BreedingUniformityandBankingDiversity:TheGenescapesofIndustrialAgriculture,1935–1970

acceptedforpublicationinGlobalEnvironment,August2016

HelenAnneCurry

DepartmentofHistoryandPhilosophyofScienceUniversityofCambridge

FreeSchoolLane,CambridgeCB23RH,UnitedKingdomhac44@cam.ac.uk

ABSTRACT: In the mid-twentieth century, American agriculturists began to fret about agrowingthreattokeyeconomiccrops:thelossorextinctionofmanifold localvarieties,orlandraces, resulting from the displacement of these in cultivation by recently introducedvarietiesthatwerebettersuitedforindustrial-styleagriculture.Manybreedersconsidereddiverselandracestobeavaluable,andindeedessential,sourceofgeneticmaterialfortheircrop improvement efforts—and therefore an essential resource for the very system ofagricultural production that appeared to threaten their continued existence. This paperexploreshowknowledgeof thisdilemma—that is, therelianceof industrialagricultureongeneticdiversitythatittendstodestroy—shapedeffortstoconservebiologicaldiversityandsimultaneously shapedthe landscapesandgenescapesof twentieth-centuryagriculture. Ittakes maize (corn) as its central example, as it was changes in the landscapes of maizeproduction,firstintheUnitedStatesandthenacrossLatinAmerica,whichspurredanearlyinternational collaboration for thepreservationof cropgeneticdiversity.As it showswithreferencetothisprogramandsubsequent internationaldevelopments intheconservationofcropdiversity,thetechnologyofthe'seedbank'wasconsideredacrucialadditiontothetechnologies of industrial agricultural production. Itwas understood to allowbreeders tocontinueresponsiblyinthecreationofhigh-yieldingbutecologicallyvulnerableinbredcropsby lessening the perceived risks inherent in the un-diverse landscapes of industrialmonocropagriculture.KEYWORDS:biodiversity,geneticconservation,industrialagriculture,maize,seedbank

Inthemid-twentiethcentury,Americanagriculturistsbegantofretaboutagrowing

threattokeyeconomiccropssuchasmaize(corn),wheat,andbarley:thelossorextinction

ofgeneticallydiversevarieties.AstheUnitedStatesDepartmentofAgriculture(USDA)plant

explorerHarryHarlanandbotanistMaryMartinidescribedin1936,breedershad'every

reasontofeelgratified'attheirprogressincreatingimprovedcropsandconvertingfarmers

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totheuseofhigheryieldingvarieties.1Andyettheyharboredconcernaboutaproblem

createdbytheseverysuccesses.'Inawayweloseevenwhenwegain',theywroteofbarley

breeding,whichwastheirownspecialty.'Ouroldvarieties…containedalargenumberof

forms.Thepossibilitiesoffindingadditionalstrainsofmeritinthesevarietiesarefarfrom

exhausted.Buttheacreageplantedtothemisshrinkingrapidly.Itwillbedifficultto

maintainthisparticularreservoirofgermplasminitsentiretyagainstthedaywhenwemay

wantit.'Ifthroughneglecttheoldervarietiesdisappeared,thenbreedersinthefuture

wouldbedeprivedofthepotentiallyusefultraitstheirgenesmighthaveconferred.Harlan

andMartini'sconcernsextendedbeyondthelossofoldAmericanvarietiestothose

traditionallycultivatedinAfrica,Asia,andEurope.'Theprogeniesofthesefieldswithall

theirsurvivingvariationsconstitutetheworld'spricelessreservoirofgermplasm',but

increasedcommunicationandtrademeantthatlong-cultivatedvarietieswerebeing

replacedwithimportedimprovedseeds.Thesolution,intheirview,wastocreatea

collectionwhereseedsofthehundredsofbarleyvarietiesthathadenteredtheUnited

Statesthroughtheworkofplantexplorersandotherscouldbe'preservedwithoutloss'for

theuseoffuturebreeders.2

TheviewsarticulatedbyHarlanandMartiniin1936hadalreadybeenputforward

decadesearlier,forexamplebytheAustro-HungarianagronomistEmanuelvonProskowetz

whoreportedonthepotentialhazardsoflosinglocallandracestotheInternational

AgriculturalandForestryCongressinViennain1890andbytheGermangeneticistErwin

Baurwhoasearlyas1914expressedaworryaboutthelossofvarietiesnotonlyinEurope

1Inbarley(HarlanandMartini'ssubject),suchvarietiesincludedbothhomozygouslinesofestablishedlandracesandhybridtypescreatedbycrossingtwoestablishedvarietiesandthenselectingsuperiorprogeniesinsubsequentgenerations.2H.V.HarlanandM.L.Martini,'ProblemsandResultsinBarleyBreeding',inYearbookofAgriculture1936,pp.303–46(Washington,DC:USGovernmentPrintingOffice,1936),quotationsonpp.315–17.

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butaroundtheworld.3Suchconcernsgrewstrongerandmorewidespreadovertime,as

relianceonimprovedcommercialvarietiesbecamethenorminever-morecountriesandas

breedingtechniquesandagriculturaltechnologiesspurredtheproductionofever-more

uniformcrops.Bythe1970s,agriculturalistsfrettedasmuchabouttheincreased

vulnerabilityofnarrowlybred,high-yieldingcommercialvarietiesinaworldwithdecreased

'geneticresources'astheydidaboutdisappearanceofso-calledindigenousvarietiesand

landracesthemselves.Bothcouldbeseenasendangered.4

Inthispaper,Iexplorehowknowledgeofthisdilemma—thatis,therelianceof

industrialagricultureongeneticdiversitythatittendsitselftodestroy—shapedeffortsto

conservebiologicaldiversityandsimultaneouslyshapedthelandscapesandgenescapesof

twentieth-centuryagriculture.AswithHarlanandMartini,manybreeders'preferred

solutiontothepossiblelossofpotentiallyvaluablegenetictypeswasnottomaintainthese

incultivationbuttogatherseedsofthesevarietiesandarrangefortheirindefinitestorage

atseedstoragefacilities,todaycalled'seedbanks'or'genebanks'.Thecreationofthese

facilities,completewithtechnologiesforcleaning,packagingandstoringseedin

refrigeratedchambers,facilitatedthemigrationofgeneticdiversityincropplantsfromfarm

3ChristianO.Lehmann,'CollectingEuropeanLand-RacesandDevelopmentofEuropeanGeneBanks–HistoricalRemarks',DieKulturpflanze29,no.1(Feb.1981):29–40.30.FormoreonvonProskowetzandthechangesinplantbreedingandagriculturalproductionthatcontributedtohisinterestincollectinglandraces,seeJonathanHarwood,Europe'sGreenRevolutionandOthersSince:TheRiseandFallofPeasantFriendlyPlantBreeding(London:Routledge,2012),37–50,esp.45–47.4ThefullesthistoricalaccountofinterestinplantgeneticresourcesisR.PistoriusandJ.VanWijk,TheExploitationofPlantGeneticInformation:PoliticalStrategiesinCropDevelopment(Wallingford:CABI,1999).SeealsoRobinPistorius,Scientists,Plants,andPolitics:AHistoryofthePlantGeneticResourcesMovement(Rome:IPGRI,1997);TimothyFarnham,SavingNature'sLegacy:OriginsoftheIdeaofBiologicalDiversity(NewHaven:YaleUniversityPress,2007),ch.4;MariannaFenziandChristopheBonneuil,'From"GeneticResources"to"EcosystemServices":ACenturyofConcernsandGlobalPoliciestoConserveCropDiversity',Culture,Agriculture,FoodandEnvironment,forthcoming.

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fieldstolaboratories,fromgeographicallyscatteredcultivationsitestocentralizedscientific

centers.5

Althoughlongoverlookedinhistoricalaccountsoftwentieth-centuryscienceand

agriculture,seedbankshavebeguntoreceivegreaterattention.Inrecentpublications,for

example,historianshavechartedthedevelopmentofseedcollectionsasnew'cosmopolitan

commons'inpost-warEurope,examinedbreeders'interestinestablishingsuchcollections

asarchivesofgeneticdiversity,andtracedtheemergenceoftheconservationof'genetic

resources'anobjectofinternationalconcerninthe1960sandsubsequenttransformations

ofthisconcernininternationalarenas.6

HereIexaminethedualroleofseedbanksasagriculturaltechnologies,emerging

afterWorldWarIIasessentialelementsofthetechnologicalassemblageofindustrial

agriculturalproduction,andasconservationtools,envisionedasthebestwaytoprevent

thelossofendangeredagriculturalplants.Ifocusonmaize,asitwaschangesinthe

landscapesofmaizeproduction,firstintheUnitedStatesandthenacrossLatinAmerica,

whichspurredanearlyinternationalcollaborationforthepreservationofcropgenetic

diversityandthecreationofseveralearlylong-termseedstoragefacilities.AsIshowwith

referencetothispan-Americanprogram,thetechnologyoftheseedbankwasconsidereda

crucialadditiontothetechnologiesofindustrialagriculturalproduction,onethatlessened

theperceivedrisksinherentintheun-diverselandscapesofindustrialmonocropagriculture.

Byenablingthelong-termconservationofvarieties,seedbankswerethoughttoallow5AsimilarperspectiveisfoundinThomVanDooren,'BankingSeed:UseandValueintheConservationofAgriculturalDiversity',ScienceasCulture18,no.4(Dec.2009):373–95.6SeeTiagoSaraiva,'BreedingEurope:CropDiversity,GeneBanks,andCommoners',inNilDiscoandEdaKranakis(eds.),CosmopolitanCommons:SharingResourcesandRisksAcrossBorders,pp.185–211(Cambridge:MITPress,2013);SaraPeres,'SavingtheGenePoolfortheFuture:SeedBanksasArchives',StudiesinHistoryandPhilosophyofSciencePartC:StudiesinHistoryandPhilosophyofBiologicalandBiomedicalSciences55(Feb.2016):96–104;FenziandBonneuil,'From"GeneticResources"to"EcosystemServices"'.Foranearlierhistoricalaccount,seeLehmann'CollectingEuropeanLand-Races'.

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breederstocontinueresponsiblyintheircreationofhigh-yieldingbutecologically

vulnerableinbredcropsasthesedisplacedmorediverseprogenitorsinfarmfields.

Thispaperbringstogethertwohistoriesthat,despitetheirdeepentanglement,are

rarelytoldasone.7Thehistoryofagricultureinthetwentiethcenturyisastoryof

industrializationandtechnologization,oftencharacterizedbyemphasisontheincreasing

homogeneityofagriculturalpractices—andagriculturalorganisms—acrossregionsand

nationsandthenaroundtheworld.8Inmanyrecentcases,scholarshavechartedthe

destructiveconsequencesofthisprocess(betheysocialorenvironmental)andimplicated

agriculturalexpertsofmanystripesinitsunfolding,includingbreeders,entomologists,soil

scientists,economists,waterengineers,andstillothers.9Thehistoryofbiological

7Thoughtherearenottomyknowledgedetailedaccountsthatbringtogetheragricultureandtheconservationofbiologicaldiversityasalignedactivities,thereareaccountsthatconsideragricultureanditsrelationshiptoresourceconservation,suchaswaterandsoilconservation.OntheU.S.case,see,e.g.,NeilMaher,Nature'sNewDeal:TheCivilianConservationCorpsandtheRootsoftheAmericanEnvironmentalMovement(Oxford:OxfordUniversityPress,2007);SarahT.Phillips,ThisLand,ThisNation:Conservation,RuralAmerican,andtheNewDeal(Cambridge:CambridgeUniversityPress,2007).Forashortreflectiononthelinkbetweendiminishinggeneticdiversityinindustrialagriculturalanimalbreedsandeffortstopreservegeneticdiversityintheseanimals,seeJoannaRadin,'PlanningforthePast:CryopreservationattheFarm,Zoo,andMuseum',inFernandoVidalandNéliaDias(eds.),RoutledgeEnvironmentalHumanities:Endangerment,Biodiversity,andCulture,pp.218–240(Florence,KY:TaylorandFrancis,2015),viaProQuestebrary.8JamesC.Scott,SeeingLikeaState:HowCertainSchemestoImprovetheHumanConditionHaveFailed(NewHaven,CT:YaleUniversityPress,2008),ch.8.SurveysofglobalagriculturalchangethatcoverindustrializationincludeMarcelMazoyerandLaurenceRoudart,AHistoryofWorldAgriculture:FromtheNeolithicAgetotheCurrentCrisis,translatedbyJamesH.Membrez(London:Earthscan,2006);MarkB.Tauger,AgricultureinWorldHistory(Abingdon,UK:Routledge,2011).UsefulstartingpointsonagriculturalindustrializationintheUnitedStatesareDeborahFitzgerald,EveryFarmaFactory:TheIndustrialIdealinAmericanAgriculture(NewHaven:YaleUniversityPress,2003);J.L.Anderson,IndustrializingtheCornBelt:Agriculture,Technology,andEnvironment,1945–1972(DeKalb:NorthernIllinoisUniversityPress,2008);PaulK.Conkin,ARevolutionDownontheFarm:TheTransformationofAmericanAgriculturesince1929(Lexington:UniversityofKentuckyPress,2008).9See,e.g.,onbreeding,DeborahFitzgerald,TheBusinessofBreeding:HybridCorninIllinois,1890–1940(Ithaca:CornellUniversityPress,1990);JackKloppenburg,Jr.,FirsttheSeed:ThePoliticalEconomyofPlantBiotechnology,1492–2000,2nded.(Madison:UniversityofWisconsinPress,2004).Onchemistryandsoilscience,seeVaclavSmil,EnrichingtheEarth:FritzHaber,CarlBosch,andtheTransformationofWorldFoodProduction(Cambridge:MITPress,2004);HughS.Gorman,TheStoryofN:ASocialHistoryoftheNitrogenCycleandtheChallengeofSustainability(NewBrunswick,NJ:RutgersUniversityPress,2013).Onentomology,seeJoshuaBluBuhs,TheFireAntWars:Nature,Science,andPublicPolicyinTwentieth-CenturyAmerica(Chicago:UniversityofChicagoPress,2004);PeteDaniel,ToxicDrift:PesticidesandHealthinthePost-WorldWarIISouth(BatonRouge:LouisianaStateUniversityPress,2007).Onwaterworks,seeJohnOpie,Ogallala:WaterforaDryLand,2nded.(Lincoln:UniversityofNebraskaPress,2000).Historiesofagriculturalassistancemayoftenbegeneralizedinthesameway;see,e.g.,DeborahFitzgerald,'ExportingAmericanAgriculture:The

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conservationrecountsthestrugglesofscientists,especiallyinthelatertwentiethcentury,

againstthisveryindustrializationandhomogenization,ofeffortstosaveuniqueplants,

animals,andecosystemswherevertheirexistencehasbeenthreatened.10Itisahistoryin

which,untilrecently,littleaccountwasgivenoftheroleoftechnologiesexceptasthingsto

beralliedagainst.11ThestorythatItellherereversesthesemoretypicalperspectives.On

theonehand,itisahistoryofagriculturethatemphasizesagriculturalscientists'knowledge

ofandeffortstomitigatethepotentiallydestructiveconsequencesoftheirown

homogenizingactivities.Ontheotherhand,itisahistoryofbiologicalconservationthat

callsattentiontohowconservationmightunderwritefurtherindustrializationandinfact

hastenthedestructionoflivingbiodiversity,includingthroughthepromotionofnew

technologicalsolutions.

RockefellerFoundationinMexico,1943–1953',SocialStudiesofScience16,no.3(Aug.1986):457–83;JosephEugeneCotter,TroubledHarvest:AgronomyandRevolutioninMexico,1880–2002(Westport,CT:Praeger,2003);NickCullather,TheHungryWorld:America'sColdWarBattleAgainstPovertyinAsia(Cambridge:HarvardUniversityPress,2010).10ThehistoryofbiologicalconservationafterWorldWarIIisoftentoldthroughthehistoryofeffortstosavewildanimalsandplaces.ForthishistoryintheUnitedStates,see,e.g.,ThomasDunlap,SavingAmerica'sWildlife:EcologyandtheAmericanMind,1850–1990(Princeton:PrincetonUniversityPress,1991);FrederickR.Davis,TheManWhoSavedSeaTurtles:ArchieCarrandtheOriginsofConservationBiology(Oxford:OxfordUniversityPress,2007);MarkV.Barrow,Jr.,Nature'sGhosts:ConfrontingExtinctionFromtheAgeofJeffersontotheAgeofEcology(Chicago:UniversityofChicagoPress,2009);EtienneBenson,WiredWilderness:TechnologiesofTrackingandtheMakingofModernWildlife(Baltimore:JohnsHopkinsUniversityPress,2010);KristofferWhitney,'AKnotinCommon:Science,Values,andConservationintheAtlanticFlyway'(PhDdissertation,UniversityofPennsylvania,2012);PeterAlagona,AftertheGrizzly:EndangeredSpeciesandthePoliticsofPlaceinCalifornia(Berkeley:UniversityofCaliforniaPress,2013).11Recenthistorieshavebeguntoexploretherelianceofconservationbiologistsontechnologiessuchassurveillancetoolsandcaptivebreedingtechniquesandtochartthecomplicationstheseentailfortheprotectionofwildanimals.See,e.g.,PeterAlagona,'BiographyofaFeatheredPig:TheCaliforniaCondorConservationControversy',JournaloftheHistoryofBiology37,no.3(Oct.2004):557–83;Benson,WiredWilderness;KristofferWhitney,'DomesticatingNature?:SurveillanceandConservationofMigratoryShorebirdsinthe"AtlanticFlyway"',StudiesinHistoryandPhilosophyofSciencePartC:StudiesinHistoryandPhilosophyofBiologicalandBiomedicalSciences45(Mar.2014):78–87.Theimplicationofautomobilesinwildernessaccessandadvocacyoffersadifferentperspectiveontheintersectionoftechnologyandconservationactivities;seePaulS.Sutter,DrivenWild:HowtheFightAgainstAutomobilesLaunchedtheModernWildernessMovement(Seattle:UniversityofWashingtonPress,2002).

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Improvementandimperilment

Seedcollectingandsavingareactivitieswithlonghistories,coextensivewiththehistoryof

cultivation.Plantingacropatthestartofoneseasonpresupposesthatsomeseedhasbeen

gatheredandsetasideinanticipationofthisplanting,mostlikelyduringtheharvestofthe

previousseason.Formostofhumanhistory,then,tobeacultivatorwastobeaseedsaver,

withthespecificpracticesofseedcollectionandstoragedependentonlocalknowledgeand

environmentalconditions,aswellasthedemandsofdifferentcrops.Itwasonlyinthe

twentiethcenturythattheagriculturalpracticesofseedsavingandstoragebecame,first,

disassociatedfromthelaboroffarmingand,subsequently,linkedtoconcernsaboutthe

potentialforpermanentlossorextinctionofparticulargeneticcombinations.

Thefirstofthesechangeshasbeenwelldocumentedbyhistorians.Thecreationof

commercialmarketsforseedsandtheincreasinginstitutionalizationandprofessionalization

ofbreedinginthelate-nineteenthcentury,especiallyintheUnitedStatesandpartsof

Europe,graduallytransformedseedproduction.Themaintenanceandimprovementof

varieties,onceafarm-basedactivity,becamethepurviewofagriculturalexperiment

stationsandcommercialseedhouses.Themethodsofimprovementshifted,too:awayfrom

massselection,inwhichtheseedssavedforfuturecultivationweredrawnandmixedfrom

thebestplantsofaparticularharvest,andtowardsmoreinvolvedapproachessuchaspure-

lineselection,inbreedingandhybridizationthataimedatproducingnewlineswithspecific

desiredtraits.IntheUnitedStates,varietiesproducedbythelatterapproaches,whichwere

fosteredbyinterestinthenewscienceofgeneticsandsupportedbystateinvestment,in

timewereseentooutperformoldervarieties.Thiscontributedtobothanexpansionof

commercialseedmarketsandincreasedgenetichomogeneityamongcropsgrown,asit

encouragedashiftfromthecultivationofheterogeneous,open-pollinatedlocalvarietiesto

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geneticallynarrowedlinesthatwereproducedormaintainedbyothers.Inmaize,the

introductionofdouble-crosshybridvarietiesbasedonthecombinationoffourinbredlines

beginninginthe1920sand1930sfacilitatedexactlythesetransitions.Becausehybridvigor

diminishesafterthefirstgenerationwhiletheinbredlinesneededtoproducehybridseed

arecostlytomaintain,farmerswhowishedtogrowthesehybridsneededtopurchasetheir

seedaneweachseason.Andbecausethehybridswerederivedfromhighlyinbredstocks,

theirusemeantincreasedgenetichomogeneityamongtheplantsofaparticularvariety

bothwithinandacrossfarms.12

Thesecondchange,inwhichseedsavingbecameaconservationactivity,hasbeen

lessextensivelyinvestigated.Ittooktimefortheconcernaboutirreversiblelossofgenetic

variationsexpressedintheearlytwentiethcenturytobecomewidelyshared—mostlikely

becauseittooktimeforthechangestheypredictedtobecomeapparenttomostobservers.

Considerthecaseofmaizeproduction.HarlanandMartiniwerewritinginthe1930s,justas

double-crosshybridmaizewasbeginningtobeadoptedonalargescaleintheUnited

States.Bythemid-1940s,thisadoptionwasnearlycomplete.13Itwasthischangeoverthat

finallyinducedagreaternumberofmaizebiologistsandbreederstoworry.Withhybrids

dominatingthelandscapesofUSmaizeproduction,geneticdiversitywasnolonger

12OnplantbreedingintheUnitedStates,includingthestoryofhybridcorn,seeDianeB.PaulandBarbaraA.Kimmelman,'MendelinAmerica:TheoryandPractice,1900–1919',inRonaldRainger,KeithR.Benson,andJaneMaienschein(eds.),TheAmericanDevelopmentofBiology,pp.281–310(Philadelphia:UniversityofPennsylvaniaPress,1988),http://www.mendelweb.org/MWpaul.html;Fitzgerald,BusinessofBreeding;DeborahFitzgerald,'FarmersDeskilled:HybridCornandFarmers'Work',TechnologyandCulture34,no.2(Apr.1993):324–43;Kloppenburg,FirsttheSeed.ForaccountsofplantbreedinginGreatBritain,Germany,andFrancesee,e.g.,PaoloPalladino,'BetweenCraftandScience:PlantBreeding,MendelianGenetics,andBritishUniversities,1900-1920',TechnologyandCulture34,no.2(Apr.1993):300–23;PaoloPalladino,'WizardsandDevotees:OntheMendelianTheoryofInheritanceandtheProfessionalizationofAgriculturalScienceinGreatBritainandtheUnitedStates,1880–1930,'HistoryofScience32(Dec.1994):409–44;ThomasWieland,'ScientificTheoryandAgriculturalPractice:PlantBreedinginGermanyfromtheLate19thtotheEarly20thCentury',JournaloftheHistoryofBiology39,no.2(Jul.2006):309–43;ChristopheBonneuilandFrédéricThomas,'PurifyingLandscapes:TheVichyRegimeandtheGeneticModernizationofFrance',HistoricalStudiesintheNaturalSciences40,no.4(Fall2010):532–568;Harwood,Europe'sGreenRevolutionandOthersSince.13Fitzgerald,BusinessofBreeding,ch.6;Kloppenburg,FirsttheSeed,ch.5.

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maintainedinsitubyfarmersgrowingdifferentvarietiesindifferentregions.Thisinturn

posedapracticalconcernforfuturebreedingprojects.Forexample,ifanewpathogenwere

tothreatencommonmaizevarieties,wherewouldbreederslookfortraitsthatmight

potentiallyconferresistancetothatpathogen?Lossofdiversitymeantfeweravenuesfor

breederstopursue,whichinturnmeantincreasedvulnerabilityforcropsand,ultimately,

farmers.Theconcernextendedtomanycrops:a1946meetingattheUSNationalAcademy

ofSciences,intendedtoaddresstheneedforbettermaintenanceofgeneticallydiverse

breedingstocks,broughttogetherbreedersworkingwith'barley,corn,flax,floriculture,

fruits,grasses,legumes,oats,potatoes,soybeans,sugarbeets,tobacco,[and]wheat'.14

TheUSDA,actingonthegrowingawarenessofthetrendtowarduniformityandits

consequences,initiateda'NewCrops'programinthelate1940sthataimedtobringin'crop

germplasm'fromaroundtheworld,toevaluatethisgermplasm,andtomaintainit.15The

latterwasanovelstepfortheUSDA,whichhadhadglobalcollectorsforalongtimebut

neverasystemforthepermanentmaintenanceofcollecteditems.Atnearlythesametime,

thegovernmentprovidedfundsforcollectingtheearlyopen-pollinatedmaizevarietiesof

theUnitedStates,assumedlybecausetheywererecognizedtobebothusefulandrapidly

disappearing.16In1950,ajointUSDAandstateexperimentstationscommitteeformally

advocatedthecreationofa'nationalseedstorageunit'thatwouldensurethat'thenational

14LandauertoMembersoftheCommitteeonPlantandAnimalStocks,23Nov.1948,NationalAcademyofSciences(NAS),Biology&AgriculturalDivisionFiles(B&A),Folder:Comm.onPlant&AnimalStocks,1946–48.Seealso,Landauer(1945)and"ProposedPlanforaCooperativeNationalProgram[…]"(1946),NationalRecordsandArchivesAdministration,CollegePark,Maryland(NARA),RecordsoftheAgriculturalResearchService(RG310),DivisionofPlantExplorationandIntroduction,PlantExplorationRecords,Box9,Folder:COOP(RMA)MemorandumofUnderstanding.15SamBurgess,ed.,TheNationalProgramforConservationofCropGermPlasm(Athens:UniversityofGeorgia,1971).16W.L.Brown,'MaizeGermplasmBanksintheWesternHemisphere',inO.H.FrankelandJ.G.Hawkes(eds.),CropGeneticResourcesforTodayandTomorrow,pp.467–72(Cambridge:CambridgeUniversityPress,1975),referenceonp.467.

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responsibilityfortheconservationofvaluablegermplasm'wouldnotbeneglectedasit

sometimeshadinthepast;anewstandingcommitteesubsequentlytransformedthis

tentativerecommendationintoaformalsetofproposals.17Astheseinstitutionalresponses

suggest,theperspectiveamongAmericanagriculturistsabouttheneedtoharborgenetic

diversitywaschanging.Manywerebeginningtofeelalarmaboutthepossiblelossofuseful

typesandtotakestepstowardspotentialsolutions.

Fromcollectiontoconservation

Americanagriculturists’concernsaboutdwindlingdiversitymostoftendrewtheirattention

beyondthebordersoftheUnitedStates,towardscountriesandregionsbetterendowed

withgeneticdiversityinkeyeconomiccrops.Thisisevidentintheactivitiesofasmallgroup

ofmaizebiologistsandbreederswhointhe1950slaunchedaninternationalproject

dedicatedtogathering,studyingandpreservinginperpetuitythemanytypesofmaize

cultivatedacrosstheAmericas.Thisconservationprojectwasthefirstofitskindand

stronglyinfluencedsubsequentglobaleffortstoamassandpreservegeneticdiversityin

variouscrops.Acloseexaminationofitsunfoldingillustrateshowandwhythecreationof

seedstoragefacilities,orseedbanks,becamethego-tosolutionfortheproblemof

maintainingplantgeneticdiversity.

Thehistoryofthismaizecollectionprojectbeginswiththatofadifferent,andmuch

better-known,agriculturalprogram:theRockefellerFoundation'sMexicanAgricultural

Program.InOctober1943,thefoundationenteredintoanagreementwiththeMexican

governmentinwhichitwastoprovideMexicowithtechnicalexpertiseinagricultural

17'ReportoftheSub-committeeonNationalSeedStorage',NARA,RG310,CropsResearchDivision,NewCropsResearchBranch,PlantExplorationRecords,1953–1972,Box6,Folder:NationalSeedStorageLaboratory–1957.

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researchviaanewAmerican-staffedOfficeofSpecialStudiesintheMinistryof

Agriculture.18AnearlygoalforstaffattheOfficeofSpecialStudieswastoestablish

programsincropplantimprovement,asthecreationofhigher-yieldingvarietiespossessing

greaterdisease-anddrought-resistancepromisedastraightforwardroutetoincreased

agriculturalproduction.Oftheseveralcropsslatedforattention,maizewasgivenpriority.

ThisstaplecropformedthebasisofsubsistenceformanyMexicangrowers,mostofwhom

plantedvarietiesthathadbeenadaptedfortheirlocalityovergenerations,withseedsaved

fromyeartoyear.Manyalsostruggledtoproduceenoughfromsmalllandholdingsthat

oftenhadpoorqualitysoilsandwheredroughtwascommon.Thefoundationthereforesaw

maizebreedingasanidealroutetoimprovingthelotofalargenumberofpoorMexicans

whilealsoboostingoverallagriculturalproduction.19

Oneofthefirstactivitiestobeundertakeninthemaize-breedingprogram,which

wasdirectedbytheAmericangeneticistandbreederEdwinWellhausen,wastoestablisha

collectionofMexicanmaizetypesthatwouldserveasthebasisfordevelopingand

distributingimprovedvarieties.Togathersamplesofmaizefromacrossthecountry,

Wellhausenreliedonthehelpofmanyassistants,mostlyagriculturalstudentsfroma

nearbyuniversity.ByMarch1944theOfficeofSpecialStudieshadassembledmorethan

400samples;withinfiveyears,thereweresome2000.Thecollectionrepresentedthe18AnearlyaccountoftheMexicanAgriculturalProgramisfoundinE.C.Stakman,RichardBradfieldandPaulC.Mangelsdorf,CampaignsAgainstHunger(Cambridge:HarvardUniversityPress,1967).SubsequentscholarlyaccountsincludeFitzgerald,'ExportingAmericanAgriculture';BruceJennings,FoundationsofInternationalAgriculturalResearch:ScienceandPoliticsinMexicanAgriculture(Boulder,CO:WestviewPress,1998);Cotter,TroubledHarvest;KarinMatchett,'PlantSciencesResearchandAgricultureinMexico:TensionsandCollaborationAmongMexicanandU.S.Scientists,1935–1965',(Ph.D.,UniversityofMinnesota,2002);JonathanHarwood,'PeasantFriendlyPlantBreedingandtheEarlyYearsoftheGreenRevolutioninMexico',AgriculturalHistory83,no.3(Summer2009):384–410.19Ontheimportanceofmaize,see'AgriculturalConditionsandProblems',Reportofthe1941SurveyCommissionoftheRockefellerFoundation,RockefellerArchiveCenter(RAC),RockefellerFoundationArchives(RF),RG1.1,Series323,Box1,Folder2.Onthemaize-breedingprogram,seeKarinMatchett,'AtOddsoverInbreeding:AnAbandonedAttemptatMexico/UnitedStatesCollaborationto"Improve"MexicanCorn,1940–1950',JournaloftheHistoryofBiology39,no.2(Jul.2006):345–72;andadditionalreferencesinfn.18.

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extraordinarydiversityofmaizeseenacrossMexico.Thecobsandseedsreturnedtothe

stationcamefromplantsthatrangedwidelyinheight,inthesizeofcobs,incolor,intimeto

maturity,andsoon,displaying'analmostbewilderingmultiplicity'ofdifferenttraits.20

Althoughthecollectingefforthadbegunwiththeaimofprovidingstocksforthe

breedingprogram,itsoontookonenergyofitsown.In1948,staffoftheOfficeofSpecial

Studiesgatheredasmallgroupofresearcherstoclassifyanddescribethemanifoldvarieties

ofmaizetheyhadgathered.21Thepublicationofthesestudies,inSpanishin1951andin

Englishin1952asRacesofMaizeinMexico,wasintendedbothtoelucidatethe

evolutionaryhistoryofmaizeinMexicoandtomakethecollectionamoreusefulresource

forscientistsandbreedersacrosstheAmericas.Italsoidentifiedaloomingproblem.The

authorsrecognizedthatmaize-breedingprogramsinMexico,ifsuccessful,wouldproduce

typestoreplacethemanydiverselandracestheynowencountered.Withoutfarmersto

growthesemanyhistoricandprehistoricstrainsofmaize,andtosavetheseedfromyearto

year,theywouldbelost.AndtheywouldbelostnotonlytoMexicanfarmers,butto

breederslikethemselveswhoreliedonsuchdiversitytocarryouttheirwork.

Thisconundrumencouragedaconservationistperspectiveamongthoseexamining

thediversityinMexicanmaize.Astheywroteintheforewordtotheirbook:

20E.J.Wellhausen,L.M.RobertsandE.HernandezX.incollaborationwithPaulC.Mangelsdorf,RacesofMaizeinMexico:TheirOrigin,CharacteristicsandDistribution(BusseyInstitutionofHarvardUniversity,1952),foreword,pp.9–10;Matchett,'AtOddsoverInbreeding',pp.363–64;Stakman,etal.,CampaignsAgainstHunger,pp.61,260.21Insomeways,thisprojectextendedexistingresearchprograms.AmericanbiologistssuchasPaulMangelsdorfandEdgarAndersonwerealreadyengagedinthestudyofmaizediversityasameansofunderstandingitsevolutionaryhistory.Mangelsdorf,aconsultantoftheRockefellerFoundationwhohadbeenintegraltothelaunchoftheMexicanAgriculturalProgram,participatedintheinitialclassificationeffortsattheOfficeofSpecialStudies,whileAndersonandothersbecameinvolvedasthecollectionandclassificationeffortsgrew.Ontheearlyclassificationeffort,seeWellhausenetal.,RacesofMaize.Seealsoindividualrecollectionsoftheeffort:PaulC.Mangelsdorf,OralHistory,RAC,RF,RG13,69–73;LewisM.Roberts,OralHistory,RAC,RF,RG13,34–39;EdwinJ.Wellhausen,OralHistory,RAC,RF,RG13,133–43.

13

MaizeisthebasicfoodplantinmostoftheAmericasanditsdiversity…isoneofthegreatnaturalresourcesofthishemisphere.Toloseanypartofthatdiversityisnotonlytorestricttheopportunitiesforfurtherimprovementbutalsotoincreasethedifficultiesofcopingwithfutureclimaticchangesorwithnewdiseasesorinsectpests.Themoderncornbreeder,therefore,hasaresponsibilitynotonlytoimprovethemaizeinthecountryinwhichheworks,butalsotorecognize,todescribe,andtopreserveforfutureuse,thevarietiesandraceswhichhisownimprovedproductionstendtoreplaceandinsomecasestoextinguish.22

Inotherwords,theseresearchersrecognizedthetangledrelationshipbetweentheirefforts

totransformagriculturalproductionandtheimperativetoconservebiologicalresources.

Geneticdiversityincropplantswasneededforthecreationofimprovedvarieties.Butthe

successoftheseimprovedvarietiesinturnthreatenedgeneticdiversity,anddemandedthat

effortsbemadetoprotectsuchdiversitysothatcropimprovementcouldcontinueinthe

future.Thecyclewasonethatseemedlikelytointensify.Thegreaterthesuccessincreating

anddisseminatingimprovedvarieties,thegreaterthethreattodiversity,andthereforethe

greatertheeffortsatconservationthatwouldhavetobemade.

TheworkundertakentoclassifymaizevarietieswithintheOfficeofSpecialStudies

sooncatalyzedamuchlargerefforttocollect,classifyandpreservethediversityof

Americanmaize.Onepersonwhowasparticularlykeenthatsuchaneffortbeundertaken

wastheGermangeneticistFriedrichBriegeroftheUniversidadedeSãoPauloinBrazil.On

encounteringtheMexicanmaizeworkhebecameconvincedthatthestudyneededtobe

extendedacrossallofCentralandSouthAmerica.23In1949hespokeofthisconcerntothe

botanistRalphCleland,whowasthenchairmanoftheDivisionofBiologyandAgricultureof

theUSNationalResearchCouncil(NRC).Brieger'sdireprediction—thatmany'nativestrains

22Wellhausenetal.,RacesofMaize,foreword.ThissentimentmayhaveoriginatedwithPaulMangelsdorf;seeEdwinJ.Wellhausen,'TheIndigenousMaizeGermplasmComplexesofMexico:Twenty-fiveYearsofExperienceandAccomplishmentsinTheirIdentification,Evaluation,andUtilization',inRecentAdvancesinConservationandUseofGeneticResources:ProceedingsoftheGlobalMaizeGermplasmWorkshop,pp.17–28(México:CIMMYT),referenceonp.17.23Mangelsdorf,OralHistory,p.73.

14

ofmaize'would'begoneintenyearsunlessrescued'—convincedClelandoftheneedto

act.24

Cleland'ssubsequentconversationswithvariouswell-positionedmaizebiologists

andwiththeagriculturalscientistsoftheRockefellerFoundationresultedinthe1951

formationofaCommitteeonthePreservationofIndigenousStrainsofMaize,rununderthe

auspicesoftheNRC.This'MaizeCommittee'movedrapidlytoobtainagrantfromtheUS

TechnicalCooperationAdministration(TCA),agovernmentagencywhoseColdWar

mandatewastoprovide'technicalassistance'todevelopingcountries,inordertofinancea

hemisphericefforttocollectandpreserveimperiledmaizevarieties.Thecommittee

believedthatthelossofthesevarietieswouldbe'amajordisaster'forseveralreasons,

including:first,thelossofgeneticvariationneededtoimprovemaizeinLatinAmerica;

second,thelossofvariationneededintheUnitedStates,wherebreedingprogramswere

describedas'alreadyreachingthepointofdiminishingreturns';and,finally,thelossof

materialsinvaluabletoresearchersindisciplinesrangingfromanthropologytogenetics.25

TheMaizeCommitteedecidedthatitwouldensurecontinuedaccessforbreeders

andotherresearcherstothiscrucialresource,geneticdiversity,viathestill-novel

agriculturaltechnologyofdedicatedlong-termseedstoragefacilities.Fromitsmembers'

perspective,onewouldnotwanttostopthetransitionofLatinAmericanfarmerstohigher-

yieldingvarieties.Todosowouldcertainlystemthetideofvarietallossitperceivedas

threating.Butthistransitionwasseenasaninevitable—indeed,desirable!—change,one

24ClelandtoMiller,17Dec.1949,RAC,RF,RG1.2,Series300,Box1,Folder2.25'ProposedPlanfortheCollectionandMaintenanceofNativeRacesofMaize'(undated),HarvardUniversityArchives(HUA),PapersofPaulC.Mangelsdorf(PCM),HUG(FP)37.10,Box5,Folder:NationalAcademyofArtsandSciences,1954–(1of2).Apublishedaccountofthecommittee'sworkisJ.AllenClark,'Collection,Preservation,andUtilizationofIndigenousStrainsofMaize',EconomicBotany10,no.2(Apr.–Jun.1956):194–200.

15

thatwouldincreaseagriculturalproductionacrosstheregion.Becausethecommittee

memberswantedtoencouragethisagriculturalshift,long-termorindefinitepreservationof

varietiesasseedincentralizedseedstoragefacilitiesappearedtobetheonlysolution:a

much-neededadditionalelementofthetechnologicalsystemthatundergirdagricultural

production.Oncegatheredandcatalogued,seedscouldbemadeaccessibletobreedersand

otherresearchersaroundtheworld,assumingthatsomearrangementcouldbemadefor

continuousstorage,periodicrenewalofstocksanddistributionofseedsuponrequest.

In1951,theMaizeCommitteeimaginedthatitwouldrequireverylittletosetupand

maintainsuchafacility.Arefrigeratedstoragespacewasoneessentialcomponent,

'sufficienttoaccommodateapproximately30004-oz.bottles'ofseed,butitwasfarfrom

enoughtoensurethepreservationofthreatenedmaizevarieties.Becauseseedsareliving

materials,whichgraduallylosetheircapacityforgermination,theymustberenewedat

regularintervalsbycultivatingacropandharvestingfreshseed.Thecommitteeestimated

thatastoragefacilitymaintainingafewthousandvarietieswouldthereforealsoneedan

acreoffarmorgardenland,whichwouldprovideenoughspace'togrow10–20specimens

ofupto600strainsofcorn'.Cultivatingmaizevarietiesinordertoreplenishstocks

obviouslydemandedongoingseasonallabor,andthistoohadtobeaccountedforinthe

proposal.Aninitialestimateassumedthateachvarietyinthecollectionwouldneedtobe

grownouteveryfiveyearstoregeneratetheseed,butthatthisandotherstock

maintenanceactivities'wouldnotrequirethefulltimeofanyoneindividual'.The

committee'sfinalestimatedinvestmentforaseed-storagefacilityofthedesiredsizeinLatin

Americawasminimal:aninitialcostofabout$8000forequipmentand$1500peryearin

maintenance(essentially,ayear'ssalaryforastationworkerinLatinAmerica).Those

writingtothefacilitytorequestsamplesofanyofthestocksheldtherewouldbeexpected

16

topaythecostsofshippingthemselves.Relyingontheseassumptionsandcalculations,the

MaizeCommitteecouldeasilyimaginethecreationofanendowmenttosupportseveral

newseedstoragefacilities,eachofwhichwouldtakeonthetaskofnotonlystoringbutalso

continuouslyreplenishinganddistributingitsstocks,inperpetuity.26

Outofthefieldandintothebank

ThefirsttaskoftheMaizeCommitteewascollection.Inadditiontosecuringathree-year,

US$85,000grantfromTCA,ithadalsofinalizedacooperativearrangementwiththe

RockefellerFoundation.Thefoundation,alreadyonthegroundinLatinAmericaandby

1951workingwithagriculturistsinanumberofcountriesbesidesMexico,wouldsupervise

thecollectingmissionsandprovidelandandspaceformultiplyingandrenewingtheseed

collections.TheNRC,usingTCAfunds,wouldpayforequipment,supplies,travelexpenses,

andsalariesassociatedwiththecollectingmissions.TCAfundswouldalsosupportthe

creationofthree'SeedCenters'forthecollections—locatedinMexico,Colombiaand

Brazil—withadditional'stand-by'storagemadeavailableataUSDAsiteatGlennDale,

Maryland.BoththeMexicanandColombianSeedCenterswouldbeaffiliatedwith

establishedRockefellerFoundationoperations.TheMexicancenterwastobelocatedat

Chapingo,thefieldsiteoftheOfficeofSpecialStudiesandhometoWellhausen'searlier

maizecollections.TheColombiancenterwouldbeatMedellín,whereanewRockefeller

Foundationinitiativehadbeenestablishedin1950withobjectivessimilartothoseofthe

OfficeofSpecialStudies.InBrazil,theNRCenteredintoanagreementwithBrieger'shome

institution,theUniversidadedeSãoPaulo,andplacedBriegerinchargeofthenewBrazilian

26'ProposedPlanfortheCollectionandMaintenanceofNativeRacesofMaize'(seefn.25).AdministratorsattheRockefellerFoundationwereskepticaloftheseestimatesandmoregenerallyoftheprojectedeaseofkeepingupstockcollections;see,e.g.,BarnardtoHarrar,17Sep.1951,RF,RG1.2,Series300,Box1,Folder2.

17

SeedCenteratPiracicaba.Thecollectionsateachofthesesiteswouldnotbenational,as

theoriginalRockefellerFoundationcollectionofMexicancornhadbeen,butregional,with

eachhostingseedsfromacrossadesignatedswatheofLatinAmerica.27

CollectingmissionsintheregionsdesignatedfortheMexicanandColombianSeed

Centersgotunderwayalmostimmediately,inlargepartbecauseoftheexisting

infrastructureandnetworksputinplacebytheRockefellerFoundation.ByJune1952the

Mexicoofficehadtwofulltimecollectorsandahandfulofstudents—allworkingunderthe

directionofWellhausen—scouringthemanyregionsnotcoveredbytheRockefeller

Foundation'spreviouscollectingactivities.Wellhausenfurtherreportedhavinghiredaman

fromGuatemalawhohadworkedwiththeMexicoprogramtostartcollectinginthat

country.HehadmadesimilararrangementsforcollectioninCostaRicaandtherestof

CentralAmerica.MeanwhileinMedellín,underthesupervisionofLewisRoberts(directorof

theRockefellerFoundation'sagriculturalprograminColombia),collectionwassaidtobe

'half-completed'.28AtbothChapingoandMedellín,storagerefrigeratorswereinstalledby

theendoftheyear,technologiesneededtokeeptheincreasingnumbersofseedsviablefor

longerperiodsoftime.29ThingsweremuchslowertogetoffthegroundinBrazil,where

BriegerwasexpectedtocoordinatecollectionsthroughouteasternSouthAmerica.30While

thiscollectingworkwasongoinginCentralandSouthAmerica,additionaleffortsweremade

27MinutesofMeetingofCommitteeonPreservationofIndigenousStrainsofMaize(MaizeCommittee),26Oct.1951,NAS,B&A,Folder:B&AAgriculturalBoardComonPreservationofMaize:Meetings,1951–1958.28MaizeCommittee(1952),SecondReport,NAS,B&A,Folder:B&AAgriculturalBoardComonPreservationofMaize:Reports,Progress,1952–1954.29MaizeCommittee(1952),ThirdReport,NAS,B&A,Folder:B&AAgriculturalBoardComonPreservationofMaize:Reports,Progress,1952–1954.30TheproblemsencounteredinBrazilcomeuprepeatedlyincommitteereportsandinternalcorrespondence.See,e.g.,MangelsdorftoClark,29Apr.1953,HUA,PCM,HUG(FP)37.10,Box5,Folder:NationalAcademyofArtsandSciences[sic],1954–(2of2);MaizeCommittee(1953),FifthReport,NAS,B&A,Folder:B&AAgriculturalBoardComonPreservationofMaize:Reports,Progress,1952–1954.

18

tosecuremaizevarietiesintheislandsoftheCaribbeanandinCanadaandtheUnited

States.31MaizeCommitteememberswerewellawarethatthevastmajorityofmaizegrown

northofMexicoconsistedof'newhybridcorns'—typesthatwereoflittleinteresttothe

project—soheretheyfocusedonNativeAmericancommunitieswhereolderopen-

pollinatedvarietiesweremostlikelytohavesurvived.32

Regardlessofwhowascollectingandwheretheywerecollecting,thebasicplanfor

gatheringandconservingmaizeseedwasthesame.Acollectorwouldtraveltoaregionand

collectcobsofmaizefromvarioussites,ideallyaboutfiveofeachtypesoastoensurean

adequatesampleofseed,andthenmakeanon-sitedescriptionofthecollectedtypes.The

cobsmightbepurchasedatmarkets,gatheredfromIndiansettlementsorcollectedon

commercialfarms.Becauseitinvolveddifficulttravel,oftenthroughremoteareas,

collectorsendedupspendingweeksandmonthsinthefield.33Oncecollectionsweremade,

thecobswereshippedbacktothedesignatedcentralstoragefacility—eitherChapingo,

Medellín,orPiracicaba—wheretheyweretobemeasuredandphotographed,andthen

driedandshelled.Theseedswerethenfurtherdriedtoamoisturelevelconducivetoalong

lifespan,packagedinairtightcontainers,andplacedinrefrigeratedstorage.34TheMaize

Committeeaskedthatsmallsamplesofeachtypebesenttothestand-bystoragecenter.

Thisfacilitywouldmaintainacompletesetofthecollectionsfromwhichvarietiescouldbe

31MaizeCommittee(1952),ThirdReport(fn.29).32MaizeCommittee(1953),SeventhReport,NAS,B&A,Folder:B&AAgriculturalBoardComonPreservationofMaize:Reports,Progress,1952–1954.33ThecaseofthebotanistandmaizecollectorVictorPantiño,whowasdispatchedtopartsofSouthAmerica,offersagoodexampleofatypicalcollectingexperience.SeeMaizeCommittee(1953),FourthReport,NAS,B&A,Folder:B&AAgriculturalBoardComonPreservationofMaize:Reports,Progress,1952–1954.34MaizeCommittee(1955),'CollectionsofOriginalStrainsofCorn,I',NAS,B&A,Folder:B&AAgriculturalBoardComonPreservationofMaize:CollectionsofOriginalStrainsofCorn:I.

19

restoredintheeventofloss.35Thegoalofamassingseedsofdiversetypeswasquickly

achieved.By1955,thecommitteehadamassedatotalof11,353samplesofmaizefrom

acrosstheAmericas,10,922ofwhichhadbeenofficiallycatalogued.36

Unfortunately,itprovedfareasiertogatherthismassivecollectionthantoarrange

foritspermanentmaintenance.AsearlyasJuly1953,withthecollectionsalready

substantive,theMaizeCommitteefounditselfwonderingabouttheremaining'problem'

whichincluded'providingforperiodicrenewal,theclassification,agronomicandgenetic

studyofthecollections,andthepublicationsoftheresultsofthisresearch,andthecostof

distributingthemostpromisingcollectionstointerestedcornbreedersaroundtheworld'.37

Ensuringthattheseedsremainedaliveandincirculation—evenbeyondthetermsofthe

grant,letaloneinperpetuityasthecommitteemembersultimatelyhoped—proveda

significantchallenge.Theinitialthree-yeargrantfromTCAhadsupportedthecreationof

thethreeSeedCenters,includingfacilitiesforrefrigeration,andthecollectionand

preparationofseedstocks.Thecommitteeobtainedasecondthree-yeargrant,which

enabledresearchintotherelationshipsamongthemanycollectedsamples,their

consolidationintoafewhundreddistinct'races'ofmaize,andthepublicationofaseriesof

booksaboutthese.38However,theMaizeCommittee'seffortstofundanendowmentto

supportthecontinuedexistenceoftheseedstoragefacilities,themaintenanceoftheir

35MaizeCommittee(1954),NinthReport,NAS,B&A,Folder:B&AAgriculturalBoardComonPreservationofMaize:Reports,Progress,1952–1954.36MaizeCommittee(1955),'CollectionsofOriginalStrainsofCorn,II',NAS,B&A,Folder:B&AAgriculturalBoardComonPreservationofMaize:CollectionsofOriginalStrainsofCorn:II.37MaizeCommittee(1953),SixthReport,NAS,B&A,Folder:B&AAgriculturalBoardComonPreservationofMaize:Reports,Progress,1952–1954.38Between1957and1963,theNASpublishedtentitlesonthe'RacesofMaize'indifferentcountriesandregionsofLatinAmerica.Thesehavebeendigitizedandareavailablealongwithsimilarpublications(andtheoriginalRacesofMaizeinMexico)atwww.ars.usda.gov/Main/docs.htm?docid=24766.

20

stocks,andthedistributionofseedonrequestwereunsuccessful.39Althoughithad

assembledsomeoftheinfrastructureneededtoaddressthelossofimperiledmaize

varieties,crucialelementsremainedoutofreach.Withthelong-termsurvivalofmany

thousandsofseedsamplesdependentonthecontinuedinterestoftheinstitutionsthathad

initiallybeenchosentohousethese,thetechnologyofseed-storagefacilitieslookedatbest

likeaprecarioussolutiontothecommittee'sconcerns.

Seedbanksascendant

PerhapsonereasontheMaizeCommitteewasunabletoconvincefunderstolaydown

resourcesforitsSeedCenterswasthattheserepresentedanas-yetuntestedtechnology.In

theeyesofcommitteemembersandothercollaborators,theneedtopreservetheextant

diversityinmaizewasbothobviousandpressing.Equallyapparentwasthesolutionof

bankingthisdiversityasseed.Butlivingseedstocks,thoughlesslaborintensivetomaintain

thanfieldsofcropsfromyeartoyear,werebynomeansmaintenancefree.Norwerethe

mechanicsofbankingseedinthismannerwellworkedout.Whattemperatureandhumidity

wouldextendseedlifethelongest?Howwouldrenewalofcollections,whichrequired

growingoutaportionofanaccessionandallowingittointerbreed,affecttheirgenetic

composition?Wasitnecessarytomaintaineachaccessionofthethousandsmade,orwould

geneticdiversitybeequallywellpreservedinpoolingaccessionsfromacrossregionsthat

weredeemedtobeofthesameoriginal'race'?Theseandmanyotherquestionswere

mostlyupforgrabs,andnotsurprisinglyso,astheproposalofindefiniteseedstoragefor

39RockefellerFoundationadministratorsbristledin1953whentheyencountereddocumentsdraftedbyamemberoftheMaizeCommitteeindicatingthattheCommitteeassumedthatfoundationstaffandfacilitieswouldbeusedindefinitelyforthemaintenanceandregenerationofstocks.SeeNRC,MaizeCommittee(1953),'Proposedplanforaresearchgrant[…]',October;HarrartoClark,5Nov.1953;andHarrar,memo,16Nov.1953;bothlocatedinRAC,RF,RG1.2,Series300,Box1,Folder4.

21

conservationpurposeswasstillnovelinthe1950s.40TheUSgovernmentonlyapproved

fundingfortheconstructionofalong-termseedstoragefacilityin1957,aftermanyyearsof

petitioningonthepartofinterestedagriculturists.TheUSNationalSeedStorageLaboratory

(NSSL)wasthefirst-everfacility,worldwide,builtsolelyforlong-termseedpreservation.It

didnotholdworkingcollectionsormaintainlandandresourcesfortheregenerationofseed

stocks.Itwassimplyatemperature-andhumidity-controlledwarehouseforvaluablelines,

designedtokeepthesefromgoingextinctasaresultofneglectoroversight.41

TheinsecurityfeltbytheMaizeCommitteeasregardsthefutureofitscollection,

anditsfaithinthetechnologyoflong-termseedstorageasthesolutiontoitsconservation

needs,canbeseenintherapiditywithwhichitmobilizedtosecurespaceinthenewNSSL.

Eventhoughconstructionofthefacilitywasonlyjustgettingunderway,thecommittee

proposedinJune1957thatone-pecksamples(15pounds)ofallthepublishedracesof

maizebepreparedforstorageinthefutureNSSL,'toinsureareserveseedsupplyavailable

forfuturebreedingandindustrialuses'.42Thisrepresentedaconsiderableeffortforthose

curatingthecollectionsinLatinAmerica,butby1961,77suchsampleshadbeenprepared

andsenttotheNSSL,andmoreweretofollow.43

40Currentguidelinesforseedbanksofferaglimpseintothenumberandextentofbiologicalaspectsofseedmaintenancetobeinvestigatedandoperationalprotocolstobeagreedupon;see,e.g.,FAO,GenebankStandardsforPlantGeneticResourcesforFoodandAgriculture(Rome:FAO,2014),http://www.fao.org/3/a-i3704e.pdf.Suchguidelineshavechangedovertime(andcontinuetochange)asknowledgeaboutseedlongevityinstorageandgeneticdriftwithincollectionshasdeveloped.41TheNSSLwouldeventuallyprovideamodelandstandardforequivalentnationalandinternationalcollections.OntheNSSL,seeEdwinJames,'OrganisationoftheUnitedStatesNationalSeedStorageLaboratory',inE.H.Roberts(ed.),ViabilityofSeeds,pp.397–404(London:ChapmanandHall,1972);GeorgeA.White,HenryL.ShandsandGilbertR.Lovell,'HistoryandOperationoftheNationalPlantGermplasmSystem',inJulesJanick(ed.),PlantBreedingReviews:TheNationalPlantGermplasmSystemoftheUnitedStates,pp.5–56(Portland:TimberPress,1989).42MaizeCommittee(1957),SecondReport,NAS,BA,Folder:B&AAgriculturalBoardComonPreservationofMaize:ReportsProgress,1956–1961.43SpraguetoGoodman,21Dec.1967,NAS,BA,Folder:B&AAgriculturalBoardComonPreservationofMaize:General.

22

TheMaizeCommittee'sseedstoragefacilitiesinLatinAmericaandtheNSSLshared

asacentralgoalthepreservationofpotentiallyusefulcropvarietiesfromextinction—an

aimthatwasstillfairlyunusualamonginstitutionsharboringseedcollectionsinthe1950s

andearly60s.44Theywouldnotremainsoforlong.Fromthemid-1960sonward,biologists

andagriculturistsbecameincreasinglyworriedaboutthelossofgeneticdiversityincrop

plants.Whereastheirexpressionsofconcernaboutthisissuehadappearedintermittently

fromtheturnofthetwentiethcenturythroughWorldWarII,thesenowcoalescedintoa

continuouschorusofalarm.Manyhadobservedtherapidglobalizationofimproved

varietiesoftheworld'smajorcrops,includingmaize,wheatandrice,transitionsaccelerated

bytheinterventionsoftheRockefellerFoundationandothersinagricultureinmany

developingcountries.Andmanyincreasinglyfearedthataglobalagriculturalsystem

foundedonanarrowgeneticbasewouldbevulnerabletocatastrophe.45

ThelatterfeartookespeciallystrongholdintheUnitedStatesin1970followinga

diseaseoutbreakinmaize.AmutationinthefungusHelminthosporium—theagentofa

diseaseknownasSouthernCornLeafBlight—gaverisetoavirulentformthatthrivedon

maizeplantswithaspecificcytoplasmicgeneticmakeup.By1970some85percentofmaize

grownintheUnitedStatescarriedgenesformale-sterility,atraitthattheneedforthe

expensiveandtime-consumingprocessofdetasselingwhenproducinghybridlines.

UnfortunatelythegenesconferringthisdesirabletraithadbeenderivedfromaloneTexas

plantinthe1940s.Anditwasthesesamegenesthatwererecognizedin1970tobethe

sourceofmaize'ssusceptibilitytothemorevirulentformofSouthernCornLeafBlight.

44ThenoveltyoftheNSSLconceptcanalsobeobservedthroughtheeffortsthathadtobemadetoconvinceAmericanbreederstouseit.SeeEricE.Roos,'EarlyHistoryofNSSLandContributionsofEdwinJamesandLouisN.Bass',JournalofSeedTechnology17,no.2(1993):25–40,referenceonpp.28–30.45Pistorius,Scientists,Plants,andPolitics;Farnham,SavingNature'sLegacy,ch.4.

23

Approximately15percentoftheAmericancropwaslostthatyear,valuedatanestimated1

billion1972USdollars.46

Theblightdirectedattentiontothevulnerabilitycreatedbygeneticuniformityin

cropplants.Itledtorenewedcallsfrombreeders,biologists,agriculturaleconomistsand

policymakerstoacknowledgethedangersinherentinthetrendtowardsuniformityandtake

stepstoredressit,especiallyinmajorcrops.TheNRCquicklyformedaCommitteeon

GeneticVulnerabilityofMajorFoodCropstostudytheproblem.Initsfinalreport,the

committeerecommendedthegreateruseof'exoticgermplasm'inbreedingprograms,in

spiteofthecostsandchallenges;theyemphasizedtheneedtoharborgeneticdiversityby

ensuringthecontinuanceof'primitivevarieties','localvarieties'andthewildrelativesof

crops;andtheycalledforcontinuedeffortsatplantintroductionandsupportoftheNSSL,

whilealsoencouragingthefurtherdevelopmentoflivingcollectionsofgeneticallydiverse

varietiesthatwouldbemoreimmediatelyaccessibletobreeders.47Inshort,theydemanded

thefurtherdevelopmentanduseofseedbanks.Thiswasthebeginningofaperiodofmore

sustainedattentiontotheissueofgatheringandmaintaininggeneticallydiversetypesinthe

UnitedStates,whichwouldinturnleadtotheexpansionofthe'NationalPlantGermplasm

System'inthe1970sand1980s—withtheNSSLatitscenter.48

Meanwhiletherewasalsoagrowingdeterminationtomaintainanduseglobalcrop

geneticdiversityattheinternationallevel.Oneofthefirstorganizationstorespondtothe

increasinglyvocalworriesofplantbreedersandconservationistswastheFoodand

AgricultureOrganizationoftheUnitedNations(FAO).Inthemid-to-late1960s,workingin46A.J.Ullstrup,'TheImpactsoftheSouthernCornLeafBlightEpidemicsof1970–1971',AnnualReviewofPhytopathology10(Sep.1972):37–50.47NationalAcademyofSciences,GeneticVulnerabilityofMajorCrops(Washington,DC:NAS,1972),ch.16.48See,e.g.,descriptioninAgriculturalResearchService,TheNationalPlantGermplasmSystem,ProgramAidno.1188(Washington,DC:USDA,1977).

24

conjunctionwiththeInternationalBiologicalProgramme(IBP),FAOorganizedacommittee

andaseriesofconferencestoconsidertheexplorationandconservationof'plantgenetic

resources'.A1967FAO/IBPTechnicalConferenceontheExploration,Utilizationand

ConservationofPlantGeneticResourcesresultedinoneofthedefinitiveearlydocumentsof

thisburgeoningconservationagenda,theIBPhandbookGeneticResourcesinPlants.Asthe

handbookexplained,thegreatvariationseenwithinandacross'primitive'cultivarswould

notwithstandthetransitionto'modernscientificagriculture'withitsemphasisonthe

creationofgeneticallyuniform'purelines'andthespreadofcultivationmethodsthat

'minimizeorevenremoveenvironmentaldifferencesoverwideareas'.49Though

participantsdisagreedaboutthecomparativevirtuesofexsituversusinsituconservation

strategies(e.g.,seedbanksversuscontinuedcultivation)forimperiledcultivarsandtheir

equallythreatenedwildrelatives,theconferencereportdid,intheend,endorsetheexsitu

approachforreasonsofpracticality.'Thereis…oneneedofgeneralandoverriding

importance,andthatistheneedforinternationalseedstoragefacilities',declaredthe

introductiontotheIBPhandbook.50

TheFAO/IBPconferenceparticipantsclearlyrecognizedthattheywerelivingthrough

atimeofdramaticchangeinglobalagriculturalproduction.Itwasalsoamomentof

dramaticchangeintheorganizationofinternationalagriculturalresearch.Duringthe1950s,

theRockefellerFoundationhadextendeditsagriculturalassistanceprogramsthroughout

LatinAmericaandthenintoSouthAsiaandbeyond.Theseeffortsareusuallydescribedas

49O.H.Frankel,andE.Bennett,eds.,GeneticResourcesinPlants—TheirExplorationandConservation,IBPHandbookNo.11,(Oxford:Blackwell,1970),pp.7–9.50FrankelandBennett,GeneticResourcesinPlants,p.15.

25

havinglaunchedtheGreenRevolution.51Bythe1970s,nowworkingwiththeFord

Foundation,theRockefellerFoundationlookedtofurtheradvancethisagriculturalagenda,

notleastbyencouragingotherstobankrollthekindsofon-site,research-drivenprograms

theyhadcometobelievewouldbemosteffectiveinaddressingtheirsharedconcern—the

'worldfoodproblem'.FollowingaseriesofmeetingsinitiatedinBellagio,ItalyinJuly1969,

thefoundations,togetherwiththeWorldBank,FAO,UNDevelopmentProgrammeand

backedbythegovernmentsofanumberofdevelopedcountries,formedtheConsultative

GrouponInternationalAgriculturalResearch(CGIAR).Thisorganizationwouldcoordinate

internationalaidforagriculturalresearchindevelopingcountries,largelybychanneling

fundsthroughaglobalnetworkofagriculturalresearchcenters.Theearliestofthese

researchcenterswerefourthathadalreadybeencreatedbythefoundationsinpreceding

decades,includingtheInternationalRiceResearchInstitute(IRRI,launchedin1959–60in

thePhilippines)andtheInternationalMaizeandWheatImprovementCenter(CIMMYT,

foundedin1966inMexicobutinmanyrespectsacontinuationoftheRockefeller

Foundation'searlierresearchorganizationsthere).52

OneofthefirstissuestoarisewithinCGIARasapressingconcernforglobal

agriculturaldevelopmentwasthatoftheconservationofplantgeneticresources.In1971,

representativesfromFAOputforwardaproposalinwhichFAO,withfundingfromCGIAR

andtheassistanceofotheragenciesandorganizations,wouldleadanddirectinternational

effortstocollectandpreservecropgeneticdiversity.AcentralfeatureoftheFAOplanwas51OnthehistoryoftheGreenRevolution,withparticularattentiontoitsgeopoliticaldimensions,seeJohnH.Perkins,GeopoliticsandtheGreenRevolution:Wheat,Genes,andtheColdWar(Oxford:OxfordUniversityPress,1997);Cullather,TheHungryWorld.52ThetwootherinstitutesweretheInternationalInstituteofTropicalAgriculture(IITA,Nigeria)andtheCentroInternacionaldeAgriculturaTropical(CIAT,Colombia).AbriefhistoryofCGIARcanbefoundinPistorius,Scientists,Plants,Politics,55–56;aninstitutionalhistoryofthefoundingandearlyyearsofCGIARisWarrenC.Baum,PartnersAgainstHunger:TheConsultativeGrouponInternationalAgriculturalResearch(Washington,DC:TheWorldBankfortheCGIAR,1986).

26

thecreationofeleven'geneticresourcescentres',eachofwhichwouldhavefacilitiesfor

seedstorageandregeneration.53

NotallmembersofCGIARwereenthusedbytheplan,whichprecipitatedfurther

proposalsfromvariousdifferentworkinggroupsandsub-committeesoverthesubsequent

twoyears.Amajorpointofcontentionwasthedegreeofcontrolthatwouldbegrantedto

FAO.OfficersoftheRockefellerFoundation,fearingalossofinfluence,wereparticularly

exercisedaboutthisissue.Theirinterestinthequestionofhowgeneticresourcesoughtto

bemanaged(andfeelingofownershipoverit)resultedfromthefoundation'sprior

investmentinseedcollectionandconservation:notonlyhaditbeeninstrumentalin

amassingglobaldiversityinmaizeduringthegrowthandexpansionofitsLatinAmerican

agriculturalprograms,ithadalsosponsoredcollectingmissionsandlong-termstorageof

wheat,rice,sorghumandthemilletsthroughtheseandotherinternationalagricultural

programssincethe1950s.Foundationofficialsclearlywantedtoretainsignificantcontrol

overtheseactivities,thoughthereisfurtherevidencethattheydoubtedthecapabilitiesof

theFAOtocarryouttheworkeffectively.54Othersignificantitemsofcontentionthatarose

amidstthesuccessionofproposalsincludedthedesiredscopeofthecollections(thatis,

whethertheyshouldfocusontheprincipalglobaleconomiccropsorinsteadaimtogathera

53FAO,'ProposaltoEstablishaNetworkofGeneticResourcesCentres',presentedatCGIARTAC,SecondMeeting,Rome,19–22Oct.1971,http://hdl.handle.net/10947/973.Therehadbeencompetingproposalspriortothispointaswell.SeeBaumPartnersAgainstHunger,pp.79–82andPistorius,Scientists,Plants,Politics,ch.4.54See,e.g.,Pino,memo,15Dec.1972,RAC,RF,RG1.3,Subseries103D,Box16,Folder101.ForfurtherbackgroundontheactivitiesassociatedwiththeWorldGermplasmProject,seeWortman,'WorldGermplasmProject'andMinutesoftheMeetingontheStatusofGermPlasmCollection,Preservation,EvaluationandUtilization,NewYork,27–28Sep.1971;bothinRAC,RF,RG1.3,Series103D,Box16,Folder101.SeealsoRussellT.Johnson,'CollectionandPreservationofFoodCropGermPlasmwithWideGeneticDiversity',ReportpreparedforCGIARTAC,SecondMeeting,Rome,19–22Oct.1971,http://hdl.handle.net/10947/396.

27

widerrangeofcropdiversity)andwhattypeofinstitutionstheseoughttobelocatedwithin

in(nationalorinternational,crop-specificcentersorregionalcenters,andsoon).55

Whatremainedcommontoalloftheproposalsandcounter-proposalsthatcame

beforeCGIARwastheassumptionthatcollectingandmaintainingcropvarietiesasseedin

securestoragefacilitieswouldbetheprimarymeansofpreventingthelossofplantgenetic

resources.Theseedbankhadachievedascendancy,andwasagreeduponasatechnology

essentialtothecontinuedsuccessofworldagriculture.Seedbankswouldsubsequentlybe

grantedacentralroleintheinternationalconservationeffortsundertakenbyanew

InternationalBoardforPlantGeneticResources,whichwascreatedundertheauspicesof

CGIARin1973andcontinuestoday(throughasuccessororganization,Bioversity

International)tobealeadingorganizationinthemanagementofglobalagricultural

biodiversity.56

Subsequentdecadeshaveseenmanyincisivecritiquesofnationalandinternational

seedbankingactivities,especiallyaftertheassertionofintellectualpropertyrightsin

geneticresources(includingcropvarieties)andconcernsabouttheglobalinequitiesarising

fromthetransferandownershipofsuchresourcesbecameinternationalissuesinthe

1980s.57Inpartbecauseofsuchcritiques,thesedecadeshavealsowitnessedsurging

interestinalternativestothemodelofacentralizedseed-storagefacilityunderthecontrol

ofbreeder-scientists.Suchalternativesrangefrominsituconservationprogramsthat

55SeveraloftheproposalsareavailableonlinethroughtheCGIARhistoricalarchive.See,e.g.,FAO,'ProposaltoEstablishaNetworkofGeneticResourcesCentres'(fn.53);TACAdHocWorkingGroupontheConservationofPlantGeneticResources,'TheCollection,EvaluationandConservationofPlantGeneticResources',presentedatCGIARTACThirdMeeting,Rome,10–13Apr.1972,http://hdl.handle.net/10947/1523;CGIARSubcommitteeonGeneticResources,DraftReport,Rome,1–2Oct.1973,http://hdl.handle.net/10947/482.56OnthecreationofIBPGR,seePistorius,Scientists,Plants,Politics,ch.4.57Foradetailedoverviewoftheseissuesandinternationaldebates,seeKeithAoki,SeedWars:ControversiesandCasesonPlantGeneticResourcesandIntellectualProperty(Durham,NC:CarolinaAcademicPress,2008).

28

maintaindiversitythroughcontinuedcultivationoflandraces,tonaturereservesintended

toharborthewildrelativesofeconomiccrops,tocommunity-operatedexsituseedbanks

thataremaintainedandusedbylocalcultivators.58Yetthevisionofaseedbankasthe

ultimatetechnologicalsolutionforthespecteroflosinggeneticdiversityhashardly

diminished.Tograspthis,oneneedonlyconsiderrecentlarge-scale,high-profile

internationalendeavorssuchastheSvalbardGlobalSeedVault,theso-calledDoomsday

SeedVaultdugintoArctictundraontheNorwegianislandofSpitsbergen,ortheMillennium

GlobalSeedBankinWakehurst,England,whichaimstohave25percentoftheworld's

bankableseedby2020.59Seedbanksareindeedthriving.

Conclusions

Itisnoteasytosituatethehistoryofeffortstoconservethegeneticdiversityofagricultural

cropswithinestablishednarrativesoftheconservationofbiologicaldiversityintheUnited

States.Cropplantconservatorsweremoreakintoearlierresourceconservationistswho

championedwaterorsoilconservation,inthattheydesiredpreservationforuseabove

otherconcernssuchastheintrinsic,non-instrumentalvalueofplantandanimaldiversityor

interestinthepreservationofwildness.Andyetthechallengetheyfacedinsuccessful

conservationwasbetteralignedwiththoseprotectingendangeredspecies,forthethreatto

cropdiversityresultedfromsameforcesofindustrializationandglobalization,andfromlack

58AnintroductiontoinsituconservationofplantgeneticresourcesisN.Maxted,B.V.Ford-LloydandJ.G.Hawkes,eds.,PlantGeneticConservation:TheInSituApproach(Dordrecht:Kluwer,1997);examplesofsuchactivitiesinvariouscountriescanbefoundinStephenB.Brush,ed.,GenesintheField:On-FarmConservationofCropDiversity(BocaRaton,FL:LewisPublishers,2000).59https://www.croptrust.org/what-we-do/svalbard-global-seed-vault;http://www.kew.org/science-conservation/collections/millennium-seed-bank.

29

ofimmediateeconomicvalueratherthanoveruse.60TheMaizeCommitteeandthosewho

shareditsconcernsworriedaboutthepotentialhazardstohumansocietiesposedbythe

lossofbiologicaldiversityacoupledecadesbeforethe'endangermentsensibility'madethis

acommonglobalsentiment.61Individualsandorganizationsconcernedaboutthelossof

cropdiversitysuccessfullyadvocatedfortheintegrationofacomplexandexpensive

conservationtechnology,theseedbank,intotheverycoreofglobalindustrialagricultural

production.Theseandotherunexpectedelementsofthehistoryofseedbankingsuggest

thatitmighthelptoframenew—andmorediverse—narrativesaboutthehistoryofefforts

toconservebiologicaldiversity.

Forexample,thisbriefglanceatthehistoryofseedbankingcallsattentiontothe

entanglementofindustrialagricultureandglobaleffortstoconservebiologicaldiversity.The

formeristypicallycharacterizedbyitsdependenceongeneticallyuniformcropsandits

ecologicallydestructivemethods,andthelatterasastruggletomitigatetheill

consequencesoftheseandotherindustrialactivitiesthatdestroydiversity—astruggle

againsttheveryforcesthatsetglobalindustrializedagricultureinmotion.Butindustrial

agriculturenotonlygeneratedcertainconservationconcerns,itwasalsodependent(orits

advocatescametoseeitasdependent)onconservationactivitiesandtools.TheAmerican

scientistswhoseresearchservedasthefoundationforvastmono-croppedfieldsofcorn

werealsosomeofthefirstindividualstocallfortheglobalpreservationofgeneticdiversity.

InthecaseoftheRockefellerFoundation'sagriculturalassistanceprograms,itisclearthat

effortstypicallyimplicatedinadramatichomogenizationofthegeneticconstitutionofcrop

60AusefulcharacterizationofrecentconservationprioritiesandvaluesisFernandoVidalandNéliaDias,'Introduction:TheEndangermentSensibility',inFernandoVidalandNéliaDias(eds.),RoutledgeEnvironmentalHumanities:Endangerment,Biodiversity,andCulture,pp.1–38(Florence,KY:TaylorandFrancis,2015),viaProQuestebrary.61Ibid.;seealsoDavidSepkoski,'Extinction,Diversity,andEndangerment',inthesamevolume.

30

plantsaroundtheworldcanalsofairlybecreditedwithorganizingearlyeffortstocollect

andpreservetheextraordinarygeneticdiversityofafewglobalcropspecies(regardlessof

howcontroversialthoseactivitieshavesincebecome).

Thishistoryalsohighlightstheparticularlyparadoxicalpositionofplantbreeders

whochampionedtheconservationofgeneticdiversityandwhocelebratedtheir

achievementsinthisarenaashavingsavedendangeredplantsfromextinction.Historiansof

scienceandenvironmenthaveshownbiologiststobenotalwaysstraightforwardheroesof

biodiversityconservation:somebecameagitatedaboutwildlifeprotectionlawsthat

interferedwiththeirresearchpractices,whileothersimposedidesaboutpristineandwild

natureonplacesandespeciallypeoplesininsensitive,destructiveways.62Butinthecaseof

preservingcropplantdiversity,conservationandtheartifactsitproducedinfact

underwrotethefurtherdestructionoftheveryobjectofconservation.Sustainedeffortsto

collectandconservecropvarietiesasendangeredgeneticresourcesemergedalongside—

and,insomecases,aspartof—theextensionofmoregeneticallyuniformtypesoverever-

greaterportionsoftheglobe.Harboringthegeneticdiversityofplantsbecameessentialina

worldwheremanypeoplewantedcropsplantstobeasuniformandun-diverseaspossible,

whethertoincreaseyield,enabletheuseofherbicidesorpesticides,orfacilitatemechanical

harvestingandglobalshipping.Themaintenanceofgeneticdiversity,asapotentialresource

62Onscientists'irritationwithenvironmentalregulationsthatinterferedwiththeirresearch,see,e.g.,EtienneBenson,'ADifficultTimewiththePermitProcess',JournaloftheHistoryofBiology44,no.1(Feb.2011):103–23;EtienneBenson,'EndangeredScience:TheRegulationofResearchbytheU.S.MarineMammalProtectionandEndangeredSpeciesActs',HistoricalStudiesintheNaturalSciences42,no.1(Feb.2012):30–61.Onconservationandaccompanyingharmtohumanculturesandcommunities,see,e.g.,MarkDavidSpence,DispossessingtheWilderness:IndianRemovalandtheMakingoftheNationalParks(Oxford:OxfordUniversityPress,1999);KarlJacoby,CrimesAgainstNature:Squatters,Poachers,Thieves,andtheHiddenHistoryofAmericanConservation(Berkeley:UniversityofCaliforniaPress,2001);andDanBrockington,FortressConservation:ThePreservationoftheMkomaziGameReserve,Tanzania(Bloomington:IndianaUniversityPress,2002).AusefulsummaryoftheliteratureexposingthedarkersideofconservationisDanBrockington,RosaleenDuffyandJimIgoe,NatureUnbound:Conservation,Capitalism,andtheFutureofProtectedAreas(London:Earthscan,2008),preface.

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inabank,wasseenastheonlywaytocontinueresponsiblyincreatingtheseevermore

uniform,evermorevulnerable,andevermoreecologicallydisruptivecrops.Andso,as

geneticdiversitydiminishedamongcropsincultivation,itaccumulatedincontainersand

canisters,stowedawayasseedinincreasinglyspecializedfacilities.Theseseedbankshave

becomeessentialtechnologicalfeaturesofthelandscapeofindustrialagricultural

production:strangemodernfortressesbuilttodefendindustrialcropvarietiesfromthe

hazardsgeneratedbytheirownsuccesses.

AcknowledgmentsSomeoftheresearchforthisprojectwasmadepossiblebyagrant-in-aidfromtheRockefellerArchiveCenter;IamindebtedtotheRACforthissupportandfurthergratefultoitsever-helpfulstafffortheirinvaluableassistance.Fortheirmanyhelpfulcommentsandconstructivefeedback,IthankJonathanHarwood,theeditorsofthisspecialissueDonaldWorsterandHelmuthTrischler,BrendaBlack,twoanonymousreviewers,alloftheparticipantsintheMay2015'ManufacturingLandscapes'conferenceinBeijing,andthoseindividualswhoattendedseminarpresentationsofthisresearchattheMaxPlanckInstitutefortheHistoryofScience,Berlin,andLMU,MunichinOctober2015.