BSc (Hons) Events and Leisure Management Successful factors of Mega event “Case studies of the Korea / Japan 2002 World Cup and Germany 2006 World Cup” Tsang Ka Yu (91206566)
Sheffield Business School
BSc (Honours) Events and Leisure
Management
Title Successful factors of Mega event - Case studies of the Korea /
Japan 2002 World Cup and Germany 2006 World Cup
Name TSANG Ka Yu
Student No 91206566
Month Year April 2011
BSc (Hons) Events and Leisure Management Successful factors of Mega event “Case studies of the Korea / Japan 2002 World Cup and Germany 2006 World Cup” Tsang Ka Yu (91206566)
Sheffield Hallam University
Sheffield Business School
Title Successful factors of Mega event
“Case studies of the Korea / Japan 2002 World Cup and
Germany 2006 World Cup”
FULL NAME TSANG Ka Yu
STUDENT No 91206566
Supervisor: Prof. Ray Pine
In partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Bachelor of Science in
Events and Leisure Management.
Month Year April 2011
BSc (Hons) Events and Leisure Management Successful factors of Mega event “Case studies of the Korea / Japan 2002 World Cup and Germany 2006 World Cup” Tsang Ka Yu (91206566)
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Abstract
This dissertation is named Successful factors of Mega event - “Case studies of the
Korea / Japan 2002 World Cup and Germany 2006 World Cup”. It is undertaken to
research the mega event and focus on the successful factors. Moreover, the case
studies of Korea / Japan 2002 and Germany 2006 Football World Cup are included.
The Olympics Games, World’s Fair and Football World Cup are the famous and
well-known mega-event and many of the supporters interested in these mega events.
What are their attractions? How to organize the mega events successfully? Lack of the
research was achieved when applied the Korea / Japan 2002 World Cup and Germany
2006 World Cup to be examples.
BSc (Hons) Events and Leisure Management Successful factors of Mega event “Case studies of the Korea / Japan 2002 World Cup and Germany 2006 World Cup” Tsang Ka Yu (91206566)
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The relevant literature which is concerning the mega event, event management and
series of journals, reports articles, and statistics has been researched to support the
dissertation and apply the content analysis to research the standpoint and orientation.
To cover the gaps of secondary data, the case studies, Korea / Japan 2002 World Cup
and Germany 2006 World Cup would be focused on.
The majority of the scholars provide the positive and supportive attitude on mega
event, especially the Football World Cup. The successful factors such as cultural,
economic and social are included.
A content analysis, backed by the two case studies, shows that the Football World Cup
is the most popular and attractive mega event.
Keywords
Mega event, World Cup, successful factors
BSc (Hons) Events and Leisure Management Successful factors of Mega event “Case studies of the Korea / Japan 2002 World Cup and Germany 2006 World Cup” Tsang Ka Yu (91206566)
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Acknowledgements
When I am finishing the final part of this dissertation, it is hard to believe that it is
almost finished. This dissertation is contributed by many of the professor, classmates
and friends. The most of importance is to express sincere gratitude to Professor Ray
Pine for his guidance and suggestion. In addition, I would like to thank Dr Kevin
Nield, my friend Judith Kwok, Kily Mok and Kathy Leung for their assistance. I
would especially thankful to my parent for her personal support and understanding.
29th of March 2011
BSc (Hons) Events and Leisure Management Successful factors of Mega event “Case studies of the Korea / Japan 2002 World Cup and Germany 2006 World Cup” Tsang Ka Yu (91206566)
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Content
Abstract……………………………..………………………………………………i - ii
Acknowledgements……………………………..……………………………………iii
Content…………………………….……………………………………………. iv - vii
Lists of Figures……………………………….…………………………………..…viii
Lists of Tables……………………………...…………………………………..……viii
Lists of Charts……………………………...………………………………………..viii
Lists of Abbreviations……………………………...…………………………………ix
1. Introduction…………………...…...…...………………………………………1 - 3
1.1 Background…………………………...…………………………………..1 - 2
1.2 Objectives………………………………………………………………..…...2
1.3 Structure………………………...……………………………………………3
2. Instrumental Literature Review…………………………...………………...4 - 17
2.1 The classification of event………………………...……………………...4 - 8
2.2 The definition of mega-events and examples…………………...………9 - 10
2.3 Successful factors or benefits of the mega-events……………………..10 - 17
2.3.1 Olympic Games…………………...……………………………11 - 12
BSc (Hons) Events and Leisure Management Successful factors of Mega event “Case studies of the Korea / Japan 2002 World Cup and Germany 2006 World Cup” Tsang Ka Yu (91206566)
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2.3.2 World's Fair…………………………...………………………...13 - 14
2.3.3 Football World Cup………………………...………………...…14 - 17
2.4 Summary………………………...………………………………………….17
3. Method of Investigation…………………………...………………………...18 - 24
3.1 Choice of Methodology………………………...……………………...18 - 19
3.2 Coding definition……………………...…………………………………….20
3.3 Data Collection………………………...……………………………………21
3.4 Reliability and validity of data………………..……….……………….22 - 24
3.4.1 Reliability…………………...……………………………………….22
3.4.2 Validity…………………...………………………………………….23
3.5 Limitation………………………...…………………………………………24
3.6 Summary………………………...………………………………………….24
4. Findings and Analysis………………………...……………………......……25 - 40
4.1 Availability of the Mega-events section data………………………......25 - 27
4.1.1 Themes of mega-events……………………...………………………25
4.1.2 Pages of data……………………...…………………………………26
4.1.3 Standpoint of data…………………………………………………...27
BSc (Hons) Events and Leisure Management Successful factors of Mega event “Case studies of the Korea / Japan 2002 World Cup and Germany 2006 World Cup” Tsang Ka Yu (91206566)
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4.2 Discussion………………………...………………………………………...27
4.2.1 Discussion about the themes of mega-events…………………...…...28
4.2.2 Discussion about the pages of data…………………...…...……28 - 29
4.2.3 Discussion about the standpoint of data…………………...………...30
4.3 Football World Cup case studies……………………...………………..30 - 39
4.3.1 Korea / Japan 2002 World Cup……………………...………….31 - 35
4.3.1.1 Cultural successful factors……………...……………….31 - 32
4.3.1.2 Economic successful factors………………………….…32 - 33
4.3.1.3 Social successful factors…………………………...……34 - 35
4.3.1.4 Summary………………...………………………………...…35
4.3.2 Germany 2006 World Cup…………………...…………………36 - 40
4.3.2.1 Philosophy……………...…………………………………….36
4.3.2.2 Implementation………...……………………………………..37
4.3.2.3 Ticketing………………...……………………………………38
4.3.2.4 Budget controlling……………...……………………………39
4.3.3 Summary……………………...……………………………………..40
BSc (Hons) Events and Leisure Management Successful factors of Mega event “Case studies of the Korea / Japan 2002 World Cup and Germany 2006 World Cup” Tsang Ka Yu (91206566)
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5. Conclusion and Recommendations………..……………………….………41 - 44
5.1 Conclusion……………………...……………………………...….…...41 - 42
5.2 Recommendations……………………...………………………………43 - 44
5.2.1 Extend the technological justice……………………………………..43
5.2.2 Concern about the players’ health and safety…………………..........44
6. Reference……………..…………...………………………………………….45 - 54
7. Appendix……………………………...…………………………………………...55
Appendix A. World Cup Semi Finalists 1990-2006…………………………….55
BSc (Hons) Events and Leisure Management Successful factors of Mega event “Case studies of the Korea / Japan 2002 World Cup and Germany 2006 World Cup” Tsang Ka Yu (91206566)
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Lists of Figures
Figure 1: The Categorization of events………………………………………………..8
Figure 2: Ticketing business model Germany 2006………………………………….38
Lists of Tables
Table 1: The event genre of event management……………………………………4 - 6
Table 2: The successful factors of 1994, 1998, 2002 Football World Cup……...15 - 16
Table 3: The data theme(s) of mega-events…………………………………………..25
Table 4: The pages of mega-events data statistical analysis………………………….26
Table 5: Overall standpoint…………………………………………………………..27
Table 6: Annual consumer spending growth within World Cup semi-finalists………33
Lists of Charts
Chart 1 The page(s) of data…………………………………………………………..26
Chart 2: Total budgeted expenditure of the FIFA 2006 World Cup………………….39
BSc (Hons) Events and Leisure Management Successful factors of Mega event “Case studies of the Korea / Japan 2002 World Cup and Germany 2006 World Cup” Tsang Ka Yu (91206566)
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Lists of Abbreviations
ATP Association of Tennis Professionals
EXPO Exposition
FDI Foreign Direct Investment
FIFA Fédération Internationale de Football Association
IOC International Olympic Committee
MAD Mean Absolute Deviation
OG Olympic Games
OHC Olympic Hosting Cities
PMIS Project Management Information Systems
BSc (Hons) Events and Leisure Management Successful factors of Mega event “Case studies of the Korea / Japan 2002 World Cup and Germany 2006 World Cup” Tsang Ka Yu (91206566)
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1. Introduction
1.1 Background
Nowadays, events are divided the different categories. Bowlin, McDonnell, Allen and
O’Toole (2001) identified four categories of event: mega-events, hallmark events,
major events and local events. In this identification, the mega-event is the event that
the most popular and involved many aspects of stakeholder, especially the huge
amount involvement of the hosting city and the visitors or tourists who come from
different countries. Getz (1991) also added the “yield extraordinarily high levels of
tourism, media coverage, prestige, or economic impact for the host community or
destination” for the mega-event. Getz also specified such events can attract more than
one million person-time participation and at least five hundred million US dollars, the
quality reputations contribute the event within “must-see” factor.
Some of the mega events are summarized by the scholar. According to the Horne and
Manzenreiter (2006), they pointed out the Summer Olympic Games and the FIFA
Association Football World Cup are the typical examples in mega-event. Also, Roche
(2000) replenished the Olympics and Expos are the other powerful and representative
examples in mega-event aspect.
BSc (Hons) Events and Leisure Management Successful factors of Mega event “Case studies of the Korea / Japan 2002 World Cup and Germany 2006 World Cup” Tsang Ka Yu (91206566)
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Football is one of the most popular team sports in the world (Dunning, Maguire and
Pearton, 1993, P.129; Dunning, 1999, P.103) and it is “The contemporary history of
the world's favorite game spans more than 100 years” (FIFA Official, 1994). The
modern Football World Cup also involves “the importance of sound economic
decision marketing and planning” (Bohlmann, 2006, P.3). For example the different
forms of broadcasting and global media explosion are the notable growth of
mega-event in economic aspect since 1980s. It is valuable occasions and opportunities
that analyze the mega-event, especially focus on the Football World Cup how and
why so successful.
1.2 Objectives
For those reasons, the context to analyze the mega-event, especially try to understand:
A. The different definitions of mega-events and examples
B. The main successful factors or benefits of the mega-events
C. The challenges of mega-events in the future
BSc (Hons) Events and Leisure Management Successful factors of Mega event “Case studies of the Korea / Japan 2002 World Cup and Germany 2006 World Cup” Tsang Ka Yu (91206566)
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1.3 Structure
This study is separated for the following six parts:
Chapter 1 Introduction: the motivation and purposes of study
Chapter 2 Literature Review: Gain the good knowledge of the mega-events
and know the facts, the eminent scholars and the theories and ideas,
it is important that know what the former eminent scholars did.
Chapter 3 Methodology: Collect the former and relevant research to accumulate
their experience, such as the Football World Cup relevant information,
like journals, statistics and reports.
Chapter 4 Findings and analysis: The successful factors or benefits of the
Football World Cup and the challenge of the future Football World Cup.
Chapter 5 Suggestions and conclusion: Apply some useful ideas or methods
where the other mega-events’ but modified to suit for Football World
Cup.
BSc (Hons) Events and Leisure Management Successful factors of Mega event “Case studies of the Korea / Japan 2002 World Cup and Germany 2006 World Cup” Tsang Ka Yu (91206566)
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2. Instrumental Literature Review
2.1 The classification of event
There are different concepts of event when it is needed to classify most of the event.
Torkildsen, who stated that “The range of events is so wide that there is no one
definition which encompasses all.” (Torkildsen, 2005, P. 467)
One of the common categories of event is based on their purpose and objective.
Table 1: The event genre of event management
(Source: Berridge G., 2009, p.12 - 13)
Business and corporate events Any event that supports business
objectives, including management
function, corporate communication,
training, marketing, incentives,
employee relations and customer
relations, scheduled alone or in
conjunction with other events.
Exhibitions, expositions and fairs An event created by or for a chartable or
cause-related group for the purpose of
attracting revenue, support and
awareness, scheduled alone or in
conjunction with other events.
Cause-related and fund-raising events An event bring buyers and sellers and
interested persons together to view and
sell products, services and other
resources to a specific industry or the
general public, scheduled alone or in
conjunction with other events.
BSc (Hons) Events and Leisure Management Successful factors of Mega event “Case studies of the Korea / Japan 2002 World Cup and Germany 2006 World Cup” Tsang Ka Yu (91206566)
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Entertainment and leisure events A one-time or periodic, free or ticketed
performance or exhibition event created
for entertainment purpose, scheduled
alone or in conjunction with other
events.
Festivals A cultural celebration, either secular or
religious, created by and for the public,
scheduled alone or in conjunction with
other events. (Many festivals include
bringing buyer and seller together in a
festivals atmosphere.)
Government and civic events An event comprised of or created by or
for political parties, communities, or
municipal or national government
entities, scheduled alone or in
conjunction with other events,
Hallmark events An event of such significance and scope
that its image or stature assures national
and international recognition and
interest.
Marketing events A commerce- oriented event to facilitate
bringing buyer and seller together or to
create awareness of a commercial
product or service, scheduled alone or in
conjunction with other events.
Meeting and convention events The assembly of people for the purpose
of exchanging information, debate or
discussion, consensus or decisions,
education, and relationship building,
scheduled alone or in conjunction with
other events.
BSc (Hons) Events and Leisure Management Successful factors of Mega event “Case studies of the Korea / Japan 2002 World Cup and Germany 2006 World Cup” Tsang Ka Yu (91206566)
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Social / life-cycle events A private event, by invitation only,
celebrating or commemorating a
cultural, religious, communal, societal
or life-cycle occasion, scheduled alone
or in conjunction with other events.
Sport events A spectator or participatory event
involving recreational or competitive
sport activities, scheduled alone or in
conjunction with other events.
Besides this kind of classification, the other one is based on their scale. This kind of
sorting of event may relatively popular and generally apply on the different aspects.
Also, many of the scholars (Getz, 1991; Hall, 1992; Bowdin, McDonnell, Allen and
O’Toole, 2001; Roche, 2002; Torkildsen, 2005) are agree on this classification.
a) Mega-events
b) Hallmark events
c) Major or regional events
d) Local events
One of the separating ideas is that focuses on the impact of tourist, demand and value
and the different target market. For instance, the mega-events, such as the Summer
and Winter Olympics, Paralympics, Football World Cup and World’s fair (EXPO) are
perform the large among of the tourism and also promote and raise the image and
profile for the hosting city and country. It is not same as the hallmark events. The
BSc (Hons) Events and Leisure Management Successful factors of Mega event “Case studies of the Korea / Japan 2002 World Cup and Germany 2006 World Cup” Tsang Ka Yu (91206566)
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hallmark events are defined by Ritchie (1984) as “Major one-time or recurring events
of limited duration, developed primarily to enhance awareness, appeal and
profitability of a tourism destination in the short term and / or long term.”
Ritchie (1984) also further explained that the hallmark events rely for their success on
uniqueness, status or timely significance to create interest and attract attention. About
this point, Allen et al. (2002) added some examples on the hallmark events - The
Carnival in Rio de Janeiro, the Kentucky Derby in the USA, the Chelsea Flower Show
in England and the Edinburgh Festival in Scotland.
Some of the researchers claimed that “it is quite hard to distinguish a difference
between a hallmark and a mega-event” (Kok, 2003). It is relatively agreeableness on
the type or style, but it can be found some difference on them.
BSc (Hons) Events and Leisure Management Successful factors of Mega event “Case studies of the Korea / Japan 2002 World Cup and Germany 2006 World Cup” Tsang Ka Yu (91206566)
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The figure 1 pointed out the difference of the four types of event – the scale of
impacts such as the attendance, media profile, infrastructure, costs and benefits of
mega-event, hallmark event, major event and local event. According to figure 1, the
mega-events’ scale of impact are larger and huger than the hallmark event.
Figure 1: The Categorization of events
(Source: Kok, 2003, P.16)
BSc (Hons) Events and Leisure Management Successful factors of Mega event “Case studies of the Korea / Japan 2002 World Cup and Germany 2006 World Cup” Tsang Ka Yu (91206566)
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2.2 The definition of mega-events and examples
Some of the mega-events are acknowledged by the public and the eminent scholars.
For example, Hall (1992) stated that the mega-events are “mega” because of their
size – attendance, public involvement, political effects, television coverage,
construction of facilities and social and economic impact. Then, the definition of
mega-event which defined such sporting events are part of the wider and growing
analysis of major events within diverse fields of urban regeneration, economic
development, politics and tourism which are agreed by the scholars. (Getz, 1997;
Baum and Lockstone, 2007, P. 29)
Also, the Olympic Games and the World Fair should be included. Chen and Spaans
(2009, P.99) stated that the mega-events are included the Olympics or World Fair
because of large-scale and intended to encourage and stimulate the local and regional
economic development by attracting investment, tourism and media attention.
BSc (Hons) Events and Leisure Management Successful factors of Mega event “Case studies of the Korea / Japan 2002 World Cup and Germany 2006 World Cup” Tsang Ka Yu (91206566)
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Moreover, the football World Cup is another main item in mega-events. Fédération
Internationale de Football Association (FIFA) was been grown since 1904 and
recently organized total 208 member Associations in the world. Many of the scholars
researched this mega-sporting event and proven it is one of the attractive and popular
mega-event. (HEYNE, MAENNIG and SÜSSMUTH, 2007, P. 2; Matheson and
Baade, 2003, P. 1; Fourie and Santana-gallego, 2010, P. 1; Baum and Lockstone, 2007,
P. 29).
2.3 Successful factors or benefits of the mega-events
2.3.1 Olympic Games
As the Modern Olympics Games started in 1896, so the latest one – Beijing Olympics
is the 29th Olympics Games and one of the successful Olympics Games in the history
(CCSE, 2009, P. 89). Different scholars pointed out their opinions to support why
many of the Olympics Games is one of the biggest and successful mega-events.
Haynes (2001, P. 3 - 10) concluded that the 2000 Sydney Olympic Games successful
factors. “The factors contributed to making the Sydney Olympic Games a success,
including the volunteers. Sydney’s 47,000 volunteers presented a cheerful face of the
BSc (Hons) Events and Leisure Management Successful factors of Mega event “Case studies of the Korea / Japan 2002 World Cup and Germany 2006 World Cup” Tsang Ka Yu (91206566)
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Olympics, the enthusiasm of the volunteers was a huge hit with all. The volunteers
were held in such high regard that 100,000 people turned up for a ticker-tape parade
for the volunteers after the Games.” Haynes also pointed out that the sporting
infrastructure and facilities such as smooth running public transport are the success
factors in 2000 Sydney Olympic Games.
The 2004 Athens Olympic Games was showed the high sensibility on the operating
preparation. Migdalovitz (2004, P. 1 - 6) provided the opinion that at that time, the
possible terrorist threats may be attacked by Al Qaeda or its allies in Europe and
elsewhere heightened the government’s awareness of the potential for terrorism at the
Olympics. The Greene government and International Olympic Committee (IOC) was
planned the unprecedented security measures to deal with possible terrorist threats.
Raymond and Bergeron (2007, P. 2 - 7) claimed that Olympics Games applied the
Project Management Information Systems (PMIS) on it. PMIS usually provide
managers with the decision-making support needed in planning, organizing, and
controlling projects. Also, these kinds of system can provide the advantages that not
limited to individual performance but also include project performance. These
BSc (Hons) Events and Leisure Management Successful factors of Mega event “Case studies of the Korea / Japan 2002 World Cup and Germany 2006 World Cup” Tsang Ka Yu (91206566)
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systems were found to have direct impacts on project success, as they contribute to
improving budget control and meeting project deadlines as well as fulfilling technical
specifications. In 2004 Athens Olympic Games, they applied this system on the
mega-sporting event.
In 2008 Beijing Olympic Games, the different successful factors are carried out. Bu
(2009, P. 84 - 89) said that the successful factors are mainly come from the marketing
because set up the image and status of a country internationally and also a process of
displaying the national brand. Moreover, Bu contributed that the opinions which is the
success or failure of an Olympics does not depend on its temporary gain or loss, but
on the long-term development of the host city. It is because Beijing Olympics is the
first Olympics held by developing countries.
BSc (Hons) Events and Leisure Management Successful factors of Mega event “Case studies of the Korea / Japan 2002 World Cup and Germany 2006 World Cup” Tsang Ka Yu (91206566)
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2.3.2 World's Fair
The World’s fair originated from the French tradition of national exhibitions in 1844
held in Paris. In 1851, the real and international exhibition held in United Kingdom,
London. The purposes of the World’s fair that show their result of industrialization,
such as the 1851 in London, display their technological inventions and advancements.
But somehow progressively extended and changed to achieve the purpose of cultural
exchange and improve their national images through their pavilions.
The last time World’s fair was 2010 held in China, Shanghai. According to the official
website, even the global economic is still struggling, the totally investment in 2010
Shanghai EXPO was US$45 billion, over 73 million person-time to visit the different
pavilions, it was the largest scale in the history and also be better than the 2008
Olympics Games in China. (Expo 2010 Shanghai China official website, 2010)
BSc (Hons) Events and Leisure Management Successful factors of Mega event “Case studies of the Korea / Japan 2002 World Cup and Germany 2006 World Cup” Tsang Ka Yu (91206566)
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Some of the former researches provided the economic factors that the World’s fair
held in 2010. Ren, who one of believes that World’s fair, was held in 2010 because of
the commercial success. The World’s fair is a mage-event that can provide highly
profit for the hosting country. Ren also claimed that after Beijing’s successful bid,
Shanghai immediately secured the right to host the World’s fair can last the economic
becoming better in tourism and foreign direct investment (FDI). (Yin, 2007, P. 35 – 38;
Ren, 2008, P. 175 - 190)
2.3.3 Football World Cup
After the Olympics Games, the Football World Cup also is another popular
mega-event in this world. The first Football World Cup is started in 1930 and in 2008
was the 19 times of the Football World Cup.
About the successful factors or the importance of Football World Cup, Manzenreiter
and Horne (2002, P. 1 - 25) stated that it success in different aspects.
BSc (Hons) Events and Leisure Management Successful factors of Mega event “Case studies of the Korea / Japan 2002 World Cup and Germany 2006 World Cup” Tsang Ka Yu (91206566)
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Table 2: The successful factors of 1994, 1998, 2002 Football World Cup
(Source: Manzenreiter and Horne, 2002, P. 1 – 25; Nufer, 1998, p. 5; HBS homepage)
Year Successful factors
1994 Broadcasting
The televised global event is repackaged in numerous versions
of ready-made and localized World Cups
Global interest
Over 3.5 million football supporters attended the US tournament
30 billion watched the games in front of TV screens
Forty multinational corporations paid US$400 million in total to
gain "official product" status and guaranteed global advertising.
BSc (Hons) Events and Leisure Management Successful factors of Mega event “Case studies of the Korea / Japan 2002 World Cup and Germany 2006 World Cup” Tsang Ka Yu (91206566)
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1998 Partnership
Canon and Fuji Film each paid US$ 30 million to be FIFA’s
corporate partners with all rights to use the FIFA emblems.
(Nufer, 1998, p. 5)
Sensibility of the macro-environment
Football hooliganism, which was a major security issue in 1998
and most previous World Cups since the 1960s but the
controlling still be reasonable.
2002 New gimmick
The first time that organized in Asia
The first time that co-hosting the Football World Cup by Korea
and Japan
Economic factors
FIFA granted the worldwide broadcasting rights to a private
sport-marketing group for US$ 800 million
The cumulative audience figures might reach 41 billion. (HBS
homepage)
BSc (Hons) Events and Leisure Management Successful factors of Mega event “Case studies of the Korea / Japan 2002 World Cup and Germany 2006 World Cup” Tsang Ka Yu (91206566)
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According to FIFA, 37 billion spectators were followed the World Cup Finals by
television, it is the biggest shared experience in human history and the fact that
football certainly is the “world’s game”, it refers to the FIFA's President Blatter's
mission – “Make the game better, and take it to the world.” (Manzenreiter and Horne,
2002, P. 1 – 25)
2.4 Summary
The Olympics Games, World’s fair and Football World Cup are the majority in
mega-events, especially the Football World Cup has been attracting the countless
spectators via firsthand, Internet and television.
BSc (Hons) Events and Leisure Management Successful factors of Mega event “Case studies of the Korea / Japan 2002 World Cup and Germany 2006 World Cup” Tsang Ka Yu (91206566)
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3. Method of Investigation
3.1 Choice of Methodology
According to the purpose of this dissertation that find out what is the successful
factors in mega-events, such as the Olympics Games, Football World Cup and
World’s fair, so the methodology would be used the secondary data collection to
analyze the mega-events. There are mainly some of the questions:
I. How much spaces or page(s) are spending on the data?
II. What is the author’s standpoint or position on the data?
As the secondary data could be randomly divided such as the referencing books,
journals, reports included the statistics, texts and photos in library and via Internet,
and this dissertation would be analyze the mega-events successful factors, so if the
content analysis are applied on this situation, it could reflect the objective and
systematic quantitative method. (Radio Television Hong Kong, 2004)
BSc (Hons) Events and Leisure Management Successful factors of Mega event “Case studies of the Korea / Japan 2002 World Cup and Germany 2006 World Cup” Tsang Ka Yu (91206566)
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The importance of content analysis is to analyze the content within apply the
objective and quantifiable methods and classify the statistics. The statistics could be
the descriptive categories of explanation to show the objective, unbiased and impartial
situation. Krippendorff (2004, xviii - xvii) concluded the three advantages for this
method – the empirically grounded method, transcends traditional notions of symbols,
contents, and intents and last one is forced to develop a methodology of its own.
According to the above-mentioned questions, the content analysis could be separated
the following three types of coding:
I. Data of number, ratio and size;
II. Data of the overall standpoint
BSc (Hons) Events and Leisure Management Successful factors of Mega event “Case studies of the Korea / Japan 2002 World Cup and Germany 2006 World Cup” Tsang Ka Yu (91206566)
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3.2 Coding definition
About the data of the overall standpoint, it should be according to their words which
are positive, negative and neutral. The following definition would be provided:
Positive: The data show the affirmative attitude and action which is
supporting and agreeing with the mega-event’s contribution
Negative: The data reflect the mainly negative impact and the mega-events
may be harmful to the some aspects such as economic waste,
social unharmonious situation, political unstable and
the negative impact on environment.
Neutral: The data have not shown the standpoint which is positive or negative,
it has only shown the information or the objective description for the
mega-events.
Uncertainty: It cannot be identified or determined what the standpoint is.
BSc (Hons) Events and Leisure Management Successful factors of Mega event “Case studies of the Korea / Japan 2002 World Cup and Germany 2006 World Cup” Tsang Ka Yu (91206566)
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3.3 Data Collection
This dissertation’s data are come from the different channels. Total 165 pieces of data
which are the secondary data are collected via the academic books, journals, reports
included texts, photos and statistics and websites. All of the data are related to the
mega events, event management and tourism management. The reason of choosing
the secondary data that is increasing the accuracy of data in the basis of analysis. As
the collected data almost came from the research, academic books, journals and
reports, the reliability and importance should be raised.
BSc (Hons) Events and Leisure Management Successful factors of Mega event “Case studies of the Korea / Japan 2002 World Cup and Germany 2006 World Cup” Tsang Ka Yu (91206566)
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3.4 Reliability and validity of data
“Reliability and validity are tools of an essentially positivist epistemology.” (Winter,
2000, P. 7). The data’s reliability and validity are important that to prove how the data
reliable and available.
3.4.1 Reliability
According to Kirk and Miller’s identification (1986, P. 41 - 42), three types of
reliability could be used to in quantitative research:
(1) The degree to which a measurement, given repeatedly, remains the same;
(2) The stability of a measurement over time;
(3) The similarity of measurements within a given time period
The reliability can be divided by the Test-Retest Reliability, Alternative Forms
Reliability and Inter-Rater Reliability. (Friel, 2004, P. 17 - 23). As the scale and the
possibility of time, the Test-Retest Reliability is the first priority to achieve because it
is the common format to test the reliability (Litwin, 1995, P. 5 - 30). The data was
been tested twice in the same day.
BSc (Hons) Events and Leisure Management Successful factors of Mega event “Case studies of the Korea / Japan 2002 World Cup and Germany 2006 World Cup” Tsang Ka Yu (91206566)
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3.4.2 Validity
Litwin (1995) defined the validity is “How well a survey measures what it sets out to
measure.” and he separated four forms of measurements - Face validity, Content
validity, Criterion validity and Construct validity. About the forms of validity
measurements, it seems like that the different scholars hold different views because
Mr. Trochim (2006, P. 2 - 4), a professor at Cornell University only classified two
main categories - Translation validity and Criterion-related validity. Actually, the
subject matters are relatively similar and resemble. In the above mentioned research,
the Face validity, which included the Translation validity and it should be progressing
in an expected way. All of the data are related to the mega-events and the majority
stated their standpoint so the research is also providing with the validity.
BSc (Hons) Events and Leisure Management Successful factors of Mega event “Case studies of the Korea / Japan 2002 World Cup and Germany 2006 World Cup” Tsang Ka Yu (91206566)
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3.5 Limitation
One of the major limitations is data sampling. As the mega-events are various and
multifarious, it could not be easily and suitably to find and collect the relevant
information to be the part of data. This research is only provided the 165 kind of data,
the sampling should be enlarged and enriched, the information which related to
mega-events are numerous, the research only could be possibly chosen and analyzed
the relevant data. According to the Google.com, about 2,780,000 results when key in
the “mega event”, it could be proved that many of the data should be included
(google.com, 2011). Also, the information which related to mega-events are numerous,
the research only could possibly choose and analyze the relevant data.
3.6 Summary
The content and textual analysis was been chosen and implemented to find out the
mega-events, especially focusing on the Football World Cup. At the same time, the
data’s reliability and validity should be equipped.
BSc (Hons) Events and Leisure Management Successful factors of Mega event “Case studies of the Korea / Japan 2002 World Cup and Germany 2006 World Cup” Tsang Ka Yu (91206566)
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4. Findings and Analysis
4.1 Availability of the Mega-events section data
4.1.1 Themes of mega-events
The table 3 showed that the number of data which are belonged to what kind of
mega-events and their proportion. In total 165 kinds of data, the Football World Cup
(37%) and the multiple examples of mega-events (30%) are the majority.
Table 3: The data theme(s) of mega-events
Mega-event item(s) Quantity Percentage (%)
Football World Cup 61 37
Olympics Games 34 21
World’s Fair 11 7
Others 9 5
Multiple examples of mega-events 50 30
Total 165 100
BSc (Hons) Events and Leisure Management Successful factors of Mega event “Case studies of the Korea / Japan 2002 World Cup and Germany 2006 World Cup” Tsang Ka Yu (91206566)
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4.1.2 Pages of data
The chart 1 reflected that the pages of the 165 kind of data. According to the data
pages, it can realize that how much space the authors should use to discuss the
mega-events. Chart 1 indicated that the data generally about below 30 pages to
express their opinion. Also, 10% of the data may more than 50 pages, it is a special
and notable point in Chart 1.
Chart 1: The page(s) of data
Chart 1: The page(s) of data
8%
4%10%
27% 29%
22% 1 to 10
11 to 20
21 to 30
31 to 40
41 to 50
51 or above
Table 4: The pages of mega-events data statistical analysis
Mode Median Average Standard Deviation Mean Absolute Deviation
10 18 31.44848 56.63268535 25.79386593
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4.1.3 Standpoint of data
Table 4 is the standpoint from the data. More than 65% the standpoint of the data
provide the positive viewpoint or attitude to discuss the mega-events.
Table 5: Overall standpoint
Standpoint Quantity Percentage (%)
Positive 111 67
Negative 23 14
Neutral 20 12
Uncertainty 11 7
Total 165 100
4.2 Discussion
After the decoding of the data, some of the clues should be reflected that based on the
data. The objective statistics could show the phenomenon and fact to realize the
actuality.
BSc (Hons) Events and Leisure Management Successful factors of Mega event “Case studies of the Korea / Japan 2002 World Cup and Germany 2006 World Cup” Tsang Ka Yu (91206566)
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4.2.1 Discussion about the themes of mega-events
According to the Table 3, in 165 kinds of data, the Football World Cup is the most
popular, the total number is 61, and it occupied the 37% of the overall data. The
second popular theme is the multiple mega-events examples in one data, which means
the data made use of the Olympics, World’s Fair, Football World Cup or the other
mega-events in their article. So this part of analyses could show that the Football
World Cup is the most popular mega-event that whatever the spectators, public or
scholars have been concerning this mega-event continuously.
4.2.2 Discussion about the pages of data
The pages of the data could reflect the mega-event importance in the authors’ mind
and article. Although the data size and quantity are huge so it could not easily analyze
all of it, it could find some ways to make it be quantifiable. Count the pages of the
data are one of the useful and relatively simple ways to analyze and realize how the
authors descript and provide the opinions about the mega-events. (Audience Dialogue,
2005, chapter 16)
BSc (Hons) Events and Leisure Management Successful factors of Mega event “Case studies of the Korea / Japan 2002 World Cup and Germany 2006 World Cup” Tsang Ka Yu (91206566)
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Some of the statistical analysis were been chosen. For instance, Mode, Median,
Average, Standard Deviation and Mean Absolute Deviation (MAD) are the most
common way to analyze how reliable of the data. In general, the data of average could
reflect the data reliability because the objective tendency could be showed on this
statistical analysis. In this analysis, the 165 data’s average pages are the nearly 31
pages. However, some of the data would be come from the academic or referencing
books, so the data might be deviant (Hardy et. al, 1998). In order to improve the
reliability of data, the Standard Deviation and Mean Absolute Deviation could be
useful. First, Porter (1986) claimed that the Mean Deviation and its close relative the
variance are “an apparently impeccable mathematical pedigree, is socially constructed
and a product of history”, included the Mean Absolute Deviation. Second, Gorard
(2003, P. 12) described that “This is able to create from this a simpler introductory
kind of statistics that is perfectly useable for many research purposes, and that will be
far less intimidating for new researchers to learn.” As the Mean Absolute Deviation
(≈26) is lower than the average (≈31), so the data are the expected result on the
research. At the same time, the Standard Deviation are nearly 57, it means the data are
relatively dispersed.
BSc (Hons) Events and Leisure Management Successful factors of Mega event “Case studies of the Korea / Japan 2002 World Cup and Germany 2006 World Cup” Tsang Ka Yu (91206566)
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4.2.3 Discussion about the standpoint of data
Stemler (2001) replenished that the content analysis could be a powerful tool for
determining authorship, included the authorities’ attitude and standpoint. However,
some of the authors could express their opinions circuitous, indirectly and tactfully, so
it should be according to their overall attitude rather than their simply words. In 165
kinds of data, 67% showed their overall viewpoint is positive, it is the majority of the
standpoint analysis that the authors might agree on the mega-event overall reasonable
performance.
4.3 Football World Cup cases study
Besides the analysis of the 165 kinds of data, the cases study approach would be
applied in this research. As effectively as to realize the mega-events, the Football
World Cup would be chosen to analyze the successful factors. The last three years of
the tournaments are focused on because they are representational, specific and also
relatively easy access.
BSc (Hons) Events and Leisure Management Successful factors of Mega event “Case studies of the Korea / Japan 2002 World Cup and Germany 2006 World Cup” Tsang Ka Yu (91206566)
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4.3.1 Korea / Japan 2002 World Cup
In this year World Cup, this is a special World Cup that it could show the different
successful factors such as cultural, economic and social aspects.
4.3.1.1 Cultural successful factors
This is the first time that the Football World Cup co-hosted by two countries and also
anti-traditionally and innovatively organized in Asia (Horne and Manzenreiter, 2002,
P.1 - 25). It improves and builds the countries relationships, especially transcend the
historical painful memories of the past while the World War II from 1939 to 1945.
Another important signals that it symbolizes that not only about the Korea and Japan,
but also about the Asia. The World Cup was showing the love, the ability to organize
the mega-event and showing the representational and significant roles for all of the
people (Lee, 2002, P.66 – 69).
BSc (Hons) Events and Leisure Management Successful factors of Mega event “Case studies of the Korea / Japan 2002 World Cup and Germany 2006 World Cup” Tsang Ka Yu (91206566)
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The other cultural factor is an example of globalization. Football is on the way to
becoming a truly global sport. The Asia team, the Republic of Korea surprised
performance during the 2002 World Cup and defeat some of Europe’s strongest
national teams, including Portugal, Italy and Spain. The Africa representative,
Senegal’s opening match victory over world champions France that show their
mysterious performance. In this year of World Cup, the Asia and Africa teams showed
their tough and willpower in the competition so they got the reasonable performance
finally. Undoubtedly, the global consciousness and the one interconnected world
could be catalyzed by the World Cup (Tiplady, 2003, P.1 -10).
4.3.1.2 Economic successful factors
The World Cup could bring the profitable revenue for the hosting generally. The
official funding arrangement, the revenue from tourism, different kinds of
broadcasting and sponsors might be contributed to the hosting country (Horne and
Manzenreiter, 2002, P.1 - 25). One of the researches is difference of the average
annual consumer spending growth in the Pre-World Cup and Post-World Cup period.
BSc (Hons) Events and Leisure Management Successful factors of Mega event “Case studies of the Korea / Japan 2002 World Cup and Germany 2006 World Cup” Tsang Ka Yu (91206566)
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Table 6: Annual consumer spending growth within World Cup semi-finalists
(Source: Datastream)
Table 6 showed the economic difference of the before and after the World Cup in
previous years. The result reflected that whatever in Pre-World Cup and Post-World
Cup period, the consumer spending growth is stably increased. One of the interesting
in this research that it was not only benefited for the hosting countries, but also
favored the World Cup semi-finalists. (Appendix A)
Annual consumer spending growth
Year Pre-World Cup Post-World Cup
1990 1.9% 1.9%
1994 8.6% 10.7%
1998 3.7% 5.4%
2002 5.4% 6.4%
2006 1.6% 2.0%
Average 4.2% 5.3%
BSc (Hons) Events and Leisure Management Successful factors of Mega event “Case studies of the Korea / Japan 2002 World Cup and Germany 2006 World Cup” Tsang Ka Yu (91206566)
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4.3.1.3 Social successful factors
The traffic management is important for the mega-events that control the crowd and
flow. Professor Chang, who is the Department of Transportation Systems Engineering
in Hanyang University, the research team analyzes the World Cup period of the traffic
management. They focused on the transportation capacity, waiting room capacity, the
operating speed of the entry/exit guarding gate and escalator capacity to prepare 3
steps control plan for preventing accidents. As the result, they claimed that even the
semi-final game between Korea and Germany was successfully held without a single
accident among 100,000 gathered together (Chang et al., 2003, P.1011 - 1024).
The other social successful factor that showed their capable of social cohesion. Kim
and Petrick (2003, P. 25 - 38) research the social impacts of the World Cup. They
focused on the five main dimensions:
“Tourism resource development and urban revitalization”
“Image enhancement and consolidation”
“Economic benefits”
“Interest in foreign countries or their cultures”
“Tourism infrastructure development”
BSc (Hons) Events and Leisure Management Successful factors of Mega event “Case studies of the Korea / Japan 2002 World Cup and Germany 2006 World Cup” Tsang Ka Yu (91206566)
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The result of the research showed the“Image enhancement and consolidation” is the
most important issue that residents most likely to consider and the second one is the
“Tourism infrastructure development”. The research team concluded that the social
image and the infrastructure are the most residents concerned about it, included the
social cohesion and perceptions, it could be realized that the civic responsibility and
social cohesion could be raised via the long-term education (Kim and Petrick, 2003, P.
25 - 38).
4.3.1.4 Summary
The Korea / Japan 2002 World Cup was a revolutionary and special World Cup,
especially the arranged in Asia and co-hosted by South Korea and Japan.
BSc (Hons) Events and Leisure Management Successful factors of Mega event “Case studies of the Korea / Japan 2002 World Cup and Germany 2006 World Cup” Tsang Ka Yu (91206566)
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4.3.2 Germany 2006 World Cup
The president of the FIFA, Joseph Blatter, summed up the World Cup with the
following statement. “This was the best World Cup of all time. Never before has an
event been presented in such an emotional and global manner” (Eberl, 2007).
Germany 2006 World Cup’s successful factors should be divided by marketing and
economic and technological three main aspects.
4.3.2.1 Philosophy
The Germany 2006 World Cup was been defined three main elements - Cosmopolitan,
Friendly, Casual and Cheerful and the motto is “A time to make friends”. It could
imagine that they hosted the World Cup not only focus on the sporting mega-event,
but also treat it sort of a make friends event and a cultural exchange event. To achieve
the above mentioned, the series of famous cities such as Berlin, Hamburg, Hannover,
Nürnberg and Frankfurt were extended their image that not only the sports, but also
included tourism, culture, history and business (Buchholz and Klingel, 2009). For
example, more than 15,000 media representatives, 33 billion TV audience and cover
in 215 countries that the transparent mega-event for all of the people.
BSc (Hons) Events and Leisure Management Successful factors of Mega event “Case studies of the Korea / Japan 2002 World Cup and Germany 2006 World Cup” Tsang Ka Yu (91206566)
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4.3.2.2 Implementation
To definitely implement the motto - “A time to make friends”, the relevant
stakeholders built the “Fan Fest Hotspots”, the peripheral events such as exhibitions,
“Closed-Shop”, “Arts- and culture programmes”, “Streesoccer (street football world)”
and enlarged the central transportation infrastructure. Besides, Germany trained over
100,000 “Service ambassadors” in five months and it worked, who making Germany
being warm and welcoming place for visitors - 90% of people who visited Germany
brand advocates (Eberl, 2007). Those of decisions purposed to attract the visitors and
provide the opportunities of consumption, enjoyment and excitement. The Germany
Federal Government also described “The huge artistic and cultural programme which
made an impressive and valuable contribution towards the success of the 2006 World
Cup” (The Germany Federal Government, 2006).
BSc (Hons) Events and Leisure Management Successful factors of Mega event “Case studies of the Korea / Japan 2002 World Cup and Germany 2006 World Cup” Tsang Ka Yu (91206566)
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4.3.2.3 Ticketing
Ticketing is one of the important revenue in event. In Germany 2006 World Cup, the
tickets separated the different distribution channels such as the sponsors, FIFA family,
the other teams and also the spectators. This approach could be promised that the
various participants and visitors could enjoy the tournaments (Cherubini, Iasevoli and
Lauretta, 2007, P. 24).
Figure 2: Ticketing business model Germany 2006
(Source: Cherubini, Iasevoli and Lauretta, 2007, P. 24)
BSc (Hons) Events and Leisure Management Successful factors of Mega event “Case studies of the Korea / Japan 2002 World Cup and Germany 2006 World Cup” Tsang Ka Yu (91206566)
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4.3.2.4 Budget controlling
Besides the excellent periphery events and infrastructure to attract visitors to
participate the World Cup, the well budget controlling also could benefit the economic.
The Chart 2 reflected that the expenditures were focused on the organization costs,
stadiums, personnel, media and budget reserve. It showed the budget planning and
management were well-prepared.
Chart 1: Total budgeted expenditure of the FIFA 2006 World Cup
(Source: The Germany Federal Government, 2007, P. 21)
BSc (Hons) Events and Leisure Management Successful factors of Mega event “Case studies of the Korea / Japan 2002 World Cup and Germany 2006 World Cup” Tsang Ka Yu (91206566)
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4.3.3 Summary
As the Mr. Joseph Blatter said that the Germany 2006 World Cup is one of the best
World Cup because of their branding management. Eberl explained that the 2006
World Cup was such an overwhelming success that Germany holds the second most
valuable country brand in the Nation Brand Index (NBI), the tourism bookings have
increased 33% nearly, the unemployment has dropped by more than 20% and the
investor are confident that it is the best time to extend their business (Eberl, 2007).
The cultural, economic and social factors guide the Football World Cup to be the most
popular and attractive mega event.
BSc (Hons) Events and Leisure Management Successful factors of Mega event “Case studies of the Korea / Japan 2002 World Cup and Germany 2006 World Cup” Tsang Ka Yu (91206566)
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5. Conclusion and Recommendations
5.1 Conclusion
This research mainly focused on the successful factors of the mega event, especially
using the Korea / Japan 2002 World Cup and Germany 2006 World Cup to be the case
studies’ target.
According to this research, many of the evidences prove that Football World Cup is
the most popular and attractive mega event undoubtedly. At the beginning the
research was focused on “Event” because of wide range and various definitions. The
most of the acknowledged and agreeable classification would be applied and
implemented on this research - mega-events, hallmark events, major or regional
events and local events.
After established the consistent standard of the objective, the literatures would be
reviewed and cited that the characteristics of the mega events. Then, the content
analysis would be applied that decoding the data such as the pages and standpoints
which the topic related to the mega events. It could reflect that the scholars held the
positive attitude numerously.
BSc (Hons) Events and Leisure Management Successful factors of Mega event “Case studies of the Korea / Japan 2002 World Cup and Germany 2006 World Cup” Tsang Ka Yu (91206566)
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To replenish and ensure the research’s reliability, the Korea / Japan 2002 World Cup
and Germany 2006 World Cup case studies would be applied. The successful factors
of Korea / Japan 2002 World Cup were mainly focusing on the cultural, economic and
social factors. Moreover, the Germany 2006 World Cup was a representative mega
event that within the meaningful and impressive peripheral event. For instance, the
philosophy, motto and the implementation provided the successful and striking
performance. Also, the financial and budget controlling within the high transparency
were the good reflection to prove the mega event successfully.
According to the above mentioned, the Football World Cup has been occupying a
decisive position in the world. It also reflected that the reason why the billions of
supporter focus on this mega event loyally and devotedly.
BSc (Hons) Events and Leisure Management Successful factors of Mega event “Case studies of the Korea / Japan 2002 World Cup and Germany 2006 World Cup” Tsang Ka Yu (91206566)
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5.2 Recommendations
As the Football World Cup is the most attractive mega event and the countless people
are concerning and paying close attention to this sport, some of the aspects could be
improved and make it better and better.
5.2.1 Extend the technological justice
Many of the sports are applied the technological system to assist the referees
providing the fairly judgment. For example, the tennis series competition, included
the four Grand Slam and Association of Tennis Professionals tour (ATP) are using the
“Hawk-Eye System” to provide the accurate decision on the competition (Hawk-eye
Innovations Ltd, 2007). The National Basketball Association (NBA) also implements
the technology which immediate play back the video for the referees’ assistance. For
this reason and reference, the Football World Cup should consider expand the
technological elements that provide the objective justice. The above mentioned
technology could be contemplated.
BSc (Hons) Events and Leisure Management Successful factors of Mega event “Case studies of the Korea / Japan 2002 World Cup and Germany 2006 World Cup” Tsang Ka Yu (91206566)
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5.2.2 Concern about the players’ health and safety
As the FIFA hopes to encourage and promote the Football World Cup, the location
and the hosting countries are becoming special and extraordinary. For example, after
the South Africa 2010 World Cup, the following three tournaments would be decided
on 2014 in Brazil, 2018 Russia and 2022 Qatar. However, the usually competition
period would be in summer, at the same time Brazil and Qatar might reflect the high
temperature, it is a hard and arduous challenge for the players, referees and spectators.
The FIFA should communicate with the hosting countries and the relevant groups that
reinforce the awareness of the health and safety issues and make sure that the event
progress smoothly and safely.
Another concern is about the public security. As the criminal issues were happened in
South Africa 2010 World Cup period, it is necessarily to avoid the situation just like
the gruel a bad mouse droppings. Football World Cup is worth that public keep the
positive and affirmative impressions in their mind. The possible ways that mobilize
the adequate and qualified manpower and confirm the security systems are worked
and effective.
BSc (Hons) Events and Leisure Management Successful factors of Mega event “Case studies of the Korea / Japan 2002 World Cup and Germany 2006 World Cup” Tsang Ka Yu (91206566)
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7. Appendix
Appendix A. World Cup Semi Finalists 1990-2006
Year Winner Runners-Up Third Fourth
Italy 1990 West
Germany
Argentina Italy England
USA 1994 Brazil Italy Sweden Bulgaria
France 1998 France Brazil Croatia Holland
Korea / Japan 2002 Brazil Germany Turkey South Korea
Germany 2006 Italy France Germany Portugal
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