NeBIO Vol. 3, No. 3, September 2012, 93-101
Author for correspondence
D.M.S. Suranjan Karunarathna
Email: [email protected]
© NECEER, Imphal
Diversity and richness of butterfly fauna in a Home Garden habitat, and its vicinity,
Puttalam District in Sri Lanka
D.M.S. Suranjan Karunarathna1, Anushka Kumarasinghe2, Majintha B. Madawala 2, M.A.J. Saman
Navaratne1 and Dinesh E. Gabadage3 1 Nature Exploration & Education Team, No: B-1 / G-6, De Soysapura, Morauwa 10400, Sri Lanka 2 Young Zoologists’ Association, Department of National Zoological Gardens, Dehiwala, Sri Lanka 3 Taprobanica Nature Conservation Society, 150/6, Stanly Thilakaratne MW, Nugegoda, Sri Lanka
ABSTRACT
This paper describes probably the first ever study of butterflies in the Puttalam
area, in the Northwestern coastal in Sri Lanka. This study was carried out over a
period of one year and observations were made over 92 field days covering both
the wet and dry seasons. We categorized five different habitat types within the
home gardens. A variety of butterfly fauna was recorded in a 600 m2 home
garden habitat in an urban area. A total of 3569 individuals belonging to 66
species of butterflies were documented. Among the species recorded in the study
site, three are categorized as Vulnerable and six as Near Threatened. Migrations of
some butterfly species were observed for the first time in the Northwestern dry
zone. Further detailed studies on managed landscapes such as home gardens
may be useful towards the conservation of butterfly fauna.
Keywords: Conservation, Butterflies, Decline, Dryzone, Microhabitats, Sri Lanka
The Western Ghats and Sri Lanka comprise one of
the biodiversity hotspots of the world (Bossuyt et al.,
2004; Meegaskumbura et al., 2002). But
unfortunately natural forests in the island are rapidly
diminishing as a result of the expansion of human
settlements and agricultural land, creating numerous
adverse impacts on the rich biodiversity
(Bambaradeniya et al., 2003; Senanayake et al.,
1977). The total extent of natural forest cover in Sri
Lanka constitutes over 12% of the total land area
(Tan, 2005). As they are visibly attractive and
colorful, the butterflies (Lepidoptera: Papilionoidea)
form an easily recognizable biotic component of the
ecosystem (Asela et al., 2006). The role of the
butterflies in an ecosystem is not limited only as
herbivores, but also as important pollinators (De
Vries, 1979). Besides their attractiveness, butterflies
are of interest because they can also be used to
monitor environmental conditions including climatic
changes (Tati-Subahar et al., 2007). Changes in
abundance of butterflies may indicate change in
habitat conditions and also the type of elevation
(Kunte, 2006).The contribution of butterflies, as well
as of other insects, to the rich biodiversity in the
island has been relatively underestimated or
neglected over the past.
The butterflies are an extremely diverse group of
charismatic insects in Sri Lanka, which forms a major
component in island’s biodiversity (Asela et al.,
2009). In Sri Lanka there are 244 species of
butterflies belonging to 5 families; out of them 20
(8.19%) species are endemic, and more subspecies
are also unique to Sri Lanka (D’abrera, 1998; Perera
and Bambaradeniya, 2006; Van der Poorten, 2009;
Woodhouse, 1952). Of the total butterfly species in
the island, 21 are categorized as critically
endangered, while 29 endangered, 16 vulnerable and
53 near threatened in the national list of threatened
fauna and flora (IUCN-SL and MENR-SL, 2007).
Furthermore, conservation status of 29 species of
butterflies has not been evaluated, due to the lack of
adequate data. The butterfly fauna in the Puttalam
area has not been studied previously. Consequently,
the main objective of the present study was to
identify the butterflies in Puttalam area.
Diversity and richness of butterflies in a Home-garden, Puttalam District in Sri Lanka Karunarathna et al
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NeBIO I www.nebio.in I Vol. 3, No. 3, September 2012 I 93-101 94
Study Area
The study was conducted in a home garden (70 59`
43.52``N and 790 50` 31.46`` E) which is located in
outer periphery of the Puttalam municipality, in
Puttalam District (Figure 1). The Puttalam city is in
the Dry Zone of the northwestern lowlands of Sri
Lanka, and has a moderately hot and dry climate. The
vegetation in this region has been classified as
Tropical dry mixed evergreen forest areas
(Gunatilleke and Gunatilleke, 1990). The mean
annual temperature recorded at the Puttalam
observatory is ~29 0C. The average relative humidity
is 55% and is highest in December. The annual
rainfall for the area is around 1000 – 1500 mm. The
home garden is approximately 600m2 in size, and the
elevation is 5m above the mean sea level. Vegetation
is mainly composed of tree species such as
Terminalia arjuna (Kumbuk), Muntingia calabura
(Jam), Mangifera indika (Ambä), Feronia limonia
(Diwul), Syzygium cumini (Mádan), Cocos nucifera
(Pol) and Sesbania grandiflora (Katuru-murunga).
The shrub species such as Punica granatum (Delum),
Cassia auriculata (Ranawara), Psidium guajava
(Përa), Calotropis gigantea (Wara), Zizyphus rugosa
(Eraminiya), Anacardium occidentale (kaju),
Bryophyllum calycinum (Akkapana), Lantana camera
(Ganda-pana), Accacia leucophloea (Katu andara),
Citrus limon (Dehi) and Ixora coccinea (Ratmal)
were commonly found in the area. Some herbaceous
and vines plants include Trianthema portulacastrum
(Sãrana), Sida acuta (Bavila), Tylophora indica (Bin-
nuga), Derris scandens (Kalä wel), Leucas zeylanica
(Tumba), Oldenlandia umbellate (Saya), Tridax
procumbens (Wasu sudu), Sasbania bispinosa,
Synedrella nodiflora and Abrus precatorius (Olinda).
Figure 1. Map showing the urban area in Puttalama town
and study home gardens (source: google map, 2010).
Materials and Methods The study was carried out over a period of one year
starting from 4th
January 2009 to 28th
December
2009. Observations were made over 92 days (8 days
per month), spending six hours per day, consisting of
two sessions of 3 hours each; 0630 hr to 0930 hr in
the morning and 1430 hr to 1730 hr in the afternoon.
General area surveys were carried out in different
sub-habitat types within the home garden. The Shady
grassland (SGL), Open grassland mixed with vines
(OGV), Shady shrub and bushes (SSB), Open shrub
and bushes (OSB), and Tree tops >5m (TRT) were
identified as diverse micro habitats. Principal
methodology used during the assessment was Visual
Encounter Survey (VES) by random field visits. The
field examinations were evenly carried out during
both dry and wet seasons.
Identification of butterflies was done in the field, and
photographs were taken for further verification.
Smaller butterflies were caught using a hand net for
the purpose of taxonomic identification and the
specimens were released to the same habitat from
where it was caught. Importantly none of the
specimens were damaged during its classification
process. Also some tiny butterflies were closely
observed after placing them in a small clear glass
bottle. None of the specimens were collected or
preserved during the research as of conservation
precedence. The species were identified using
following published field guides; Banks and Banks
(1985), Gamage (2007), D’abrera (1998) and
Woodhouse (1952). Food plants and host plants of
butterflies were identified using Ashton et al. (1997),
De Vlas and De Jong (2008) and plant nomenclature
is based on Senaratna (2001). Threatened categories
follow the 2007 national red list (IUCN-SL and
MENR-SL, 2007).
Results and Discussions
During the survey 3569 individuals of butterflies
were recorded from the Puttalam study site over a
twelve-month period. The individual richness was
high in May 10.78% (n=361), June 10.33% (n=346)
and December 10.24% (n=342), where small showers
of rain occurred. But individual numbers are lower
in November 6.60% (n=221), October 6.75% (n=226)
and September 7.80% (n=261), probably due to the
dry climate conditions (Figure 2). Following
mentioned families have been recorded in under
mentioned percentages; Papilionidae 16.05%
(n=573), Pieridae 20.23% (n=722), Nymphalidae
Diversity and richness of butterflies in a Home-garden, Puttalam District in Sri Lanka Karunarathna et al
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NeBIO I www.nebio.in I Vol. 3, No. 3, September 2012 I 93-101 95
24.29% (n=867), Lycaenidae 30.51% (n=1089) and
Hesperiidae 8.91% (n=318) respectively. These
families included 66 species and of them one was
endemic. The 66 species of butterflies recorded
during the study represents 27.16% of the total Sri
Lankan butterfly fauna described to date (Table 1).
The species diversity within the families such as,
Papilionidae 15.15% (n=10), Pieridae 15.15%
(n=10), Nymphalidae 34.85% (n=23), Lycaenidae
27.271% (n=18) and Hesperiidae 7.58% (n=5)
respectively. Among the species recorded, three are
listed as Vulnerable, while six species are considered
as Near Threatened. The endemic species recorded is
Troides darsius (Ceylon birdwing), which is known
as the largest butterfly in the island (Perera and
Bambaradeniya, 2006).
0
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Figure 2. Individual diversity of the Butterflies families in
twelve months period of 2009 in Puttalama.
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Figure 3. Species diversity of the Butterflies families in
twelve months period of 2009 in Puttalama.
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Papilionidae Pieridae Nymphalidae Lycaenidae Hesperiidae
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A B C D E
Figure 4. Species diversity of families within the
microhabitat (Abbreviation: A- Shady grassland, B- Open
grassland mixed with vines, C- Shady scrub and bushes, D-
Open scrub and bushes and E- Tree tops >5m).
Figure 5. Front side view of the home gardens in
Puttalama.
Figure 6. Shady areas of the home gardens in Puttalama.
Diversity and richness of butterflies in a Home-garden, Puttalam District in Sri Lanka Karunarathna et al
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NeBIO I www.nebio.in I Vol. 3, No. 3, September 2012 I 93-101 96
Table 1. Systematic list of the Butterflies recorded from the Home garden in Puttalama – 2009 (threatened categories were
given by according to IUCN-SL and MENR-SL, 2007). No. Species name Author citation Common name Local name Microhabitat Status
Family - Papilionidae
1 Troides darsius Gray, 1852 Ceylon birdwing Maha kurulu piya papiliya D,E NT
2 Pachliopta hector Linnaeus, 1758 Crimson rose Maha rosa papilia D
3 Pachliopta aristolochiae Fabricius, 1775 Common rose Podu rosa papilia D
4 Papilio domoleus Linnaeus, 1758 Lime butterfly Kaha papilia B,D,E
5 Papilio polytes Linnaeus, 1758 Common mormon Kalu papilia B,D,E
6 Papilio polymnestor Cramer, 1775 Blue mormon Maha nilaya D,E
7 Graphium sarpedon Linnaeus, 1758 Blue bottle Nil papilia D,E
8 Graphium doson Felder,1864 Common jay podu papilia D,E
9 Graphium agamemnon Linnaeus, 1758 Tailed jay Kola papilia D,E
10 Pathysa nomius Esper, 1784 Spot swordtail Thith kaga-waligaya D NT
Family - Pieridae
11 Leptosia nina Fabricius, 1793 Psyche Kalu-thith sudda A,B,C,D
12 Delias eucharis Drury,1773 Jezebel Podu Maha-sudda C,D,E
13 Belenois aurota Fabricius,1793 Pioneer Thambiliwan sudana B,D,E
14 Cepora nerissa Fabricius, 1775 Common gull Podu Punduru-sudana B,D
15 Hebomoia glaucippe Linnaeus, 1758 Great orange tip Yoda sudana D,E
16 Catopsilia pyranthe Linnaeus, 1758 Mottled emigrant Thith-piya piyasariya C,D,E
17 Catopsilia pomona Fabricus, 1775 Lemon emigrant Kaha piyasariya C,D,E
18 Pareronia ceylanica Felder, 1865 Dark wanderer Anduru nil piyasariya D,E
19 Colotis amata Fabricius, 1775 Small salmon arab Punchi rosa sudana B,D NT
20 Colotis etrida Boisduval, 1836 Little orange tip Heen sudana B,D NT
Family - Nymphalidae
21 Eurema hecabe Linnaeus, 1764 Common grass yellow Maha kahakolaya B,C,D
22 Eurema blanda Boisduval, 1836 Three-spot grass yellow Thun-thith kahakolaya B,C,D
23 Tirumala limniace Cramer,1775 Blue tiger Podu nil-kotithiya C,D,E
24 Danaus chrysippus Linnaeus, 1758 Plain tiger Podu koti-thambiliya C,D
25 Danaus genutia Cramer, 1779 Common tiger Iri Koti-thambiliya C,D
26 Euploea core Cramer, 1779 Common crow Podu kaka-kotithiyaya C,E
27 Ariadne merione Cramer,1777 Common castor Podu pathan-sariya A,B,C,D NT
28 Cethosia nietneri Felder, 1867 Ceylon lace wing Lanka seda-piyapatha B,C,D NT
29 Junonia lemonias Linnaeus, 1758 Lemon pansy Dumburuwan alankarikya B,D
30 Junonia atlites Linnaeus, 1758 Grey pansy Aluwan alankarikya B,D
31 Junonia iphita Cramer, 1779 Chocolate soldier Podu alankarikya B,C,D
32 Junonia almana Linnaeus, 1758 Peacock pansy Monera alankarikya B,D
33 Hypolimnas bolina Linnaeus, 1756 Great eggfly Maha alankarikya D
34 Hypolimnas misippus Linnaeus, 1758 Danaid eggfly Kela alankarikya D
35 Neptis hylas Linnaeus, 1758 Common sailor Gomara selaruwa D,E
36 Euthalia aconthea Cramer, 1777 Baron Achchilaya C,E
37 Acraea violae Fabricius, 1807 Tawny costor Thambily panduru-boraluwa A,B,C,D
38 Melanitis leda Linnaeus, 1763 Common evening brown Podu dumburuwa A,C
39 Orsotriaena medus Fabricius, 1775 Nigger Maha-iri panduru-dumburuwa A,C
40 Mycalesis perseus Fabricius, 1775 Common bushbrown Podu panduru-dumburuwa A,C
41 Nissanga patnia Moore,1857 Gladeye bushbrown Visithuru panduru-dumburuwa A,C
42 Ypthima ceylonica Hewitson, 1864 White four-ring Podu heen-dumburuwa B,D
43 Elymnias hypermnestra Linnaeus, 1763 Common palmfly Podu thal-dumburuwa A,C
Family - Lycaenidae
44 Spalgis epeus Westwood, 1851 Apefly Wanduru nilaya C,D
45 Curetis thetis Drury, 1773 Indian sunbeam Maha hiru-nilaya D,E
46 Arhopala amantes Hewitson, 1862 Large oakblue Maha gas-nilaya C,D,E
47 Zesius chrysomallus Hubner, 1819 Redspot Rathu-thith gas-nilaya D,E
48 Loxura atymnus Stoll, 1780 Yamfly Kaha gas-nilaya A,B,C,D
49 Rathinda amor Fabricius, 1775 Monkey-puzzle Visituru vanduru nilaya C,D
50 Spindasis vulcanus Fabricius,1775 Common silverline Podu ridee-nilaya B,D
51 Rapala manea Hewitson, 1863 Slate flash Anduru kiranaya B,D VU
52 Jamides bochus Stoll, 1782 Dark cerulean Anduruwan seru-nilaya B,C,D
53 Jamides celeno Cramer, 1775 Common cerulean Podu seru-nilaya B,D,C
54 Lampides boeticus Linnaeus, 1758 Pea blue Maha iri mal-nilaya B,D
55 Syntarucus plinius Fabricius, 1793 Zebra blue Raja iri-neelaya B,D
56 Castalius rosimon Fabricius, 1775 Common pierrot Podu mal-nilaya B,D
57 Freyeria trochilus Freyer, 1845 Grass jewel Ran thruna-nilaya A,B
58 Talicada nyseus Guerin, 1843 Red pierrot Rathu panduru-nilaya C,D
59 Euchrysops cnejus Fabricius, 1798 Gram blue Maha panu-nilaya B,D
60 Chilades lajus Stoll, 1780 Lime blue Podu panu-nilaya B,D
61 Abisara echerius Stoll, 1790 Plum Judy Kela rathambalaya A,C
Family - Hesperiidae
62 Badamia exclamationis Fabricius Brown awl B,D VU
63 Hasora chromus Cramer Common banded awl D,E VU
64 Suastus gremius Moore Indian palm bob A,B,C,D
65 Spalia galba Fabricius Indian skipper B,D
66 Telicota colon Evans Pale palmdart B,D,E
Diversity and richness of butterflies in a Home-garden, Puttalam District in Sri Lanka Karunarathna et al
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Figure 7. A. Common rose (Pachliopta aristolochiae), B. Lime butterfly (Papilio domoleus), C. Psyche (Leptosia nina), D.
Jezebel (Delias eucharis), E. Pioneer (Belenois aurota), F. Common cerulean (Jamides celeno), G. Mottled emigrant (Catopsilia pyranthe), H. Small salmon arab (Colotis amata), I. Little orange tip (Colotis etrida), J. Three-spot grass yellow (Eurema
blanda), K. Blue tiger (Tirumala limniace), L. Common crow (Euploea core), M. Ceylon lace wing (Cethosia nietneri), N.
Peacock pansy (Junonia almana), O. Tawny costor (Acraea viola).
Diversity and richness of butterflies in a Home-garden, Puttalam District in Sri Lanka Karunarathna et al
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NeBIO I www.nebio.in I Vol. 3, No. 3, September 2012 I 93-101 98
Figure 8. A. Common bushbrown (Mycalesis perseus), B. White four-ring (Ypthima ceylonica), C. Common palmfly (Elymnias
hypermnestra), D. Large oakblue (Arhopala amantes), E. Yamfly (Loxura atymnus), F. Monkey-puzzle (Rathinda amor), G.
Common Silverline (Spindasis vulcanus), H. Slate Flash (Rapala manea), I. Dark Cerulean (Jamides bochus), J. Pea Blue
(Lampides boeticus), K. Zebra Blue (Syntarucus plinius), L. Common Pierrot (Castalius rosimon), M. Grass Jewel (Freyeria trochilus), N. Red pierrot (Castalius rosimon), O. Gram Blue (Euchrysops cnejus), P. Lime Blue (Chilades lajus), Q. Common
Banded Awl (Hasora chromus), R. Indian Palm Bob (Suastus gremius), S. Pale Palmdart (Telicota colon).
Diversity and richness of butterflies in a Home-garden, Puttalam District in Sri Lanka Karunarathna et al
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NeBIO I www.nebio.in I Vol. 3, No. 3, September 2012 I 93-101 99
Table 2. Number of species and families of the Butterflies in different micro habitat types in Putalama (Abbreviations:
SGL - the Shady grassland; OGV - open grassland mixed with vines; SSB - shady shrub and bushes; OSB - open shrub
and bushes and TRT - tree tops). Microhabitats No. of Species No. of Individuals No. of Families No. of Endemics
SGL 12 (7.89%) 641 (17.96%) 4 (80%) 0 (0%)
OGV 32 (21.05%) 905 (25.36%) 5 (100%) 0 (0%)
SSB 29 (19.08%) 752 (21.07%) 4 (80%) 0 (0%) OSB 57 (37.50%) 852 (23.87%) 5 (100%) 1 (100%)
TRT 22 (14.47%) 419 (11.74%) 5 (100%) 1 (100%)
Table 3. Number of Individuals were recorded each families of the Butterflies in different micro habitat types in Putalama
(Abbreviations: SGL - the Shady grassland; OGV - open grassland mixed with vines; SSB - shady shrub and bushes; OSB
- open shrub and bushes and TRT - tree tops). Microhabitats Papilionidae Pieridae Nymphalidae Lycaenidae Hesperiidae Total Proportion
OSB 153 223 212 189 75 852 23.87
SGL 106 151 173 155 56 641 17.96
SSB 129 144 135 277 67 752 21.07
TRT 37 89 129 132 32 419 11.74 OGV 148 115 218 336 88 905 25.36
The species richness become high in May 10.15%
(n=53), June 9.77% (n=51), August 9.39% (n=49)
and stream to the July and April, then after that it
decreases gradually (Figure 3). But individual
numbers are lower in December 6.51% (n=34),
November 6.70% (n=35) and March 7.28% (n=38)
we believe it could be dry condition and wind speed.
Usually, a large number of butterfly species can be
seen in the month of May and typically soon after the
short spells of rain. Months from February to May
are the flowering and fruiting season in the region. In
such months occasional showers are common.
Several larval food plants of the butterfly Family
Danaidae and Papilionidae recorded for the first time
by Van der Poorten and van der Poorten (2011a,b)
were present in this home garden. The species such
as Papilio domoleus, Papilio polytes, Graphium
doson, Leptosia nina, Delias eucharis, Catopsilia
pyranthe, Colotis amata, Eurema hecabe, Danaus
chrysippus, Junonia atlites, Acraea violae, Melanitis
leda, Ypthima ceylonica and Telicota colon to
mention a few were commonly seen, while Troides
darsius, Pathysa nomius, Hebomoia glaucippe,
Pareronia ceylanica, Cethosia nietneri, Syntarucus
plinius and Badamia exclamationis were very rare or
found to be seasonal. The diversity and abundance of
species is highly correlated with the availability of
food plants in the surroundings (Kunte, 2000) and
therefore, more studies will help the management and
conservation of biodiversity in home gardens.
The highest species richness occurred in open shrub
and bushes 37.50% (n=57) followed by open
grassland mixed with vine 21.05% (n=32), shady
shrub and bushes 19.08% (n=29) and tree tops
14.47% (n=22) respectively. Whereas, shady
grassland habitats had the lowest species diversity
7.89% (n=12) (Figure 4). Representation from the
family Hesperiidae was very less compared to the
proportion of Sri Lankan hesperid butterflies (Table
2). It could be partly due to the sampling bias, since
hesperids exhibit crepuscular habit. Hesperiidae
butterflies are active early morning and to a lesser
extent in the evening (Woodhouse, 1952). They are
also seen active in daytime under the shade of the
jungle or out in the open during cloudy weather
(Kunte, 2006). Highest number of hesperids 100 %
(n=5) was recorded in open shrub and bushes habitat,
while lowest hesperids 20 % (n=1) were recorded in
two different habitats (shady grassland / shady shrub
and bushes habitat). A good butterfly garden must
therefore carry a mix of larval host plant that can be
grown successfully in a given geographical area (van
der Poorten and van der Poorten, 2008). In many
instances, agricultural plantations have replaced
indigenous vegetation with monoculture plantations
and it has been found that butterfly species diversity
is considerably lower in such areas compared to
natural forests (Karunarathna et al., 2011).
This home garden is a paradise for butterflies;
because, they do not apply any agro-chemicals and
do not create fires in this home garden. Lowest
number of Pierids 10% (n=1) were observed in shady
grassland, lowest Nymphalids 17.39% (n=4) and
Lycaenids 16.66% (n=3) were recorded in tree tops.
Even though, highest number of Nymphalids 69.56%
(n=16) were recorded from two habitats (shady shrub
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NeBIO I www.nebio.in I Vol. 3, No. 3, September 2012 I 93-101 100
and bushes / open shrub and bushes), and highest
number of Lycaenids 88.88% (n=16) observed only
in open shrub and bushes habitat. Most common
flowering plants and herbs species recorded in the
site were Syzygiun cumini (Mádan), Muntingia
calabura (Jam), Mangifera indika (Ambä), Derris
scandens (Kalä wel), Leucas zeylanica (Tumba),
Oldenlandia umbellate (Saya), Trianthema
portulacastrum (Sãrana), Tridax procumbens (Wasu
sudu), Sasbania bispinosa, Lantana camera (Ganda-
pana), Sida acuta (Bavila), Synedrella nodiflora,
Ixora coccinea (Ratmal) and Bougainvillea.
According to microhabitats and individual
relationship presented in Table 3, the highest
individuals richness occurred in open grassland
mixed with vines 25.36% (n=905), open scrub and
bushes 23.87% (n=852), shady scrub and bushes
21.07% (n=752) and the lowest individuals recoded
from tree top 11.74% (n=419).
Comparison of species richness with several other
available data in the island (e.g., Asela et al., 2006,
2009; Bambaradeniya and Ekanayake, 2003;
Bambaradeniya et al., 2006; Karunarathna et al.,
2008; Perera et al., 2005) reveals that current study
site has a moderate diversity of butterflies, second
only to forest habitats. It is important to mention that
some butterfly species were observed during its
migration towards south. Further they are only
recorded as small groups of 10-20 individuals. Such
species includes Papilio domoleus (Lime butterfly),
Graphium sarpedon (Blue bottle), Hebomoia
glaucippe (Great orange tip), Euploea core (Common
crow), Catopsilia pyranthe (Mottled emigrant) and
Catopsilia Pomona (Lemon emigrant). Despite a
very small area, this home garden is rich in butterfly
fauna, representing all the families of butterflies
recorded in the island. Conservation at national level
requires a legal framework, within which it can be
enforced and furnish comprehensive understanding of
the ecology of butterflies (Van der Poorten and Van
der Poorten, 2008). The air pollution and pesticides
usage of the area may cause the decline of the
diversity of butterflies compared to the forest
habitats. Several records of butterflies and cocoon
smuggling were recorded in Sri Lanka (Gunasekara,
2002). Hence, enhancing the awareness of general
public on butterfly conservation will be crucial.
Many 'common' butterfly species have undergone
serious declines and are in need of greater attention.
Acknowledgements
The authors would like to thank Dr. Channa
Bambaradeniya for reviewing this manuscript and
valuable ideas provided to us; Mr. Naalin perera, Mr.
Sarath Ekanayake, Mr. Dilup Chandranimal, Mr.
Prasanna Samarawickrama (IUCN Sri Lanka) and
Mr. Himesh Jayasinghe and Mr. Niranjan
Karunarathna (YZA) for their kind help during the
butterfly and floral identification. Also we would like
to thanks Mr. Asanka Udayakumara, Mr. Panduka
Silva, Mr. Tiran Abeyawardane (YZA) and Mr.
Mendis Wickramasinghe (HFS) for their kind support
during the field visits and other courtesies.
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