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Chapter 8
Socioemotional Development in Middle and
Late Childhood
PowerPoints developed by Jenni Fauchier, Metropolitan Community College -- Omaha
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The Development of Self-Understanding
Children increasingly describe themselves with psychological characteristics and traits
They become more likely to recognize social aspects of the self
More likely to distinguish themselves from others in comparative rather than in absolute terms
(Harter, 2006)
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Self-Esteem and Self-Concept
Self-esteem -- global evaluations of the self; self-worth or self-imageSelf-esteem reflects perceptions that do not
always match reality
Self-concept -- domain-specific evaluations of the selfChildren self-evaluate in many domains of
their lives -- academic, athletic, appearance (Dusek & McIntyre, 2003; Harter, 2006)
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Increasing Children’s Self-Esteem
Identify the causes of low self-esteem Provide emotional support and social
approval Help children achieve Help children cope
(Bednar, Wells, & Peterson, 1995; Harter, 1999, 2006)
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Self-Efficacy
Self-efficacy -- belief that one can master a situation and produce favorable outcomes
Self-efficacy influences a student’s choice of activitiesstudents with low self-efficacy for learning
may avoid many learning tasks, especially those that are challenging
high-self-efficacy counterparts eagerly work at learning tasks
(Schunk & Zimmerman, 2003, 2006)
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Self Regulation
Self-regulation -- deliberate efforts to manage one’s behavior, emotions, and thoughts that lead to increased social competence and achievement
Capacity in self-regulation is linked to developmental advances in the brain’s prefrontal cortex
(Laible & Thompson, 2007; Saarni & others, 2006) (Durston & others, 2007)
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Erikson’s 4th Stage: Industry Versus
Inferiority Industry -- becoming interested in how
things are made and how they work When children are encouraged in their
efforts, their sense of industry increases Parents who see their children’s efforts at
making things as “mischief” or “making a mess” foster a sense of inferiority in their children
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Developmental Changes in Emotion
Increased understanding that more than one emotion can be experienced in a particular situation
Increased awareness of the events leading to emotional reactions
Ability to suppress or conceal negative emotional reactions
The use of self-initiated strategies for redirecting feelings
A capacity for genuine empathy
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Recommendations for Parents and Teachers to Promote Coping
Strategies Repeatedly reassure children of their safety and
security Allow children to retell events and be patient in
listening to them Encourage children to talk about any disturbing
or confusing feelings; confirm normality of the feelings
Protect children from re-exposure to frightening situations and reminders of the trauma
Help children make sense of what happened
(Gurwitch & others, 2001)
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Moral Development
According to Piaget, older children: consider the intentions of the individual believe that rules are subject to changeare aware that punishment does not always
follow wrongdoing
Based on Piaget, Kohlberg proposed six stages of moral development which he believed are universal
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The Kohlberg Stages
Based on Piaget, Kohlberg proposed six stages of moral development which he believed are universalPreconventional reasoning -- children interpret
good and bad in terms of external rewards and punishments
Conventional reasoning -- individuals apply certain standards, but they are the standards set by others, such as parents or the government
Postconventional reasoning -- individuals recognize alternative moral courses, explore the options, and then decide on a personal moral code
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Kohlberg’s Substages Preconventional reasoning
Stage 1. Heteronomous morality Stage 2. Individualism, instrumental purpose,
and exchange Conventional reasoning
Stage 3. Mutual interpersonal expectations, relationships, and interpersonal conformity
Stage 4. Social systems morality Postconventional reasoning
Stage 5. Social contract or utility and individual rights
Stage 6. Universal ethical principles
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Kohlberg’s Critics Key criticisms involve
link between moral thought and moral behavior
roles of culture and the family in moral development
significance of concern for others
Kohlberg’s theory misses or misconstrues some moral concepts in particular cultures
(Lapsley, 2006; Lapsley & Narvaez, 2006; Smetana, 2006; Turiel, 2006; Walker, 2006) (Miller, 2006; Shweder & others, 2006; Wainryb, 2006)
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Gender and the Care Perspective
The most publicized criticism of Kohlberg’s theory has come from Carol Gilligan
She argues that Kohlberg’s theory reflects a gender biasKohlberg’s theory is based on a male norm
that puts abstract principles above relationships and concern for others
In contrast to Kohlberg’s justice perspective, Gilligan argues for a care perspective
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Prosocial Behavior
Kohlberg’s and Gilligan’s theories have focused on moral reasoning
Study of prosocial moral behavior emphasizes behavioral aspects of moral development sharing is one aspect of prosocial behaviorby the elementary school years, children
express objective ideas about fairness
(Grusec, Davidov, & Lundell, 2002) (Eisenberg, Fabes, & Spinrad, 2006)
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Gender Stereotypes, Similarities and Differences Gender stereotypes -- broad categories
that reflect general impressions and beliefs about females and males
Similarities and differences between boys and girls -- bear in mind…the differences are averages even when differences are reported, there is
considerable gender overlap the differences may be due primarily to
biological and/or sociocultural factors
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Physical Development Males grow to be 10% taller Females have a longer life expectancy Females are less likely to develop physical or
mental disorders Males have twice the risk of coronary disease Male hormones promote the growth of long
bones; female hormones stop such growth at puberty
Researchers have found some differences in the brains of males and females
(Goldstein & others, 2001; Kimura, 2000)
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Cognitive Development
Males have better math and visuospatial skills whereas females have better verbal abilitiesLater studies showed verbal differences
between females and males had virtually disappeared, but that math and visuospatial differences still existed
Cognitive differences between females and males have been exaggerated
(Maccoby & Jacklin,1974) (Maccoby, 1987) (Hyde, 2005, 2007)
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Socioemotional Development Boys are more physically aggressive than
girls girls tend to be more verbally aggressivethere are no definitive findings on relational
aggression -- behaviors such as spreading malicious rumors or ignoring someone when angry
Boys are more likely to hide negative emotions
Girls are less likely to express disappointment that might hurt others’ feelings
(White, 2001) (Crick & others, 2004; Underwood, 2004) (Eisenberg, Martin, & Fabes, 1996)
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Gender Differences in Prosocial Behavior
Females view themselves as more prosocial and empathic
Across childhood and adolescence, females engage in more prosocial behavior
The biggest gender difference occurs for kind and considerate behavior with a smaller difference in sharing
(Eisenberg & Morris, 2004) (Eisenberg & Fabes, 1998; Eisenberg, Fabes, & Spinrad, 2006)
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Gender-Role Classification in Context Androgyny -- the presence of positive
masculine and feminine characteristics in the same personandrogynous individuals are more flexible,
competent, and mentally healthy The importance of considering gender in
context is very apparent when examining what is culturally prescribed behavior for females and males in different countries around the world
(Bem, 1977; Spence & Helmreich, 1978)
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Developmental Changes in Parent-Child Relationships
In middle and late childhood years, parents spend considerably less time with children
Parents continue to be important Parents support and stimulate academic
achievement Children receive less physical discipline
than they did as preschoolers Children in grade school use more self-
regulation
(Huston & Ripke, 2006)
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Parents as Managers
Parents can play important roles managers of children’s opportunitiesmonitors of children’s behaviorsocial initiators and arrangers
Family management practices are positively related to students’ grades and self-responsibility, and negatively to school-related problems
(Parke & Buriel, 2006) (Taylor, 1996)
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Stepfamilies
About half of all children whose parents divorce will have a stepparent
Complex histories and multiple relationships make adjustment difficult in a stepfamily
Children often have better relationships with their custodial parents
Simple families show better adjustment than complex (blended) families
(Hetherington, 2006) (Hetherington & Stanley-Hagan, 2002) (Santrock, Sitterle, & Warshak, 1988) (Anderson & others, 1999; Hetherington & Kelly, 2002)
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Types of Stepfamilies
Three common types of stepfamily structure are stepfather
mother typically had custody of the children and remarried
stepmotherfather usually had custody and remarried
blended or complexIn a blended or complex stepfamily, both parents
bring children from previous marriages to live in the newly formed stepfamily
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Latchkey Children
Latchkey children -- children who use the key to their home to let themselves in after school while their parents are still at worklatchkey children are largely unsupervised for
two to four hours or more per dayexperiences of latchkey children vary
enormously parental monitoring and authoritative
parenting help the child cope more effectively
(Galambos & Maggs, 1989; Steinberg, 1986)
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After-School Programs
Practitioners and policymakers recommend that after-school programs have warm and supportive staffflexible and relaxed schedulemultiple activitiesopportunities for positive interactions with staff
and peers (Coley, Morri, & Hernandez, 2004) (Pierce, Hamm, & Vandell, 1997)
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Developmental Changes in Peer Relations
Reciprocity becomes especially important in peer interchanges
Amount of time spent in social interaction with peers increases
Size of their peer group increases Peer interaction is less closely supervised
by adults Until age 12, same-sex peer groups are
preferred (Rubin, Bukowski, & Parker, 2006)
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Peer Status
Sociometric status -- describes the extent to which children are liked or disliked by their peer group
5 peer statuses Popular childrenAverage children Neglected children Rejected children Controversial children
(Ladd, Herald, & Andrews, 2006) (Wentzel & Asher,1995)
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Being Popular
Popular children give out reinforcementslisten carefullymaintain open lines of communication with
peersare happy and control their negative emotionsshow enthusiasm and concern for othersare self-confident without being conceited
(Hartup, 1983; Rubin, Bukowski, & Parker, 1998).
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Other Statuses
Neglected children -- low rates of interaction with their peers; often described as shy by peers
Rejected children often have more serious adjustment problems than those who are neglected Some but not all rejected children are
aggressive(Coie, 2004; Ladd, 2005) (Ladd, 2006; Rubin, Bukowski, & Parker, 2006; Hymel, McDougall, &
Renshaw, 2004)
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Training for More Effective Interactions with Peers
Help them to attract attention from their peers in positive ways and hold that attention by asking questions, by listening in a warm and friendly way, and by saying things about themselves that relate to the peers’ interests.
Role-playing or discussing hypothetical situations involving negative encounters with peers
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Social Cognition
Social cognition -- thinking about social mattersimportant for understanding peer relationships
5 steps in processing information about the social world decode social cuesinterpretsearch for a responseselect an optimal responseenact
(Dodge, 1983)
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Bullying
Bullied children reported more loneliness and difficulty in making friends
Anxious and socially withdrawn children may be victimized because they are non-threatening and unlikely to retaliate
Aggressive children may be the targets because their behavior is irritating to bullies
(DeRosier & Marcus, 2005; Evertson & Weinstein, 2006; Roberts, 2005) (Rubin, Bukowski, & Parker, 2006)
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Victims of bullies had
higher incidence of headaches more abdominal pain sleeping problems and feeling tirednessmore depression
Those who did the bullying were more likely to have a poor academic record and to smoke and drink alcohol
(Fekkes, Pijpers, & Verloove-Vanhorick, 2004)
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Reducing Bullying Teachers and schools can employ several
strategiesGet older peers to serve as monitors Develop school-wide rules and sanctions
against bullying and post themIncorporate the message of the anti-bullying
program into other community activitiesIdentify bullies and victims early Use social skills training to improve bullies’
behavior
(Hyman & others, 2006; Limber, 1997, 2004; Milsom & Gallo, 2006) (Macklem, 2003)
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Functions of Friendships
Children’s friendships can serve six functions companionship stimulationphysical supportego supportsocial comparisonaffection and intimacy
Intimacy in friendships -- characterized by self-disclosure and the sharing of private thoughts
Gottman & Parker, 1987) (Berndt & Perry, 1990)
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Constructivist Approach
Constructivist approach -- learner-centered approach that emphasizes the importance of individuals actively constructing their knowledge and understanding with guidance from the teacherchildren should be encouraged to explore
their world, discover knowledge, reflect, and think critically with careful monitoring and meaningful guidance from the teacher
(Eby, Herrell, & Jordan, 2006; Eggen & Kauchak, 2006; Morrison, 2006)
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Direct Instruction Approach
Direct instruction approach -- structured, teacher-centered approach characterized by teacher direction and control, high expectations for students’ progress, maximum time spent by students on academic tasks, and efforts by the teacher to keep negative affect to a minimum
Important goal: maximizing student learning
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Constructivist versus Direct Instruction Approach
Constructivists argue that direct instruction turns children into passive learners and does not challenge them to think critically or creatively
Direct instructions say that constructivists do not give enough attention to the content of a discipline and instruction is too relativistic and vague
(Duffy & Kirkley, 2004)
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Accountability
Demands for accountability includestate-mandated tests to measure just what
students have or have not learned high expectations and high standards for
students
(McNergney & McNergney, 2007) (Revelle, 2004) (Lewis, 2006)
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Socioeconomic Status and Ethnicity
Schools in low-income areas are more likely to: have more students with low achievement test
scores have low graduation rates have small percentages of students going to
college have young teachers with less experienceencourage rote learninghave buildings and classrooms that are old
and crumbling (Spring, 2008)
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Ethnicity in Schools
School segregation remains a factor in U.S. education
The school experiences of students from different ethnic groups vary considerably
Institutional racism, by which teachers accept a low level of performance from children of color, permeates many American schools
(Banks, 2006) (Bennett, 2007; Spring, 2008) (Ogbu & Stern, 2001; Spencer, 1999)
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