddedness would be a key reason for lack of support for the syllabus. As mentioned,
there are a large number of resources supplied with the syllabus CDs and teachers
reactions to these are also explored. It was expected that issues such as the language
level and relevance of the material may be some of the issues mentioned by teachers.
Teacher opinion on professional development associated with the implementation of the
syllabus was also explored, with the expectation that many may not have attended
training sessions and so may not have the necessary grounding in the use of this
syllabus.
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1.4.2 Relevance of study
The findings in this study and the subsequent conclusions have serious implications for
French teachers in Queensland, and indeed for any teacher who is attempting to
implement a task-based program, these results will hold some relevance.
During the initial stages of implementation, there was some effort made to report on
teacher practice however these results were never formally released. My study is thus
the first conducted that investigates teacher reaction to the Queensland Years 4-10
French Syllabus, six years after its introduction.
While it has been mentioned previously that the Queensland syllabus is somewhat
unique in its approach, being both task-based and embedded, the results are nonetheless
significant for teachers using TBI outside Queensland. Many of the findings relate
specifically to teacher reaction to TBI and teacher understanding of the concept of TBI
is one of the key issues investigated.
As we have seen in this chapter the 2000 syllabus adopts a strong-task based approach
with embedded content coming from the other KLAs. We now move to chapter two to
situate the syllabus amongst second language acquisition research.
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CHAPTER 2
LITERATURE REVIEW
2.0 Introduction
The aim of this chapter is to discuss the research related to a task-based, embedded
approach for French, as well as to explore the issues which relate to the success, or
otherwise, of this approach. This chapter is organized into four main sections. Section
2.1 deals extensively with task-based instruction, covering the different models of TBI
and different meanings ascribed to the word task and situates the Queensland version
of TBI amongst these. Also discussed are the theories behind task-based instruction and
why it can be an effective methodology. Other studies on teachers views of task-based
programs are reviewed and subsequent problems identified by the participants in these
studies are covered as they relate to the Queensland context.
Section 2.2 centres around embeddedness, tracing its origins and rationale. Teacher
language proficiency is briefly covered in section 2.3 as it relates to the implementation
of a syllabus such as the Queensland one. Section 2.4 examines the literature on
teachers reaction to change and discusses how teachers experience an innovation. Also
included in this section is a discussion of the role played by career stage in acceptance of
change.
2.1 Task-based instruction
Section 2.1 discusses task-based instruction as it relates to the 2000 French syllabus. The
syllabus is situated amongst the different versions of TBI and issues pertaining to TBI
are also covered in this section. It is important to note here that a number of sources used
in the writing of this section may, by usual standards, appear dated. These sources have
been specifically included, alongside more recent works, as they form part of the
bibliography of the environmental scan conducted by the QSCC prior to the writing of
the syllabus (QSCC 1997). These sources are thus crucial in a discussion of the syllabus.
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2.1.1 Analytic versus synthetic syllabuses
In a broad sense, the Queensland 4-10 Syllabus for LOTE is an analytic syllabus. Nunan
(1988) describes an analytic syllabus as one where learners are presented with chunks
of language which may include structures of varying degrees of difficulty. The starting
point for syllabus design is not the grammatical system of the language, but the
communicative purposes for which the language is used" (p.28). Perhaps the most
defining feature of analytic syllabuses, as opposed to synthetic syllabuses, is that the
target language is presented in whole chunks at a time, in molar rather than molecular
units, without linguistic interference or control (Crookes & Gass 1993:11). The
rationale behind presenting whole chunks of language in this fashion can be found
succinctly defined in Crookes & Gass (1993) in their statement of the principles upon
which the analytic syllabus is based: (a) the learners' presumed ability to perceive
regularities in the input and induce rules and/or (b) the continued availability to learners
of innate knowledge of linguistic universals and the ways language can vary, knowledge
which can be reactivated by exposure to natural samples of L2" (p. 11). Based on these
assumptions, those being taught using the Queensland Syllabus are presented with
whole chunks of language.
The task-based syllabus can take various forms, as will be seen below. The Queensland
French Syllabus is of the TBLT (Task-Based Language Teaching) type and assumes a
strong approach to TBI, as is evidenced below.
2.1.2 Models of TBI
There is a variety of different approaches to task based syllabuses, which I will attempt
to cover briefly, in order to situate the Queensland Syllabus amongst them. To begin
with, a very broad classification that many authors use is the opposition between a weak
or strong approach to task-based instruction. A weak approach is one where tasks are
used, alongside other resources, as a method of instruction, while a strong approach to
task-based instruction uses tasks as the unit of language teaching (Skehan 1996b: 39)
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and everything is thus based around tasks. To draw on an example module, Moon
Residence, provided on the syllabus CD (see Appendix 1A), the unit is structured
around the final synthesizing task where students are asked to construct a moon
residence, outlining design features, as well as describing the daily routine of someone
living on the moon. All other tasks in the unit are constructed in such a way as to expose
the students to the necessary language knowledge to be able to successfully complete the
final task. Ellis (2003: 27) summarises the weak and strong approaches to TBI, using
different terminology, as follows:
Some methodologists have simply incorporated tasks into traditional language
based approaches to teaching. Others, more radically, have treated tasks as units
of teaching in their own right and have designed whole courses around them.
These two ways of using tasks can be referred to respectively as task supported
language teaching and task-based language teaching.
The Queensland French 4-10 Syllabus adopts a strong, task-based language teaching
approach in that tasks are central to the organization of the syllabus.
To break down the classification of task-based syllabuses still further, many researchers
make reference to various different types of task-based syllabuses. Unfortunately, space
does not permit me to cover in detail every approach; however a brief description of
each will enable the Queensland context to be situated amongst these other methods.
Long and Crookes (1992) offer three different types of task based syllabuses: procedural
syllabuses, process syllabuses and task-based language teaching. Ellis (2003) also makes
these distinctions, as well as the addition of another type of pedagogy, humanistic
teaching. Drawing on work by Moskowitz (1977), Ellis summarises humanistic
teaching, saying humanistic principles of education emphasize the achievement of
students full potential for growth by acknowledging the importance of the affective
dimension in learning as well as the cognitive (2003:31). In essence, activities of a
humanistic nature involve discussing students feelings and personal information,
forming the focus of the syllabus.
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Programs claiming to have a procedural syllabus approach to task-based instruction are
those programs modeled on the Bangalore Madras project led by Prabhu in 1979-1984,
which was seemingly the earliest attempt at a true task-based syllabus. An important
point to note is that Prabhus model of the task-based syllabus (1987), while appearing
similar to regular communicative syllabuses in terms of the proposed tasks, was actually
quite radically different in that the focus was on task completion, rather than focusing on
the language used (Long & Crookes 1992). The Bangalore Project, as it is often
referred to in the literature, was the start of the popularization of TBL (task-based
learning). Growing out of a dissatisfaction with structural teaching in English as a
Foreign Language (EFL) in India, Prabhu and his associates saw the main issue to be
addressed was a need for a change in methodology (Beretta and Davies 1985).
Prior to Prabhus work, in the state education system of India, English was taught
through a method referred to as S-O-S (Structural Oral Situational). Introduced between
1955 and 1965, in brief, the S-O-S method consisted of
the use of structurally and lexically graded syllabuses, situational presentation of
all new teaching items, balanced attention to the four skills (but with listening
and speaking preceding reading and writing), and a great deal of controlled
practice using techniques such as the substitution table and choral repetition
(Prabhu 1987: 10).
A significant amount of time and money was spent in implementing the S-O-S
methodology which remained the preferred methodology for more than ten years.
Around 1975, by which time S-O-S was a well established methodology, it began to
receive various criticisms and its intellectual momentum started to wear out (Prabhu
1987:12). There was concern that outside the classroom environment, students were not
able to use the language, nor achieve sufficient grammatical accuracy or situational
appropriateness in their language, despite several years of learning by the S-O-S
pedagogy (Prabhu 1987). So began a shift from pedagogy primarily of form-focused
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instruction, to one where students were more focused on meaning and communicating
and so began the Bangalore Project which was based on the assumption that the
linguistic code is learnt better if, in the process of learning it, learners attention is not on
the code itself but on some problem of meaning or message involving the use of the
code (Prabhu 1987:78). The background to the Bangalore project holds much relevance
as it mirrored what was happening in other foreign language classrooms around the
world.
Another style of task-based instruction is the process syllabus defined as having a
social and problemsolving orientation, with explicit provision for the expression of
individual learning styles and preferences (Long & Crookes 1992:38). The process
syllabus has strong influences from other subject areas and is, in essence, a syllabus
whereby the learners are given a problem and expected to solve it. The focus is on the
learner and learning process, more so than the language used. Breen and Candlin are two
of the key researchers on the process syllabus, and both are advocates of a syllabus
where the content is negotiated with the learners, based on individual needs and thus,
learner-centredness is a key tenet in this type of syllabus.
As can be seen, these syllabus types are moving away from the traditional synthetic
syllabuses, to more analytic syllabuses. The final category Task-Based Language
Teaching is closest in orientation to the Queensland French Syllabus and the one on
which the most time shall be spent. A necessary starting point is defining the word
task in task-based language teaching, or TBI as it is usually referred to in this thesis.
2.1.3 Definition of task
The word task appears throughout the second language literature but the meaning
varies greatly among different authors and, as concluded by Cook (2001:221) the
concept of the task is, then, fairly variable; no two people seem to have quite the same
definition. It is also useful to note here that the term task and activity are often used
interchangeably although, as will be seen, the two are quite different when defined in
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relation to TBI. The term activity tends to refer to those exercises that are shorter in
length, possibly stand alone without linking to a larger task. An activity may simply be a
grammatical exercise to assist with focus on form. It is important to define which
meaning of the word task is used in task-based instruction and in particular, when the
term task appears in the 2000 French Syllabus for Queensland. While the word task
has been used in the past to mean anything from a cloze exercise, to writing an essay, the
fundamental element of the task in task-based instruction is that it be meaning focused.
The definition used to inform the syllabus3 can be found in Nunan (1989) the task is a
piece of meaning focused work involving learners in comprehending, producing and/or
interacting in the target language, and [] tasks are analysed or categorized according
to their goals, input data, activities, settings and roles (p.11). To further enhance this
definition, Breen refers to a task as a springboard for learning work. In a broad sense, it
is a structured plan for the provision of opportunities for the refinement of knowledge
and capabilities entailed in a new language and its use during communication" (Breen
1989:187). A number of authors (eg. Crawford 1999, Skehan 1996, Carr 2005 among
others) suggest another classifying feature of tasks is that they are comparable to real life
language use. Ellis (2003) discusses the link to the real world, asserting that many tasks
occurring in the classroom will not be performed outside however he makes the
important point that the kind of language behaviour they [tasks] elicit corresponds to
the kind of communicative behaviour that arises from performing real-world tasks (p.
6). Skehan (1996b) adds two other features of a task to the above description: Task
completion has some priority, and the assessment of task performance is in terms of task
outcome (p.38).
To further define a task, Ellis (2003:9-10) puts forward six criteria which he considers
need to be satisfied in order for something to be classified as a task. The Criterial
Features of a Task are as follows;
1. A task is a workplan
2. A task involves a primary focus on meaning
3. A task involves real world processes of language use
3The definition appeared in the environmental scan conducted by QSCC in 1997.
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4. A task can involve any of the four language skills
5. A task engages cognitive processes
6. A task has a clearly defined communicative outcome
Summarising this section, the task referred to in the Queensland syllabus is meaning-
focused, with relevance to the real world and it is something which engages learners in
using one or more of the four macroskills. Assessment of the task is based on quality of
task completion. On the whole, the Queensland syllabus favours tasks which fit with the
criteria outlined by Ellis above.
2.1.4 Theoretical underpinnings of TBI
Task-based instruction is fundamentally based on naturalistic language learning,
meaning that learners learn best when allowed to experience language for themselves
and essentially learning by doing, rather than by teacher instruction. Some TBI
researchers (eg. Ellis), stress the addition of in-context form-focused instruction, thus
aiming to compensate for the lack of focus on form in purely naturalistic learning. It is
hoped that by adding some relevant focus on form, the students attention will be drawn
to the form when needed in task completion, leading to an incorporation of it into their
interlanguage (Ellis, 2003). The Queensland program stresses the learners active
involvement in the learning process. In addition, the QSCC environmental scan (1997)
makes reference to learners developing internal grammars as they engage in task
completion.
In terms of rationalization for embeddedness, the use of content from other KLAs is just
one of many possible options which aims to provide real world links. Embedded content
has been chosen in order to link languages with the rest of the curriculum, as well as to
give students content which is relevant to their age and level.
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2.1.5 Review of studies of task-based programs and teacher reaction
There does not exist a great number of studies which focus on teacher reaction to TBI,
however in those studies accessed, there are several commonalities. It is important to
note that the Queensland situation, where content is embedded, is an unusual situation,
which thus presents an added dimension not covered in these other studies. The issue of
embeddedness will consequently be treated separately in section 2.2.
A useful starting point is the introduction of the target-oriented curriculum (TOC) in
Hong Kong. While the context is significantly different from the Queensland situation,
there are, nonetheless, some relevant parallels in teacher opinion on TBI. Carless (2003)
conducted case studies of three teachers in Hong Kong who were attempting to
implement a task-based curriculum. In contrast to Queensland, task-based instruction in
Hong Kong takes on the form of a weak approach (Skehan, 1996a) with tasks being
similar to the production stage of the PPP method (Carless 2003), and as such tasks are
more structured than in the Queensland situation.
Carless discusses six issues which he found to be of significance in how teachers
implemented the TOC which are relevant to the Queensland situation. The issues
identified were:
1. Teacher beliefs
Teacher beliefs and attitudes are a crucial factor in determining if a new
innovation will be implemented, and hence is also a factor which is very relevant
to the Queensland situation, and is examined in some detail in this study.
2. Teacher understandings
This point is concerned with teacher understanding of what is entailed in task-
based instruction. A teachers interpretation of a particular methodology is
integral to how it is implemented.
3. The syllabus time available
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Time constraints are certainly an issue in both contexts. In Hong Kong, all three
teachers in the study expressed concern with having insufficient time to cover the
syllabus and this was exacerbated by the need to include tasks into class time. In
the Queensland situation, where tasks form the basis of the syllabus, and are not
in addition to it, the issue is slightly different. It is a matter of whether or not
there is sufficient class time to effectively teach via task-based instruction.
4. The textbook and the topic
Teachers in Hong Kong place great importance on covering the textbook, and the
same can no doubt be said of some Queensland teachers, making this an issue
relevant to both contexts. Results were inconclusive in relation to the effect of
different topics on task-based instruction, however two out of the three teachers
in Carlesss study believed topics had an impact on student motivation and ease
with which task-based instruction could be implemented.
5. Preparation and the available resources
Hong Kong teachers and Queensland teachers alike have heavy workloads and
often textbook based learning will require less preparation time than task-based
instruction, hence the reason some teachers may show a preference for textbook
over task-based education, an issue prevalent in both contexts.
6. The language proficiency of students.
Teachers in Carlesss study had a mixed view on this issue, but Carlesss own
interpretation of it is that students with higher ability are able to complete tasks
on a wider variety of topics and also, they have more language at their disposal,
thus reducing the time spent on task preparation, and thereby increasing time
available for tasks. Like the 6 or 7 year old Hong Kong students, many of the
students taught using the 4-10 Syllabus in Queensland are beginning students, so
the ability level of the students is also an issue in the Queensland context
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Similar findings to Carless were also reported in a study conducted by Jennings & Doyle
(1996) who investigated the implementation of a task-based approach in a small, private
EFL school in Ireland. Materials were a key concern, with reference made to the desire
for a textbook by the students and the difficulty in locating appropriate materials for the
course. Teacher preparation time was also a concern for the teachers involved in my
study. On a more positive note, higher teacher motivation was reported, as well as
increased co-operation between teachers. Learner centredness and the use of authentic
materials were also cited as positives by the teachers in my study.
As can be seen, although different contexts were investigated, similar issues arose in
both studies and as will be seen in the chapters to follow, also amongst Queensland
teachers.
2.1.6 Issues associated with task-based instruction
TBI is controversial for a variety of reasons. This section discusses some of these
concerns as they appear in the literature and how the Queensland syllabus has attempted
to address these issues.
2.1.6.1 Naturalistic language learning
An important characteristic of both TBI in a broad sense, and the Queensland context
specifically, is a focus on naturalistic language learning. While many see naturalistic
language learning as a positive, there are those who see this as one of the pitfalls of TBI.
Swan, in discussing naturalistic language learning, states the role of instruction in a
typical language classroom is not, surely, to attempt the impossible task of replicating
the conditions of natural acquisition, but to compensate for their absence (2005:393).
He further expands his lack of support for naturalistic learning that characterizes TBI,
saying this naturalistic slant constitutes something of a straitjacket, tending to limit the
approach to doing what it does best- promoting more accurate, fluent and complex use
of what has already been learnt- at the expense of a principled focus on new linguistic
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material (p. 388). Basically, students with a limited knowledge of the language, such as
the majority of learners being taught via the 2000 Syllabus in Queensland, see the goal
as task completion by whatever means necessary, and so will come to rely on already
learnt language, at the expense of developing new language. Skehan (1996b:58) also
notes this as a real danger of TBI, task-based learning, a current vogue in
communicative language teaching, contains dangers if implemented without care. In
particular, it is likely to create pressure for immediate communication rather than
interlanguage change and growth.
Some researchers (for example Swan 2005) express concerns about where new language
input is derived from when teachers use a strong task-based approach. Consequently,
several researchers argue for a more rounded view of TBI (eg. Seedhouse 1999, Swan
2005), not completely discrediting the advantages of TBI, but instead suggesting that
TBI be one of many tools available to classroom teachers, rather than the sole basis for
the syllabus. Effectively, these researchers are in support of a weak approach to TBI.
Swan (2005) presents an argument against the use of a strong version of TBI, claiming
that while TBI may successfully develop learners command of what is known, it is
considerably less effective for the systematic teaching of new language (p. 376). He
questions where new language input is supposed to come from, arguing that a limited
amount will come from interaction among students during the tasks, but this is not a
reliable form as it is unlikely that students will gain much new language in this way. He
suggests that some new language will come from pre-teaching, but he very clearly
discredits this, as one of the characteristics of TBI is to not give the learners specific
language. Instead learners must be permitted to use their choice of language in order to
complete the task (Willis 1996a). Swan (2005) expresses a considerable amount of
skepticism in regards to where new input will come from in TBI stating, it seems to be
commonly taken for granted that structures and lexis will be made available for learning
(and presumably learnt) through interaction, task materials, focus on form, teacher
intervention, pre-teaching, or simply the rich input felt to be associated with TBI; but
these assumptions are not for the most part given detailed attention or subjected to
testing (p. 389). The Queensland program averts this problem via the use of the
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enhancing phase where students should be given the chance to work with new
language and structures, before being expected to perform tasks for assessment.
2.1.6.2 The role of focus on form in TBI
Like the definition of task, the role of focus on form in TBI also varies according to
authors consulted. Some researchers emphasize a focus on meaning, with focus on form
taking a secondary role. One such example is the framework for task-based learning
proposed by Willis (1996a). She suggests that learners start by completing the task using
whatever language they already have, which is followed by a discussion and comparison
with other students. This stage can also involve hearing or reading other versions of the
completed task. At the end of the cycle, the students attention is then drawn to the
forms used. The Queensland program takes a different stance, with sessions dedicated to
focus on form occurring in the preparatory stages, as the need arises for task completion.
The syllabus states that it is helpful for learners to practice language in integrated
sessions of form-focused instruction (QSCC 2000:8). Students learning via the
Queensland program experience sessions of focus on form as they arise and are
necessary in task completion, rather than afterwards, as suggested in the Willis model.
The syllabus explains the rationale behind this approach to focus on form in that the
speed of language acquisition is increased, as well as greater accuracy, when form-
focused instruction takes place in context, as it occurs.
Recently there has been some research conducted on the effect of planning on task
completion. One such example is the work of Yuan & Ellis (2003). They investigated
different amounts of planning and the impact this had on task completion. They
concluded that the more planning that was able to take place, the more accurate the work
produced would be, as students had more time to attend to accuracy and complexity. As
will be seen in the section to follow, striking a balance between the goals of fluency,
accuracy and complexity can be quite a challenge for program designers. The
Queensland syllabus expects that students will have significant preparation time, with
tasks often conducted over several lessons. This is expected to result in more accurate
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and complex use of language, whilst also assisting with fluency when tasks are
presented.
2.1.6.3 Fluency, accuracy and complexity
Skehan (1996b) discusses a grave concern for students being taught via TBI. There are
three goals of language instruction, these being fluency, accuracy and complexity and it
is striking a balance between these three goals that poses a great problem for learners, as
they are not able to focus on everything at the same time. Fluency is often favoured over
the other two goals (Willis 1996b) as it is what is most needed for task completion. Both
Skehan (1996b) and Willis (1996b) discuss the danger in doing nothing but tasks as it
may lead to a situation where some learners become adept at task completion strategies
and manage to get by on very limited use of the target language (p. 55). Skehan
discusses the use of communication strategies used by learners taught via TBI:
The central problem for the foreign language learner, taught by task-based
means, is that learners operate under pressure of time and under the need to get
meanings across. This approach places a premium on communication strategies
linked to lexicalized communication. These strategies provide an effective
incentive for learners to make best use of the language they already have. But
they do not encourage a focus on form. They do not provide an incentive for
structural change towards an interlanguage system with greater complexity.
(Skehan 1996a:22)
In other words, students are able to complete the task sufficiently, but the goal of new
language acquisition, which is of course of central importance, is not being achieved as
students have learnt how to get by using these communicative strategies. To view this
another way however, communication strategies are also a very necessary part of
conversation. Swan (2005) acknowledges this same point but adds that perhaps TBI is
an appropriate method of instruction for more advanced learners who may know more
language than they use fluently and/or accurately (p. 388). He suggests that
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appropriately designed TBI may be an ideal corrective, combining communicative
practice with a focus on pushed output which encourages them to process material
syntactically, stretch their interlanguage, and thus gain a genuine control of previously
learnt material (p. 388). As will be seen, teachers are not always satisfied with the
balance struck between fluency, accuracy and complexity in the syllabus.
2.1.6.4 The impact of time
Another factor pertinent to the success of TBI is time. Mentioned by several researchers
(eg. Carless 2003, Swan 2005), a significant amount of class time is necessary in order
to TBI to be an effective method of instruction. The amount of time allocated to French
on a weekly basis has significant implications if this type of a program is to be
successful. Ellis (1990) makes a relevant point relating to syllabus design and time,
saying that we are making a syllabus to imitate what we do in the L1 but we have a
fraction of the time to work with and this could be a possible reason for the
ineffectiveness of many methods. Swan (2005) discusses the 3hpw learner, and
conclusions he reaches are equally valid for Queensland students, perhaps even more so,
as very few students in the Queensland context will be fortunate enough to even reach a
total of three hours each week, more commonly receiving about half that amount,
somewhere around 90 minutes which is the Education Queensland current mandated
minimum. Swan argues that in a 3hpw situation, a purely task-based approach can
neither ensure that language learners encounter all the most common and useful
language items, nor prevent much of what they do notice from being inadequately
processed and rapidly forgotten (p.393). The three teachers in Carlesss (2003) study
also mention inadequate time allocated to their subject and the pressure this places on
them to teach via TBI.
Time is a crucial factor, but not just in relation to the classroom. Carless discusses
another factor in the implementation of TBI in his context being a lack of time for
teachers to adequately prepare for TBI. He states that Hong Kong teachers have heavy
workloads and often textbook based learning will require less preparation time than task
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based instruction, hence some teachers may show a preference for textbook over task
based education. This is clearly also an issue prevalent in the Queensland context.
There are two opposing ways of viewing the time issue and the use of TBI in the
Queensland context. On the upside, students, especially primary students, who only
attend language classes once or twice a week and for around 90 minutes in total, are
possibly more likely to remember where they are at in terms of task completion, than say
where they are in terms of grammar exercises or other textbook related exercises, as
tasks may hold greater interest value. Students may retain more from a task as they are
engaged with the personal creation of a product, whereas grammar exercises most likely
will not hold as much significance outside the classroom.
On the downside of the time situation, there are limited opportunities for focused
instruction, thus limiting the amount of language that students are able to cover in class.
Couple this with the time taken for task completion, and students have even fewer
chances for new language input.
2.1.6.5 Learner centredness and the change of teacher role
A key issue in TBI is the change in teacher and student roles in the classroom. While the
communicative approach does involve students in playing an active part in the learning
process, it is still very teacher driven. TBI puts the teacher into the role of facilitator of
learning. The teacher is expected to guide students to self discovery of new knowledge.
Thus, students have become more active participants in the learning process. Willis
discusses one of the implications of this change, stating the biggest challenge for the
teacher used to a teacher-led PPP approach is to stand back, have faith and let learners
get on with their learning (Willis 1996b:61). Scrivener (1996) contrasts PPP with TBI,
making the point that with PPP the entire sequence of classroom events is described
from the teachers perspective; it is possible to plan a lesson entirely without reference
to the learners (p.80).
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A task based syllabus is naturally a more learner centred one and, as stated by Rubin
(1987), there has been a steadily growing interest in considering the task from the
learners point of view and in changing the focus of classrooms from a teacher centred
one to a learner centred one (p.15). Holec (1987) describes previous approaches by
saying that traditionally a majority of teachers and learners alike have tended to think
that the learners responsibility should be limited to being the beneficiary, so to speak, of
the process, its active manager being the teacher (p.147). In contrast, the current
syllabus requires students to work either individually or very often collaboratively, in
order to complete a task, the teachers role often to be simply to circulate and facilitate
the completion of a task by offering assistance and guidance where necessary, with
small amounts of whole class instruction, a greatly reduced amount to previous
syllabuses To quote from the syllabus, (QSCC 2000:11) a learner-centred approach to
learning and teaching views learning as the active construction of meaning, and teaching
as the act of guiding and facilitating learning. The shift in teacher role may be one of
the reasons for teacher resistance to this syllabus and as such, it is an issue which is
investigated in this study.
The importance of learner centredness can be summed up by Rubin (1987), when she
says
it is assumed that it is essential for students to be able to control their own
learning process so that they can learn outside the classroom once they are on
their own. If students are dependent on teachers to shape language to suit them
and to provide them with proper input, they cant begin to take charge of their
own learning when the teacher is not there (p.17).
Rubin goes on further to discuss the importance of students being active in the
learning process whereby teachers do not simply hand them the information, but instead
students are required to work with the information and thus internalize in ways
meaningful to them. While this is not necessarily a new idea, having also been a feature
of inductive grammar, which dates back several decades, it is intensified in TBI. As
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such, learners do not all work with exactly the same language in an approach such as the
2000 syllabus, but complete individual or group projects, which differ from each other
and hence require different language. In essence, learners are actually more able to shape
their own learning experiences in a task-based approach. The downside to a more learner
centred method is that since this is currently an approach not shared by other subjects in
the curriculum, students do not yet have the necessary skills to work independently,
without constant teacher interference. Throughout the literature, there is evidence of the
need to instruct learners how to behave in such a situation. For example, Nunan and
Lamb (1996:12) state, learners need to be systematically taught the skills needed to
implement a learner centred approach to pedagogy. Cross (2005) paints a dire picture
when he says learners are affected by the impact of materials upon teachers because
unless teachers make the nature of communicative language teaching explicit to them,
they can become disruptive and uncooperative since the communicative approach
assumes a greater responsibility on the part of the learners for their own learning than
they might ordinarily expect (p. 18). While Cross is referring to the communicative
approach, this is equally applicable to TBI hence teachers opinions on the move to a
more learner centred syllabus, as well as how their students tend to react to it by being
either on or off task, are investigated by this study.
2.2 Embeddedness
As mentioned previously, the Queensland 4-10 LOTE Syllabus is an embedded syllabus,
in that it takes content from other KLAs (Key Learning Areas). As expressed in the
QSCC Environmental Scan for the 2000 Syllabus (QSCC 1997),
an embedded approach is suggested as an appropriate model of syllabus
development which will ensure a meaningful link with other curricular areas.
This means that the topics and tasks of the language program are based, where
appropriate and feasible, on key concepts and ideas in other curricular areas for
that year level, while still allowing for a discrete language component, and
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consideration of the social contexts within which learners may be expected to use
their language (p.15).
Initially appearing similar in orientation to an immersion program, it is necessary to
clarify the distinction between the goals of the two programs. The focus within such a
program [embedded program] is not the content per se, as in immersion, but on tasks
which draw on language and content to solve a communicative need (QSCC 1997:15).
The rationale behind this choice of content is the view of language is as a tool, which
can be used to communicate about something else. Thus the focus is on using language
for real communicative needs. This is added to by the links to other areas of the
curriculum as in immersion programs. The idea of pulling content from other subject
areas into the language syllabus comes originally from Widdowson (1979) in his work
on English for Specific Purposes (ESP). He states that a course which prepares students
for dealing with English use in scientific communication should present the language not
as something in isolation from what the student knows but as an aspect of something
with which they are already familiar(p.28). This is also the philosophy which underpins
the Queensland LOTE Syllabuses. Students are presented with content taken from the
other subject areas, with which they are already acquainted, and the French language is
thus used in order to access this content.
The use of embedded content, while serving to provide something meaningful and real
to talk about (Curtain & Dahlberg 2004:285), also raises some issues which are
problematic. One is whether teachers feel they are equipped with the necessary subject
knowledge to teach the content.
2.2.1 Teacher knowledge of other KLAs
Opinions vary on the importance of teacher knowledge of other areas when teaching
courses which employ content from other subjects. Klippel (2003) makes the distinction
between the type of knowledge required of teachers in immersion programs and content-
based programs. Those teaching immersion programs need both a good knowledge of
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the language, as well as a good knowledge of the other subject area. A content-based
program does not require the teacher to be as knowledgeable in the other subject area as
French is still the focus, with the content being secondary and merely a relevant reason
for using the language.
Ideally when embedded content is being taught, language teachers would have frequent
contact with other subject teachers, both to assist with subject knowledge and pedagogy,
as well as to identify concepts that can be reinforced or enriched in the language
classroom" (Curtain & Dahlberg 2004:285). Curtain & Dahlberg (2004) discuss the
frequent lack of professional preparation in specific content areas (p. 271) as a
problem for language teachers who are teaching a course where content is taken from
other subject areas and propose that this often results in teacher preparation time being
spent more on content, than language and cultural components. Widdowson (1979) also
asserts the importance of teachers knowing something of the subject specific pedagogy
in order to be able to effectively teach.
2.3 Teacher proficiency/qualifications
One aspect that is hypothesized as a reason for possible acceptance or non-acceptance ofthe 2000 Queensland French Syllabus by teachers is teacher proficiency in French. A
teacher with a higher proficiency will be more at ease with more challenging resources
and topics. Without a doubt, a proficient teacher is more desirable in any circumstance
but the issue of proficiency is one which is difficult to define. As stated in a NALSAS
report prepared by Norris entitled Language Teacher Proficiency or Teacher Language
Proficiency (Norris 1999), while recognizing that the quality and supply of proficient
language teachers is vital to the success of second/foreign language as a learning area,
there does, however, remain some considerable ambiguity about how to define
proficiency, let alone how to monitor it (Norris 1999:54). As discussed in the NALSAS
report, there are multiple interpretations of teacher proficiency
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the term language teacher proficiency of itself suggests an emphasis on
linguistic knowledge as opposed to pedagogical or cultural knowledge. It is clear,
however, that effective language teaching involves more than linguistic
competence. The multiple knowledges approach provides a more complete
picture of the interrelated components of language teacher proficiency (pp. 52-
53).
In addition to this confusion surrounding which factors are worthy of inclusion in
defining teacher proficiency, the NALSAS report also makes the point that there is
clearly a lot of debate about the proficiency levels required of second/foreign language
teachers teaching in specific program types and at different phases of schooling (p. 53).
For the purposes of this thesis teacher proficiency refers to linguistic knowledge, with
teacher knowledge of methodology treated as a separate issue.
While a LOTE proficiency interview does exist in Queensland for EQ teachers, not all
French teachers have such a rating and as evidenced both anecdotally and in this study,
there are French teachers with minimal proficiency in the language. Opie (2006) writes
about a district he has named Black Swan situated in rural Victoria. He makes the
point, which is equally relevant to the Queensland context, that if the proficiency of
LOTE teachers in his district were mandated to a particular level, the program might be
unable to continue its existence. As suggested by the title To be or not to be? That is the
Question in a bid to offer LOTE to all students as required by the government in
Victoria, as in Queensland, on the goal is the continuation of the language program, with
any available teachers who may or may not be suitably qualified or proficient and this is
obviously the focus in this case. In Queensland, similarly, LOTE is mandated which
may contribute to the reason why LOTE teaching positions are filled at times by anyone
available in order for the LOTE experience to remain a possibility for all students. Low
teacher proficiency often occurs when there is no available teacher who is suitably
qualified and it becomes necessary to place someone in the position in order to maintain
a language program. Westwood (2006) conducted an analysis of advertisements and
follow up survey of employers advertising for language teacher positions in a Sydney
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paper with the aim being to determine desirable attributes of language teachers. While
proficiency and qualifications were ranked as the top two desirable characteristics, there
were many other factors such as commitment to the schools ethos and ability to
contribute to the co-curricula program that were also deemed important attributes. While
Westwoods study involved mainly private schools, results nonetheless do offer possible
reasons why a teacher of low proficiency may be found in a language teaching position.
Proficiency becomes an issue for the study reported in this thesis because the survey in
this thesis investigates the link between proficiency level and ability to cope with the
heightened language demands of the 2000 French Syllabus, in comparison to previous
syllabuses.
2.4 Teachers and change
Naturally when an innovation is introduced there will be some resistance from teachers
because it involves stepping outside the familiar and comfortable, in order to try
something new. The difficulty with the implementation of a task-based syllabus in
Queensland is that it was quite different from what many teachers were doing in the
classroom previously, and subsequently, the move to TBI also involves a shift in
thinking. As expressed by Woodward (1996), changing techniques on the surface doesnot involve paradigm shift. Paradigm shift is about changing our view of learning or
language, teaching or training or all four. Its about changing categories, procedures and
views of the world (p.7).
2.4.1
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